Because learning changes everything.
Chapter 7
Thinking, Language, and Intelligence
© McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.
MODULE 21—Thinking
What is thinking?
What processes underlie reasoning and decision making?
How do people approach and solve problems?
What are the major obstacles to problem solving?
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Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive psychology: the branch of psychology that
focuses on the study of higher mental processes.
• Thinking.
• Language.
• Memory.
• Problem solving.
• Knowing.
• Reasoning.
• Judging.
• Decision making.
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Thinking
No other species contemplates, analyzes, recollects, or plans
the way humans do.
Thinking: brain activity in which people mentally manipulate
information including words, visual images, sounds, or other
data.
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Mental Images: Examining the Mind’s
Eye
Mental images: representations in the mind of an object or
event.
Every sensory modality produces corresponding mental
images.
Mental images have properties of the actual stimuli they
represent.
Production of mental images improves various skills.
• Example: athletic training.
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MODULE 21 FIGURE 1
Try to mentally rotate one of each pair of patterns to see if it is the same as the other member of that pair.
It’s likely that the farther you have to mentally rotate a pattern, the longer it will take to decide if the
patterns match one another.
Access the text alternative for slide images.
© McGraw Hill LLC Source: Adapted from Shepard & Metzler, 1971. 6
Concepts: Categorizing the World
Concepts: the mental groupings of similar objects, events,
or people.
• Enable us to organize complex phenomena into cognitive
categories that are easier to understand and remember.
Prototypes: typical, highly representative examples of a
concept.
Cultures differ in the specific kinds of prototypes they hold.
• Example: eating utensils.
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Algorithms and Heuristics
Algorithms: a rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees
a solution to a problem.
• Example:
Heuristic: a thinking strategy that may lead to a solution but
may sometimes lead to errors.
• Availability heuristic: we judge the likelihood of an event
occurring on the basis of how easily we can bring to mind
examples of the event.
• Familiarity heuristic: leads us to prefer familiar objects, people,
and things to those that are unfamiliar or strange to us.
• Present bias: the tendency to more heavily weigh options that
are closer to the present than ones further away.
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Solving Problems
The way people go about solving puzzles helps illuminate
how people solve complex, real-life problems.
Psychologists have found that problem solving typically
involves three steps:
• Preparing to create solutions;
• Producing solutions; and
• Evaluating the solutions that have been generated.
The classic Tower of Hanoi puzzle is a good way to illustrate
the process.
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MODULE 21 FIGURE 3
The goal of the Tower of Hanoi puzzle is to move all three disks from the first post to the third and still
preserve the original order of the disks, using the fewest number of moves possible while following the
rules that only one disk at a time can be moved and no disk can cover a smaller one during a move.
Access the text alternative for slide images.
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MODULE 21 FIGURE 4
Steps in problem solving.
Access the text alternative for slide images.
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Preparation: Understanding and
Diagnosing Problems
Well-defined problem: the nature of the problem and the
information needed to solve it are available and clear.
Ill-defined problem: the nature of the problem and the
information needed to solve it are unclear.
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Kinds of Problems
Arrangement problems require the problem solver to
rearrange elements in a way that will satisfy a certain
criterion.
In inducing structure problems, a person must identify the
existing relationships among the elements presented and
then construct a new relationship among them.
Transformation problems consist of an initial state, a goal
state, and a method for changing the initial state into the goal
state.
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MODULE 21 FIGURE 4a
Arrangement problems:
1. Anagrams: Rearrange the letters in each set to make an English word.
2. Two strings hang from the ceiling but
are too far apart to allow a person to
hold one and walk to the other. On
the floor are a book of matches, a
screwdriver, and a few pieces of
cotton. How could the strings be tied
together?
Solutions for this slide
The three major categories of problems: (a) arrangement, (b) inducing structure, and (c) transformation.
© McGraw Hill LLC Source: Adapted from Bourne et al., 1986. 14
MODULE 21 FIGURE 4b
Inducing structure problems:
1. What number comes next in the series?
1 4 2 4 3 4 4 4 5 4 6 4 . ..
2. Complete these analogies:
baseball is to bat as tennis is to Blank .
merchant is to sell as customer is to Blank .
Solutions for this slide
The three major categories of problems: (a) arrangement, (b) inducing structure, and (c) transformation.
© McGraw Hill LLC 15
MODULE 21 FIGURE 4c
Transformation problems:
1. Water jars: A person has three jars with the following capacities:
Jar A: 28 ounces. Jar B: 7 ounces. Jar C: 5 ounces.
How can the person measure exactly 11 ounces of water?
