INDEX

1. Introduction
2. Theory
3. Important Terms
4. Pendulum Equation
5. Energy of a Simple Pendulum
 Potential Energy
 Kinetic Energy
 Mechanical Energy
6. Time Period of Simple Pendulum
7. Laws of Simple Pendulum
8. Physical Pendulum
9. Applications
[Link] Swing Experiment
 Aim
 Materials Required
 Procedure
 Observation
 Result
 Precautions
 Sources of Error
 Simple Pendulum
Introduction

A simple pendulum consists of a heavy

point mass (generally a small sphere of
metal), called bob which is suspended by
an inextensible, weightless and flexible
string from a rigid support.

When the bob of a simple pendulum is

displaced from its mean position and then
released, it oscillates about its mean
position. When bob starts motion from its
mean position and attains an extreme
position and then returns to the mean
position and attains another extreme position and again return to the mean position. This
complete one oscillation of the motion and time taken to complete one oscillation is called
time period. It is denoted by ‘T’.Time period of a simple pendulum is given as

T=2π√L/g

Where L is the length of the simple pendulum and g is acceleration due to gravity.
Time period of a simple pendulum is independent of the mass of its bob. Therefore,
for same value of L and g the time period of oscillations for the bobs of same size
but of different masses will be same.

Theory

The position of the bob of the freely suspended

pendulum at rest is called its mean position, O.
When the bob P is released after taking its free end
P slightly to one side (say to point A), it crosses the
point O, goes to the other side (say to point B) and
returns constituting a two and from motion about
the point O.
The position of the bob at maximum distance from the mean
position is called the extreme position. There are two
extreme positions (points A and B) on either side of the
mean position.

The distance between the point of suspension S and the

centre G of the spherical bob is defined as
the effective length of the pendulum, L as shown in figure

Where, l - the length of the thread, h - length of the hook (if

any), r - radius of the pendulum bob

As the motion of the pendulum repeats itself, it is an

example of periodic motion. A swing in the park also has a
similar motion.

Important Terms

 The oscillatory motion of a simple pendulum: Oscillatory motion is defined as the

to and fro motion of the pendulum in a periodic fashion, and the center point of
oscillation is known as the equilibrium position.
 The amplitude of a simple pendulum: It is defined as the distance travelled by the
pendulum from the equilibrium position to one side.
 Frequency: The frequency of a pendulum is the number of oscillations it completes
per unit time. It is the reciprocal of the period. A shorter pendulum has a higher
frequency.
 Simple Harmonic Motion: A pendulum undergoes simple harmonic motion, which
means its acceleration is proportional to its displacement from the equilibrium
position and is always directed towards the equilibrium point.
 Damping: In real-world pendulums, air resistance and other factors can cause
damping, which reduces the amplitude of the oscillations over time. This is why a
pendulum eventually stops swinging.
 Resonance: A pendulum can exhibit resonance if it is subjected to a periodic force
at its natural frequency. This can cause the amplitude of the oscillations to increase
significantly.

Pendulum Equation
 The SHM of a pendulum can be described using Newtonian mechanics. Newtonian
mechanics relate force to mass and acceleration with the equation F = ma. For a simple
pendulum the only force acting on it is gravity so a = -g, assuming that +y is up in the
coordinate system. Because the motion of the pendulum makes an arc gravity cannot be
just g. The mass will feel gravity differently depending on its position along the arc, and
the force equation needs to represent this. This final piece is incorporated by viewing the
whole system as a triangle and using sin(θ) so that F=−mgsin(θ).

Energy of Simple Pendulum

Potential Energy
 The potential energy is given by the basic equation

 Potential energy =mgh,

 However, the movement of the pendulum is not free fall; it is constrained by the rod
or string.

 The height is written in terms of angle θ and length L. Thus, h = L (1 – cos θ)

 When θ = 900, the pendulum is at the highest point. Then cos 900 = 0, and h = L.

 Therefore, Potential Energy = mgL

 When θ = 00, the pendulum is at the lowest point. Then, cos 00 = 1.

 Therefore, h = L (1-1) = 0, Potential energy = mgL (1-1) = 0

 At all the points in between the potential energy is given as mgL (1 – cos θ).

Kinetic Energy

The kinetic energy of the pendulum is given as K.E = (1/2) mv2

At the highest point, the kinetic energy is zero, and it is maximum at the lowest point.

However, the total energy as a function of time is constant.

Mechanical Energy of the Bob

In a simple pendulum, the mechanical energy of the simple pendulum is conserved.
E = KE + PE= 1/2 mv2 + mgL (1 – cos θ) = constant

Time Period of Simple Pendulum

A point mass M is suspended from the end of a light inextensible string, whose upper end
is fixed to a rigid support. The mass is displaced from its mean position.

