Environmental

Sciences
AECC 2 (BBT 2003)
Semester II
 Unit-1
Introduction
Introduction to Environmental Studies
The word ‘Environment’ is derived from the French word ‘Environner’ which means to encircle, around or
surround. As given by Environment Protection Act 1986, Environment is the sum total of land, water, air,
interrelationships among themselves and also with the human beings and other living organisms. It studies the
sources, reactions, transport, effect and fate of a biological species in the air, water and soil and the effect of
and from human activity upon these.
The Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary defines environment as the ‘natural world in which people,
animals and plants live.’
According to Boring, ‘A person’s environment consists of the sum total of the stimulation which he receives
from his conception until his death.’ Indicating that environment comprises various types of forces such as
physical, intellectual, mental, economical, political, cultural, social, moral and emotional.
Environmental studies is an multidisciplinary academic field which systematically studies human interaction
with the environment in the interests of solving complex problems. Environmental studies bring together the
principles of the physical sciences, commerce/economics and social sciences so as to solve contemporary
environmental problems.
The environment consists of four segments of the earth namely atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and
biosphere.
1. Atmosphere: The Atmosphere forms a distinctive
protective layer about 100 km thick around the earth. A
blanket of gases called the atmosphere surrounds the
earth and protects the surface of earth from the Sun’s
harmful, ultraviolet rays. It sustains life on the earth. It also
regulates temperature, preventing the earth from
becoming too hot or too cold. It saves it from the hostile
environment of outer space. The atmosphere is composed
of nitrogen and oxygen besides, argon, carbon dioxide and
trace gases.
2. Hydrosphere: The Hydrosphere comprises all types of
water resources oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, streams,
reservoirs, polar icecaps, glaciers, and ground water.
Oceans represent 97% of the earth’s water and about 2%
of the water resources is locked in the polar icecaps and
glaciers. Only about 1% is available as fresh water as
surface water in rivers, lakes, streams, and as ground water
for human use.
3. Lithosphere: Lithosphere is the outer mantle of the solid
earth. It consists of minerals occurring in the earth’s crusts
and the soil e.g. minerals, organic matter, air and water.
4. Biosphere: Biosphere indicates the realm of living
organisms and their interactions with environment, viz
atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.
MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENT STUDIES
Environment studies is a multidisciplinary subject where different aspects are dealt with in a
holistic approach. The science of Environment studies comprises various branches of studies
like chemistry, physics, life science, medical science, sociology, economics, agriculture, public
health, sanitary engineering, geography, geology, atmospheric science, etc. It is the science of
physical phenomena in the environment.
 MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENT STUDIES

SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

The scope of environmental studies is very wide and it deals with many areas like
i) Conservation of natural resources,
ii) ecological aspects,
iii) pollution of the surrounding natural resources,
iv) controlling the pollution,
v) social issues connected to it, and
vi) impacts of human population on the environment.
1. Developing an awareness and sensitivity to the total environment and its related problems.
2. Motivating people for active participation in environmental protection and improvement.
3. Developing skills for active identification and development of solutions to environmental problems.
4. Imbibe and inculcate the necessity for conservation of natural resources.
5. Evaluation of environmental programmes in terms of social, economic, ecological and aesthetic factors
IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
The environment studies make us aware about the importance of protection and conservation of our mother earth and about the destruction
due to the release of pollution into the environment. The increase in human and animal population, industries and other issues make the
survival cumbersome. A great number of environment issues have grown in size and make the system more complex day by day, threatening
the survival of mankind on earth. Environment studies have become significant for the following reasons:
Environment Issues are being of Global: It has been well recognized that environment issues like global warming and ozone depletion, acid
rain, marine pollution and biodiversity are not merely national issues but are global issues and hence require international efforts and
cooperation to solve them.
Development and Environment: Development leads to Urbanization, Industrial Growth, Telecommunication and Transportation Systems, Hi-
tech Agriculture and Housing etc. However, it has become phased out in the developed world. The North intentionally moves their dirty
factories to South to cleanse their own environment. When the West developed, it did so perhaps in ignorance of the environmental impact of
its activities. Development of the rich countries of the world has undesirable effects on the environment of the entire world.
Explosive Increase in Pollution: World census reflects that one in every seven persons in this planet lives in India. Evidently with 16 per cent of
the world's population and only 2.4 per cent of its land area, there is a heavy pressure on the natural resources including land. Agricultural
experts have recognized soil health problems like deficiency of micronutrients and organic matter, soil salinity and damage of soil structure.
Need for an Alternative Solution: It is essential, especially for developing countries to find alternative paths to an alternative goal. We need a
goal as under:
i) A true goal of development with an environmentally sound and sustainable development.
ii) A goal common to all citizens of our planet earth.
iii) A goal distant from the developing world in the manner it is from the over-consuming wasteful societies of the “developed” world.
 Unit-2
Ecosystems
What is an Ecosystem?
An ecosystem is a structural and functional unit of ecology where the
living organisms interact with each other and the surrounding
environment. In other words, an ecosystem is a chain of interactions
between organisms and their environment. The term “Ecosystem” was
first coined by [Link], an English botanist, in 1935.
Structure of the Ecosystem
The structure of an ecosystem is characterised by the organisation of
both biotic and abiotic components. This includes the distribution of
energy in our environment. It also includes the climatic conditions
prevailing in that particular environment. The structure of an ecosystem
can be split into two main components, namely:
• Biotic Components
• Abiotic Components
The biotic and abiotic components are interrelated in an ecosystem. It is
an open system where the energy and components can flow throughout
the boundaries.
Biotic Components
Biotic components refer to all living components in an ecosystem. Based on nutrition, biotic components can be
categorised into autotrophs, heterotrophs and saprotrophs (or decomposers).
•Producers include all autotrophs such as plants. They are called autotrophs as they can produce food through the
process of photosynthesis. Consequently, all other organisms higher up on the food chain rely on producers for food.
•Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other organisms for food. Consumers are further
classified into primary consumers, secondary consumers and tertiary consumers.
• Primary consumers are always herbivores as they rely on producers for food.
• Secondary consumers depend on primary consumers for energy. They can either be carnivores or
omnivores.
• Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on secondary consumers for food. Tertiary consumers can
also be carnivores or omnivores.

• Quaternary consumers are present in some food chains. These organisms prey on tertiary consumers for
energy. Furthermore, they are usually at the top of a food chain as they have no natural predators.
•Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria. They directly thrive on the dead and decaying organic
matter. Decomposers are essential for the ecosystem as they help in recycling nutrients to be reused by plants.

Abiotic Components
Abiotic components are the non-living component of an ecosystem. It includes air, water, soil,
minerals, sunlight, temperature, nutrients, wind, altitude, turbidity, etc.
Functions of Ecosystem
The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:
1. It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems and renders stability.
2. It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic components.
3. It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the ecosystem.
4. It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.
5. The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic components that involve the exchange of energy.
So the functional units of an ecosystem or functional components that work together in an ecosystem are:
• Productivity – It refers to the rate of biomass production.
• Energy flow – It is the sequential process through which energy flows from one trophic level to another. The energy
captured from the sun flows from producers to consumers and then to decomposers and finally back to the
environment.
• Decomposition – It is the process of breakdown of dead organic material. The top-soil is the major site for
decomposition.
• Nutrient cycling – In an ecosystem nutrients are consumed and recycled back in various forms for the utilisation by
various organisms.
Types of Ecosystems
• Forest Ecosystem
A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, particularly trees, animals and microorganisms that live in coordination with the
abiotic factors of the environment. Forests help in maintaining the temperature of the earth and are the major carbon sink.
• Grassland Ecosystem
In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses and herbs. Temperate grasslands and tropical or
savanna grasslands are examples of grassland ecosystems.
• Desert Ecosystem
Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions with little rainfall and scarce vegetation. The days are hot, and the
nights are cold.
• Aquatic Ecosystem: are ecosystems present in a body of water. These can be further divided into two types, namely:
1. Freshwater Ecosystem
The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and wetlands. These have no salt
content in contrast with the marine ecosystem.
2. Marine Ecosystem
The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more substantial salt content and greater biodiversity in
comparison to the freshwater ecosystem.
 Energy flow in an ecosystem
1. Food Chain
The sun is the ultimate source of energy on earth. It provides the energy
required for all plant life. The plants utilise this energy for the process of
photosynthesis, which is used to synthesise their food.
During this biological process, light energy is converted into chemical energy
and is passed on through successive trophic levels. The flow of energy from a
producer, to a consumer and eventually, to an apex predator or a detritivore
is called the food chain.
Dead and decaying matter, along with organic debris, is broken down into its
constituents by scavengers. The reducers then absorb these constituents.
After gaining the energy, the reducers liberate molecules to the environment,
which can be utilised again by the producers.