2. Ten coins are arranged in the following way.
By moving only two of the coins, make two
rows that each contains six coins.
Solutions for this slide
The three major categories of problems: (a) arrangement,
(b) inducing structure, and (c) transformation.
© McGraw Hill LLC Source: Adapted from Bourne et al., 1986. 16
MODULE 21 FIGURE 7
A decision often is affected by the way a problem is framed. In this case, most would choose radiation
over surgery, despite similar results.
Access the text alternative for slide images.
© McGraw Hill LLC (Left) Photoroyalty/Shutterstock; (Right) Stockbyte/PunchStock/Getty Images 17
Production: Generating Solutions 1
In place of trail and error, complex problem solving often
involves the use of heuristics and cognitive shortcuts that
generate solutions.
Means–ends analysis: a strategy in which a problem solver
considers the ultimate goal (the end) and determines the
best strategy for attaining the goal.
• Each step brings the problem solver closer to a resolution.
Another heuristic commonly used is to divide a problem into
subgoals, and then solve each of those steps.
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Production: Generating Solutions 2
Insight: a sudden awareness of the relationships among
various elements that had previously appeared to be
unrelated to one another.
The phenomenon was demonstrated in a classic study by
psychologist Wolfgang Köhler, who examined learning and
problem-solving processes in chimpanzees.
Subsequent research has shown that prior experience
and trial-and-error practice in problem solving must precede
“insight.”
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MODULE 21 FIGURE 8
(a) In an impressive display of insight, Sultan, one of the chimpanzees in Köhler’s experiments in
problem solving, sees a bunch of bananas that is out of reach. (b) He then carries over several crates,
stacks them, and (c) stands on them to reach the bananas.
© McGraw Hill LLC (all): 3LH/SuperStock 20
Judgment: Evaluating Solutions
If there is no single correct solution, evaluating solutions can
be difficult.
Theoretically, if we rely on appropriate heuristics and valid
information, we can make accurate choices among
alternative solutions.
However, several kinds of obstacles bias the decisions and
judgments we make.
Examining biases in decision making has influenced the
development of a new field known as behavioral economics.
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Impediments to Solutions: Why Is
Problem Solving Such a Problem? 1
Difficulties encountered in solving problems often stem from
how the problems are presented.
The presentation of a problem can mislead you at the
preparation stage.
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MODULE 21 FIGURE 9
The problem here is to place three candles at eye level on a nearby door so that the wax will not drip on
the floor as the candles burn—using only material in the figure.
© McGraw Hill LLC Source: Adapted from Duncker, 1945. 23
MODULE 21 FIGURE 10
A solution to the problem in Figure 9 involves tacking the boxes to the door and placing the candles in the
boxes.
© McGraw Hill LLC Source: Adapted from Duncker, 1945. 24
Impediments to Solutions: Why Is
Problem Solving Such a Problem? 2
The impediment to solving the candle problem is
functional fixedness: the tendency to think of an object
only in terms of its typical use.
A related concept is mental set: the tendency to solve
problems in a certain way, based on past experience.
• Hinders our ability to come up with other solutions.
• Can prevent us from seeing beyond the apparent constraints
of a problem.
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MODULE 21 FIGURE 11
Given jars with these capacities (in ounces):
Picture of a Jar labeled A Picture of a Jar labeled B Picture of a Jar labeled C
Obtain:
1. 21 127 3 100
2. 14 163 25 99
3. 18 43 10 5
4. 9 42 6 21
5. 20 59 4 31
6. 28 76 3 25
Try this classic demonstration, which illustrates the importance of functional fixedness in problem solving. The
object is to use the jars in each row to obtain the designated amount of liquid.
© McGraw Hill LLC 26
Impediments to Solutions: Why Is
Problem Solving Such a Problem? 3
Confirmation bias: occurs when people are motivated to
interpret evidence as supportive of their existing beliefs or
theories.
Confirmation bias occurs for several reasons:
• Rethinking a problem that appears to be solved already
takes extra cognitive effort.
• We tend to give greater weight to subsequent information
that supports the initial position, compared to information
that is not supportive of the initial position.
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Evaluating Others’ Conclusions:
The Science of Fake News
Sometimes we draw erroneous conclusions because others
have actively attempted to mislead us.
Fake news: fabricated information that is made to look and
sound like legitimate news.
• The intent to persuade readers/viewers to accept false
information.
Illusory truth effect: simply repeating misinformation may lead
people to remember that information and forget it may be
false.
Cognitive immunization: resistance to fake news,
misinformation, and other falsehoods is created by providing
accurate information before someone is exposed to false
information.
