1) List and Explain the component parts of airports.

the main components of airport are

1. Runway

2. Terminal Building

3. Apron

4. Taxiway

5. Aircraft Stand

6. Hanger

7. Control Tower

8. Parking

Runways: It is the most important part of an airport in the form of paved, long and narrow
rectangular strip which actually used for landing and takeoff operations. It has turfed (grassy)

shoulders on both sides. The width of runway and area of shoulders is called the landing strip.

The runway is located in the center of landing strip. The length of landing strip is somewhat

larger than the runway strip in order to accommodate the stop way to stop the aircraft in case

of abandoned takeoff.

The length and width of runway should be sufficient to accommodate the aircraft which is

likely to be served by it. The length of runway should be sufficient to accelerate the aircraft to

the point of takeoff and should be enough such that the aircraft clearing the threshold of

runway by 15m should be brought to stop with in the 60% of available runway length. The

length of runway depends on various meteorological and topographical conditions. Transverse

gradients should not be less than 0.5% but should always be greater than 0.5%.

Terminal Buildings: Also known as airport terminal, these buildings are the spaces where
passengers board or alight from flights. These buildings house all the necessary facilities for

passengers to check-in their luggage, clear the customs and have lounges to wait before

disembarking.

Hangers: A hangar is a closed building structure to hold aircraft, spacecraft or tanks in

protective storage. Most hangars are built of metal, but other materials such as wood and

concrete are also used

Hangars are used for protection from the weather, direct sunlight, maintenance, repair,
manufacture, assembly and storage of aircraft on airfields, aircraft carrier.

Aprons: Aircraft aprons are the areas where the aircraft park. Aprons are also sometimes
called ramps. They vary in size, from areas that may hold five or ten small planes, to the very

large areas that the major airports have.

Taxiway: Taxiway is the paved way rigid or flexible which connects runway with loading
apron or service and maintenance hangers or with another runway. They are used for the

movement of aircraft on the airfields for various purposes such as exit or landing, exit for

takeoff etc. The speed of aircraft on taxiway is less than that during taking off or landing

speed. The taxiway should be laid on such a manner to provide the shortest possible path and to

prevent the interference of landed aircraft taxying towards loading apron and the taxiing

aircraft running towards the runway. The taxiway should be visible from a distance of 300m to a pilot

at 3m height from the ground.

Aircraft Stand: A portion of an apron designated as a taxiway and intended to provide access
to aircraft stands only.

Control Tower: A tower at an airfield from which air traffic is controlled by radio and
observed physically and by radar.

Parking: Parking is a specific area of airport at which vehicles park

2) Explain the various factors which you would keep in view while selecting a
suitable site for an airport.
Criteria for airport site selection and ICAO stipulations

The selection of a suitable site for an airport depends upon the class of airport under

consideration. However if such factors as required for the selection of the largest facility are

considered the development of the airport by stages will be made easier and economical. The

factors listed below are for the selection of a suitable site for a major airport installation:

1. Regional plan

2. Airport use

3. Proximity to other airport

4. Ground accessibility

5. Topography

6. Obstructions
7. Visibility

8. Wind

9. Noise nuisance

10. grading, drainage and soil characteristics

11. Future development

12. Availability of utilities from town

13. Economic consideration

Regional plan: The site selected should fit well into the regional plan there by forming it an integral
part of the national network of airport

Airport use: the selection of site depends upon the use of an airport. Whether for civilian or for
military operations. However during the emergency civilian airports are taken over by the

defense. Therefore the airport site selected should be such that it provides natural protection

to the area from air roads. This consideration is of prime importance for the airfields to be

located in combat zones. If the site provides thick bushes.

Proximity to other airport: the site should be selected at a considerable distance from the
existing airports so that the aircraft landing in one airport does not interfere with the

movement of aircraft at other airport. The required separation between the airports mainly

depends upon the volume of air traffic.

Ground accessibility: the site should be so selected that it is readily accessible to the users.
The airline passenger is more concerned with his door to door time rather than the actual time

in air travel. The time to reach the airport is therefore an important consideration especially for

short haul operations.

Topography: this includes natural features like ground contours trees streams etc. A raised
ground a hill top is usually considered to be an ideal site for an airport.

Obstructions: when aircraft is landing or taking off it loses or gains altitude very slowly as
compared to the forward speed. For this reason long clearance areas are provided on either

side of runway known as approach areas over which the aircraft can safely gain or lose

altitude.