Assumptions:
 There is negligible friction
from the air and the system
 The arm of the pendulum
does not bend or compress
and is massless
 The pendulum swings in a
perfect plane
 Gravity remains constant

Derivation:
 Using the equation of
motion, T – mg cosθ = mv2L
 The torque tends to bring the mass to its equilibrium position,
 τ = mgL × sinθ = mgsinθ × L = I × α
 For small angles of oscillations sin θ ≈ θ,
 Therefore, Iα = -mgLθ
 α = -(mgLθ)/I
– ω02 θ = -(mgLθ)/I
 ω02 = (mgL)/I
 ω0 = √(mgL/I)
 Using I = ML2, [where I denote the moment of inertia of bob]

 we get, ω0 = √(g/L)
 Therefore, the time period of a simple pendulum is given by, T = 2π/ω0 = 2π × √(L/g)

⇒ Note:
 If the temperature of a system changes, then the time period of the simple pendulum
changes due to a change in the length of the pendulum.
 A simple pendulum is placed in a non-inertial frame of reference (accelerated lift,
horizontally accelerated vehicle, vehicle moving along an inclined plane).

The mean position of the pendulum may change. In these cases, g is replaced by “g effective”
 for determining the time period (T).
For example,
 A lift moving upwards with acceleration ‘a’, then, T = 2π × √(L/g eff) = 2π √[L/(g + a)]
 If the lift is moving downward with acceleration ‘a’, then T = 2π × √(L/geff) = 2π √[L/(g
– a)]
 For a simple pendulum of length L is equal to the radius of the earth ‘R’, L = R = 6.4
x 106 m, then the time period T = 2π √R/2g
 For infinitely long pendulum L > > R near the earth surface, T = 2π × √(R/g)

Laws of Simple Pendulum:

 The time period of oscillation of a simple pendulum of constant length is

independent of its amplitude, provided the amplitude is sufficiently small.
 The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum of constant length is independent of
the size, shape, mass, and material of the bob provided it is not very light.
 The time period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is directly proportional to the
square root of the length of the pendulum.

Small Angular Displacements Produce Simple Harmonic Motion

The period of a pendulum does not

depend on the mass of the ball, but only
on the length of the string. Two pendula
with different masses but the same length
will have the same period. Two pendula
with different lengths will different periods;
the pendulum with the longer string will
have the longer period.

With the assumption of small angles, the

frequency and period of the pendulum are
independent of the initial angular
displacement amplitude. A pendulum will
have the same period regardless of its
initial angle. All three pendulums cycle
through one complete oscillation in the
same amount of time, regardless of the
initial angle.
 The Real (Nonlinear) Simple Pendulum

When the angular displacement amplitude of the pendulum is large enough that the small
angle approximation no longer holds, then the equation of motion must remain in its
nonlinear form
d2θ/dt2+gsinθ/L=0
This differential equation does not have a closed form solution, but instead must be solved
numerically using a computer. Mathematica numerically solves this differential equation
very easily with the built in function ND Solve [ ].
The small angle approximation is valid for initial angular displacements of about 20° or
less. If the initial angle is smaller than this amount, then the simple harmonic
approximation is sufficient. But, if the angle is larger, then the differences between the
small angle approximation and the exact solution quickly become apparent.

Physical Pendulum
A simple pendulum is an idealised model. It
is not achievable in reality. But the physical
pendulum is a real pendulum in which a body
of finite shape oscillates. From its frequency
of oscillation, we can calculate the moment of
inertia of the body about the axis of rotation.

Derivations of Physical Pendulum:

 Consider a body of irregular shape and

mass (m) that is free to oscillate in a vertical plane about a horizontal axis passing
through a point, and weight mg acts downward at the centre of gravity (G).
 If the body is displaced through a small angle (θ) and released from this position,
a torque is exerted by the weight of the body to restore its equilibrium.

 τ = -mg × (d sinθ)
 τ=Iα
 I α = – mgdsinθ
 I . d2θ/dt2 = – mgdsinθ
 Where I = moment of inertia of a body about the axis of rotation.
 d2θ/dt2 = (mgd/I) θ [Since, sinθ ≈ θ]
 ω0 = √[mgd/I].

Time Period:
  T = 2π/ω0 = 2π × √[I/mgd]
 For ‘I’, applying the parallel axis theorem,
 I = Icm + md2
 Therefore, the time period of a physical pendulum is given by,
 T = 2π × √[(Icm + md2)/mgd]

Applications:

Pendulums have many applications, including:

 Clocks: Pendulums were used in early mechanical clocks to keep time.

 Seismographs: Pendulums are used in seismographs to detect and measure
earthquakes.
 Foucault's Pendulum: This experiment demonstrates the Earth's rotation.
 Musical instruments: Some musical instruments, such as the metronome, use
pendulums.
 Amusement parks: Pendulum-based rides are popular in amusement parks.

Pendulum Clock

An interesting application of the pendulum is the pendulum clock. Pendulums were used
to keep track of time in the past until the early 1900s. You might have seen an antique
grandfather clock with a pendulum swinging back and forth at exact time intervals. Even
when the amplitude of the simple pendulum changes, it takes the same amount of time to
complete one oscillation. It will be interesting to note that in most cases these clocks had
their pendulum bob in glass cases to reduce the effect of air resistance. Nowadays,
pendulum clocks have been replaced by quartz clocks. Some of you might have noticed
quartz written on your wristwatches.

Pendulum Experiment Setup:

By systematically varying each parameter and recording the results, we can gain a deeper
understanding of the pendulum's behaviour and verify theoretical predictions with
experimental data.