2. Food Web
Food web is a network of interconnected food chains. It comprises all the food chains
within a single ecosystem. It helps in understanding that plants lay the foundation of
all the food chains. In a marine environment, phytoplankton forms the primary
producer.
3. Ecological Pyramids/Succession
An ecological pyramid is the graphical representation of the number,
energy, and biomass of the successive trophic levels of an ecosystem.
Charles Elton was the first ecologist to describe the ecological pyramid
and its principals in 1927.
The biomass, number, and energy of organisms ranging from the
producer level to the consumer level are represented in the form of a
pyramid; hence, it is known as the ecological pyramid.
The base of the ecological pyramid comprises the producers, followed
by primary and secondary consumers. The tertiary consumers hold the
apex. In some food chains, the quaternary consumers are at the very
apex of the food chain.
The producers generally outnumber the primary consumers and
similarly, the primary consumers outnumber the secondary consumers.
And lastly, apex predators also follow the same trend as the other
consumers; wherein, their numbers are considerably lower than the
secondary consumers.
For example, Grasshoppers feed on crops such as cotton and wheat,
which are plentiful. These grasshoppers are then preyed upon by
common mouse, which are comparatively less in number. The mice are
preyed upon by snakes such as cobras. Snakes are ultimately preyed
on by apex predators such as the brown snake eagle. In essence:
 Unit-3
Environmental pollution
3
 What is Environmental
Pollution?
Environmental Pollution refers to any addition of unwanted material in the environment due
to human activities that lead to undesirable changes in the environment and ecology. For
example, sewage water being released in clean water sources like tanks, rivers, etc is an
example of water pollution.
Effects of Environmental Pollution
• Pollution affects the very factors which support life on the ear, such as the air we breathe,
the water we drink and, at large, the ecosystems we depend upon. Thus, it poses a threat to
life on the earth.
• Pollution poses one of the greatest challenges to the health of humans and other living
beings.
• Though it affects the overall well-being of the entire society, vulnerable sections like the
poor, the children, the women etc are affected disproportionately by it.
• Pollution has its negative impacts on the economy as well. For example, as per a study,
water pollution would cause a loss of around 6% of India’s GDP by 2050 due to loss in
sectors like fishing, agriculture, water intensive industries etc.
• Other socio-economic impacts of pollution include food insecurity due to decreased
agricultural yield, forced migration due to water crisis etc.
Causes of Environment Pollution
• Rapid increase in human population has increased anthropogenic activities by manifold.
Most of these activities, in some way or the other, add some unwanted things to the
environment.
• Rapid urbanization in recent times has led to increased construction activities. This, in
turn, is causing environmental pollution through different ways, such as release of dust in
air, generation of waste materials etc.
• Increased population and urbanization have meant increased transportation activities.
This, in itself, is a major source of pollution.
• An increased focus on industrialization of late is leading to rapid generation of industrial
wastes and emissions, and hence environmental pollution.
• Some agricultural activities also lead to environmental pollution. For example, excessive
use of fertilizers and pesticides not only pollutes the soil but also nearby water bodies
due to spill over.
• There are many other causes of environmental pollution, such as Burning of fossil fuels,
increased use of chemicals, etc.
Types of Pollution
Air Pollution
• As per WHO, Air Pollution is contamination of the indoor or
outdoor environment by any chemical, physical or
biological agent that modifies the natural characteristics of
the atmosphere.
• According to WHO data, 99 percent of the world’s
population breathes air that contains high levels of
pollutants and exceeds WHO guideline limits, with low and
middle-income countries experiencing the highest
exposures.