Visibility: poor visibility lowers the traffic capacity of the airport. The site selected should
therefore be free from visibility reducing conditions such as fog smoke and haze. Fog
generally settles in the area where wind blows minimum in a valley.

Wind: runway is so oriented that landing and takeoff is done by heading into the wind should
be collected over a minimum period of about five years.

Noise nuisance: the extent of noise nuisance depends upon the climb out path of aircraft type
of engine propulsion and the gross weight of aircraft. The problem becomes more acute with

jet engine aircrafts. Therefore the site should be so selected that the landing and takeoff paths

of the aircrafts pass over the land which is free from residential or industrial developments.

Grading, drainage and soil characteristics: grading and drainage play an important role in

the construction and maintenance of airport which in turn influences the site selection. The

original ground profile of a site together with any grading operations determines the shape of

an airport area and the general pattern of the drainage system. The possibility of floods at the

valley sites should be investigated. Sites with high water tables which may require costly

subsoil drainage should be avoided.

Future development: considering that the air traffic volume will continue to increase in future
more member of runways may have to be provided for an increased traffic.

3) Explain Aircraft characteristics affecting the design and planning of airport.

Aircraft Characteristics Affecting Airport Design:

1. Engine and Propulsion

2. Size

3. Aircraft capacity

4. Aircraft speed

5. Minimum turning radius

6. Minimum circling radius

7. Aircraft weight and wheel arrangements

8. Range

9. Noise

10. Take off and landing distances

11. Tire pressure and contact area.

Size of Aircraft: Size depends upon

. Wing Span
. Length ( Fuselage length)

. The maximum height

. Distance between main gears

. Wheel base

. Tail Width

Size decides load carrying capacity

Wing Span decides: The apron size, taxiway clearance, hangar size turning radius – ICAO

classification

The length of Aircraft: decides The width of exit taxiway, apron size, length of hanger etc.

The height decides: The height of hangers and its gate. The gear treads and wheel base affect the

minimum turning radius of the aircraft.

Air Craft capacity:

Aircraft capacity determines:-

. Number of Passengers

. Baggage

. Cargo and

. Fuel.

Aircraft Speed:
• Speed now a days is measured in mach i.e. the speed of sound

• Piston engines – 500 to 800 km/hr (0.6 to 0.8 mach )

• Jet Engines - 1200 – 2400 km/hr (1 to 2 mach )

• Rocket engines - > 4800 km/hr ( 4 mach and above)

• Speed determines the travel time. Speed has nothing to do with planning of airport, it gives an idea

of the time of arrival of aircraft. However approach speed decides runway length.

Minimum Turning Radius: It is necessary to know the minimum turning radius of an aircraft
to decide the radius of taxiways and to ascertain its position in the landing aprons and hangars.

Minimum Circling radius: A certain minimum circling radius in space is required for the
aircraft to take a smooth turn. It is known as the minimum circling radius. It depends upon,

• Type of aircraft

• Air traffic volume

• Weather conditions
• The knowledge of minimum circling radius helps in separating two nearby airports by

adequate distance.

• For jet planes its around 80 km

• For other planes its around 8 – 15 km.

• If minimum circling radius is not provided it will reduce the airport capacity and

adjustment of timings for landing and take-off of aircrafts between the airports needs to

be adjusted.

Aircraft Weight and Wheel Configuration:

• Governs the length and thickness of the runways, taxiways.

• Number of wheels to be provided depends on aircraft weight.

• Structural design of the airport is based on the total load of the aircraft.

The weight of the aircraft may be classified into:

• Operating empty Weight – Weight of empty aircraft, including its crew and

all equipment needed for flight, but excluding passengers, fuel load and cargo.

• Pay load – revenue producing load which consists of passengers, mail and

cargo.

• Fuel Load- Weight of the fuel carried by the aircraft required for the trip and

certain reserve. It may vary from 9% to 40% of the total gross weight .

Wheel Configurations:-
More number of wheels lesser is the load on the runway pavement.

• Depends upon the size and type of aircraft.

• Wheel configuration also decides minimum turning radius.

• Causes skidding of aircrafts.

Range:
• The distance that an aircraft can fly without refueling is called range.

• As range increases pay load decreases and vice versa.

Noise: This is a big problem in the areas where airports are quiet near to the developed areas.
Efforts are being made to bring it to minimum possible level.

The major source of noise is:

• Engine
 • Machinery prominent during landing

• Primary jet, prominent during take off

• It causes Sleep disturbance, deafness, irritability, Loss of Concentration.

4) List and explain types of Airports.

Airport classification:

Based on take-off and landing:

• Conventional Take-Off and Landing Airport (CTOL)Runway Length > 1500 m

• Reduced Take-Off and Landing Airport (RTOL)Runway Length 1000 to 1500 m

• Short Take-Off and Landing Airport (STOL)Runway Length 500 to 1000 m

• Vertical Take-Off and Landing Airport (VTOL) Operational area 25 to 50 sq m.

Based on Air Craft Approach speed:

Approach Category Approach Speed (knots)

.A < 91

.B 91 – 120

.C 120 – 140

.D 141 – 165

.E >165

1 knot = 1.852 kmph

Based on Function:
1. Civil Aviation

Domestic

International

2. Military Aviation

Based on Geometric Design:

Airport Basic Runway Length Width of Maximum
Type Maximum Minium Runway Longitudinal grade
Pavement (m) (%)
A Over210 2100 45 1.5
B 2099 1500 45 1.5
C 1499 900 30 1.5
D 899 750 22.5 2.0
E 749 600 18 2.0
Based on Aircraft Wheel Characteristics:
Code No. Single Isolated Wheel Load Tyer Pressure (kg/cm)2
(kg)
1 45000 8.5
2 34000 7.0
3 27000 7.0
4 20000 7.0
5 13000 6.0
6 7000 5.0
7 2000 2.5

Aerodromes in India:

International Hubs: This category includes airports currently classified as International

Airports and having facilities of world standards.

Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore, Chennai, Kolkata, Hyderabad, Thiruvananthapuram

Regional Hubs: Regional Airports will have to act as operational bases for regional airlines
and also have all the facilities currently postulated for model airports, including the capability

to handle limited international traffic. (Cochin, Ahmedabad etc)

Domestic Airports:
. Model Airports ( Indore, Nagpur, Vadodara, Bhubaneshwar)

. Operational (Udaipur, Kota, Kanpur)

. Non Operational (Patna, Hassan)

Custom Airports:
Having National and International tourist potential (Jaipur, Calicut, Agra, Gaya etc.)

Civil Enclaves (At defense airfields) :

• Operational ( Bagdodara, Leh etc.)

• Non Operational

Air force aerodromes

• Not for civil use

5) Explain the method of Runway orientation using wind rose diagram

Runway Orientation

According to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) a runway is a "defined

rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and takeoff of aircraft".
The orientation of the runway is an important consideration in airport planning and design. The

correct runway orientation maximizes the possible use of the runway throughout the year

accounting for a wide variety of wind conditions. FAA and ICAO regulations establish rules

about runway orientation and their expected coverage Runway Location Considerations.

FAA mandates identification standards for airport layout that is meant to assist pilots in easily

recognizing runways.

Runway is usually oriented in the direction of prevailing winds. The head wind i.e. the wind

direction of wind opposite to the direction of landing and taking-off provides greater lift on

the wings of the aircraft when it is taking-off. As such the aircraft rises above the ground

much earlier and in a shorter length of runway. During landing, the head wind provides a

breaking effect and the aircraft comes to a stop in a smaller length of runway. Landing and

take-off operations, if done along the wind direction, would require longer runway.

The challenge for the designer is to accommodate all of the aircraft using the facility in a reliable

and reasonable manner.

In navigation, all measurement of direction is performed by using the numbers of a compass.

Runway orientation using wind rose:

The wind data, i.e., direction, duration and intensity are graphically represented by a

diagram called wind rose. The plotting of the wind rose diagrams can be done in the

following two ways

Type I: Showing direction and duration of wind

Type II: Showing direction, duration and intensity of wind

Type I wind rose:

The radial lines indicate the wind direction and each circle represents the duration of

wind to a certain scale. The total percentage of wind blowing in each direction are plotted and

then joined by the straight lines. The best direction of runway is indicated along the direction

of the longest line on the wind rose diagram.

Type II wind rose:

–The concentric circles with radii corresponding to 6, 25, 50, and 80 kmph to some scale

are drawn. Thus, each circle represents the wind velocity to some scale

– Starting with center of the concentric circles, the 16 radial directions are shown on the
outer circle. The mid points of 16 arcs on the outermost concentric circle are marked and

they are given the cardinal directions of compass like N, NNE, NE, ENE, E, etc.