Causes:
• Industrial emissions, household emissions , motor vehicles
emissions, forest fires etc are some common sources of air
pollution.
• Pollutants of major public health concern
include Particulate Matter, Carbon Monoxide, Ozone,
Nitrogen Dioxide, and Sulphur Dioxide.
Water Pollution
Water pollution refers to release of unwanted substances into subsurface groundwater or into water bodies
like lakes, streams, rivers, estuaries, and oceans to a level which negatively impacts the beneficial use of the
water or natural functioning of ecosystems.
When harmful chemicals or microorganisms contaminate a stream, river, lake, ocean, aquifer, or other body of
water, the water’s quality deteriorates and it becomes toxic for both humans and the environment.
• Dissolved oxygen (DO) levels drop, Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) rises, aquatic species perish,
eutrophication occurs, etc. as a result of water pollution.
Causes:
• Agriculture is one of the primary sources of water pollution. Animal waste from farms and livestock
operations, pesticides, and fertilizers wash nutrients and pathogens like bacteria and viruses into our
waterways.
• More than 80 percent of the world’s wastewater flows back into the environment without being treated or
reused, according to the United Nations.
• Nearly half of the estimated 1 million tons of oil spills over into marine environments.
• Radioactive substances generated by uranium mining, nuclear power plants and the hospitals that use
radioactive materials for research and medicine. These waste can persist in the environment for thousands
of years, making disposal a major challenge.
Noise Pollution
• Noise Pollution is defined by the World Health
Organization (WHO) as noise that is louder than 65
decibels (dB).
• Precisely speaking, noise becomes harmful above 75 dB
and painful above 120 dB Thus, it is advised to keep
noise level below 65 dB during the day.
• An ambient noise level advisable for the nighttime is 30 Noise
dBas restful sleep cannot be achieved with noise levels [Link]. City Country
Pollution
above this.
1 Dhaka Bangladesh 119dB
• The current status of noise pollution all over the world
2 Moradabad India 114dB
can be seen through the United Nations Environment
Programme’s report titled ‘Frontiers 2022: Noise, Blazes 3 Islamabad Pakistan 105dB
and Mismatches’ which enlist the noisiest cities in the 4 Rajshahi Bangladesh 103dB
world.
5 Ho Chi Minh City Vietnam 103dB
Suggested Measures to Control Noise Pollution:
•Suppression of noise at the source
•Acoustic zoning
•Sound insulation at construction sites
•Planting trees
•Strict legislative measures.
Soil Pollution
• The contamination of soil with abnormally high
concentrations of toxic substances is referred to as soil
pollution.
• Given the numerous health risks it contains, it is a serious
environmental concern. For instance, exposure to soil
with high Benzene concentrations increases the risk of
developing Leukaemia.
• Causes:
• Phenomena such as loss of organic carbon, erosion,
increased salt content, acidification,
compacting, and chemical pollution are the major causes
of current soil degradation.
Suggested Measures to tackle Soil Pollution:
•Promote eco-friendly practices in business, agriculture,
and stock breedingand other sectors of the economy.
•Ensure an efficient transportation and treatment of
wastewater through proper urban planning.
•Increase topsoil conservation, landscape restoration,
 Radioactive Pollution
• When radioactive elements are accidentally present in the environment or
atmosphere and pose a risk to the ecosystem owing to radioactive decay, this is known
as radioactive pollution.
• The radioactive materials create damage by releasing potentially harmful ionizing
radiation into the environment, such as Alpha or Beta particles, gamma rays, or neutrons.
Causes of Radioactive Pollution:
• Nuclear Accidents from Nuclear Energy Generation Plants
• Use of Nuclear Weapons as Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD)
• Use of Radioisotopes in Health and other sectors.
• Mining
• Spillage of Radioactive Chemicals
• Cosmic Rays and Other Natural Sources
• Nuclear Waste Handling and Disposal