– The recorded duration of winds and expressed as percentage are shown for each cardinal

direction. It may be noted that the cardinal direction is central to sector.

– A transparent rectangular template or paper strip is taken. Its length should be slightly

greater than the diameter of the wind rose diagram and its width should be greater than

twice the allowable cross wind component i.e. 25 kmph.

– The scale for cross wind component should be the same as that of the concentric circles of

the wind rose diagram.

– Along the center of the length of this template, a line is marked corresponding to the

direction of runway.

– The two parallel lines, one on either side of the center-line, is drawn at a distance equal to

the allowable cross wind component i.e. 25 Kmph from the center line. In other words, the

two parallel lines are 50 Kmph away from each other.

– The wind rose diagram is fixed in position on a drawing board.

– A hole is drilled in the center of the template and it is placed on the wind rose diagram

such that its center lies over the center of the wind rose diagram.

– In this position, the template is fixed by a pin passing through its center so that the

template can rotate about this pin as axis.

– The template is rotated and is placed along a particular direction.

– In this position of the template, the duration of 6-25, 25-50 and 50-80 Kmph winds are

read for the cardinal directions (N, NNE, NE etc.) lying between the two extreme parallel

line marked on the template.

– The sum of all these durations is expressed as the percentage and it gives the total wind

coverage for that direction.

6) Explain Factors affecting the layout and geometrics of taxiway.

Taxiway Planning:-

Geometric design standards:

• Length of taxiway

• Width of taxiway
• Width of safety area

• Longitudinal gradient

• Traverse gradient

• Rate of change of longitudinal gradient

• Sight distance

• Turning radius

Length of taxiway:
-It should be as short as practicable. This will save the fuel consumption.

- No specifications are recommended by any organization for limiting the length of

taxiway.

Width of taxiway:
- The width of taxiway is much lower than the runway width.

- The speed of the aircraft on a taxiway is also lower than the speed on runway.

- The pilot can comfortably maneuver the aircraft over a smaller width of taxiway

than on a runway.

Width of safety area:

- This area includes taxiway pavement shoulders on either side that may be partially

paved plus the area that is graded and drained.

- This may extend up to a point where it intersects a parallel runway, taxiway and

apron.

- Bitumen treated shoulders are normally used.

- The shoulders must be thick enough to support the airport petrol vehicles and the

sweeping equipment.

Longitudinal gradient:
- If the gradient is steep, there will be greater fuel consumption.

- ICAO recommends that the longitudinal gradient should not exceed 1.5 percent for A

and B types and 3 percent for other types of airports.

Transverse gradient:
- This is essential for quick drainage of surface water.

- ICAO recommends that for taxiway pavement like runway, the transverse gradient
should not exceed a value of 1.5 percent for A, B and C types and 2 percent for D and

E types of airports.

- ICAO does not specify any value for the transverse slope of taxiway shoulders.

- FAA recommends that it should be 5 percent for the first 3 m and 2 percent thereafter

for all types of airports.

Rate of change of longitudinal gradient:

- ICAO recommends that rate of change of slope in longitudinal direction should not

exceed 1 percent per 30 m length of vertical curve for A, B and C types and 1.2

percent for D and E types of airports.

Sight distance:
- ICAO recommends that the surface of a taxiway must be visible from 3 m height for a

distance of 300 m for A, B and C types and distance of 250 m must be visible from

2.1 m height for D and E types of airports.

Turning radius:
Whenever there is a change in the direction of a taxiway, a horizontal curves is provided.

R = V2/ 125 f

R – Radius, m

V – Speed, kmph

f – Coefficient of friction, 0.13

- For airport serving subsonic jet transports, minimum value of radius of curvature is

120 m is suggested.

- For airport serving supersonic jet transports, minimum value of radius of curvature is

180 m is suggested.

7) Compare between Runway and Highway.

Highway pavement:-
.Cost is low.

.Less toughness compare to airfield.

.Design load is less.

.Less hardness compare to airfield.

.Compare to airfield, less construction cost and design cost.

.Length of Highway payment is very high.

Airfield pavement:-
.Cost is high.

.High toughness need.

.Design load is very High

.Need higher resistant to wear and tear due to aircraft trust.

.Design cost and material cost is high due to rigid specifications and high level of construction
practice.

.Length of airfield pavement is less compare to Highway pavement.