Nuclear hazards pose significant human health risks due to potential radiation exposure.
Acute effects include radiation sickness, burns, and even death. Long-term risks
encompass an increased likelihood of cancer, genetic mutations, and reproductive issues.
Contamination of air, water, and soil can lead to widespread health implications, spanning
generations. Chernobyl and Fukushima disasters serve as stark reminders of the enduring
impact on public health, including displacement, psychological trauma, and socioeconomic
disruption. Robust safety measures, strict regulatory oversight, and public awareness are
crucial in mitigating these risks, ensuring the safeguarding of human health amidst the
utilization of nuclear energy and technology.
solid waste management:
control measures of urban
and industrial waste
Effective solid waste management requires comprehensive control
measures for both urban and industrial waste to mitigate
environmental pollution and health hazards. Urban waste control
measures involve:
1. Source Reduction: Encouraging waste minimization through
education, incentives, and regulations to reduce the overall waste
generation at the source.
2. Segregation: Promoting proper sorting of waste into recyclables,
organics, and non-recyclables at the household and commercial
levels to facilitate recycling and composting.
3. Recycling and Reuse: Establishing recycling programs for materials
like paper, plastics, glass, and metals, and promoting the reuse of
items wherever possible to conserve resources.
4. Composting: Implementing composting facilities for organic waste
to produce nutrient-rich soil amendments and reduce methane
emissions from landfills.
5. Waste-to-Energy: Utilizing advanced technologies such as
incineration or anaerobic digestion to convert non-recyclable
waste into energy while minimizing environmental impacts.
6. Landfill Management: Implementing proper landfill design,
covering, and monitoring to minimize leachate and methane
emissions, along with the development of landfill gas recovery
systems
An integrated waste management strategy includes three
main components: 1. Source reduction 2. Recycling 3. Disposal
For industrial waste control measures:
1. Pollution Prevention: Implementing cleaner production
techniques and technologies to minimize waste generation
and pollutant emissions at the source.
2. Treatment and Recycling: Installing on-site treatment facilities
to treat industrial effluents and recycle process waste
streams to reduce discharge and conserve resources.
3. Hazardous Waste Management: Proper handling, storage,
and disposal of hazardous waste in compliance with
regulations to prevent environmental contamination and
health risks.
4. Industrial Ecology: Promoting industrial symbiosis and
resource exchange networks to utilize by-products and waste
materials as inputs for other industries, fostering resource
efficiency and waste reduction.
5. Regulatory Compliance: Enforcing stringent regulations and
standards for industrial waste management, including
monitoring, reporting, and penalties for non-compliance to
ensure responsible waste handling practices.
Integration of these control measures through effective policies,
regulations, and public-private partnerships is essential for
achieving sustainable solid waste management in urban and
industrial settings, safeguarding both environmental and human
health.
 Pollution Case Study:
The Delhi Air Pollution Crisis
Key Factors:
Impact:
Crop Burning
Vehicular Emissions Health Effects
Industrial Pollution Economic Impact
Construction Activities
Environmental Degradation
Geographical Factors

Response and Mitigation Efforts:

Odd-Even Scheme
Ban on Firecrackers
Promotion of Cleaner Fuels
Air Quality Monitoring and Public Awareness