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Creativity and Problem Solving 1
Creativity: the ability to generate original ideas or solve
problems in novel ways.
Creative individuals show divergent thinking and also
cognitive complexity in their thinking.
Divergent thinking: thinking that generates multiple and
novel responses to problems or questions.
Cognitive complexity: a preference for elaborate, intricate,
and complex stimuli and thinking patterns.
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Creativity and Problem Solving 2
The divergent thinking that characterizes creative people
contrasts with convergent thinking: thinking in which a
problem is viewed as having a single answer.
• Produces responses that are based primarily on knowledge and
logic.
Traditional intelligence tests tap convergent thinking skills.
• Highly creative people may therefore find that such tests
penalize their divergent thinking.
© McGraw Hill LLC 30
MODULE 22—Language
How do people use language?
How does language develop?
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Grammar: Language’s Language
Language: the communication of information through
symbols arranged according to systematic rules.
Grammar: the system of rules that determine how our
thoughts can be expressed.
Phonology: the study of the smallest units of speech,
called phonemes.
Syntax: ways in which words and phrases can be
combined to form sentences.
Semantics: the aspect of language referring to the
meaning of words and sentences.
• Allows us to use words to convey subtle nuances in meaning.
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Language Development: Developing a
Way with Words
Babble: meaningless, speechlike sounds made by children
from around the age of 3 months through 1 year.
Some theorists argue that a critical period exists for
language development early in life.
Telegraphic speech: sentences in which only essential
words are used.
Overgeneralization: the phenomenon by which children
overapply a language rule, thereby making a linguistic
error.
• Example: “runned.”
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Understanding Language Acquisition:
Identifying the Roots of Language
Learning-theory approach: language acquisition follows
the principles of reinforcement and conditioning.
Nativist approach: humans are biologically prewired to
learn language at certain times and in particular ways.
• Linguist Noam Chomsky proposed a universal grammar that
lets us understand the structure language provides.
Interactionist approach: the view that language
development is determined by genetic and social factors,
produced through a combination of genetically determined
predispositions and the social world in which one is raised.
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The Influence of Language on
Thinking: Do the Inuit Have More
Words for Snow than Texans do?
Arguments that they do have been made since the early
1900s, based on the idea that snow is particularly relevant
to Inuit peoples’ lives.
Linguistic-relativity hypothesis: language shapes and
may determine the way people perceive and understand
the world.
Most current research instead suggests that thinking
produces language.
© McGraw Hill LLC 35
Do Animals Use Language?
Many animals communicate with one another in rudimentary
forms.
Nonhuman primates use several basic components of
human language.
Critics contend that the language animals use still lacks the
grammar and the complex and novel constructions of human
language.
The issue remains controversial.
© McGraw Hill LLC 36
MODULE 23—Intelligence
What are the different definitions and conceptions of
intelligence?
What are the major approaches to measuring intelligence,
and what do intelligence tests measure?
How can extremes of intelligence be characterized?
Are traditional IQ tests culturally biased?
To what degree is intelligence influenced by the environment
and to what degree by heredity?
© McGraw Hill LLC 37
What Is Intelligence?
Intelligence: the capacity to understand the world, think
rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with
challenges.
© McGraw Hill LLC 38
Theories of Intelligence: Are There
Different Kinds of Intelligence? 1
g or g-factor: the single, general factor for mental ability
assumed to underlie intelligence in some early theories of
intelligence.
Fluid intelligence: reflects the ability to think logically,
reason abstractly, solve problems, and find patterns.
Crystallized intelligence: the accumulation of information,
knowledge, and skills that people have learned through
experience and education.
• It reflects the facts we have learned and the information that
resides in our long-term memory.
© McGraw Hill LLC 39
Theories of Intelligence: Are There
Different Kinds of Intelligence? 2
Theory of multiple intelligences: psychologist Howard
Gardner’s intelligence theory that proposes there are eight
distinct spheres of intelligence.
• Each person has the same eight kinds of intelligence, in
different degrees.
• There may be more than eight, such as existential
intelligence—involving identifying and thinking about the
fundamental questions of human existence.
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MODULE 23 FIGURE 1
Kind of Intelligence Description
Musical intelligence Skills in tasks involving music
Bodily kinesthetic Skills in using the whole body or various portions of it in the solution of
intelligence problems or in the construction of products or displays, exemplified by
dancers, athletes, actors, and surgeons
Logical-mathematical Skills in problem solving and scientific thinking
intelligence
Linguistic intelligence Skills involved in the production and use of language
Spatial intelligence Skills involving spatial configurations, such as those used by artists and
architects
Interpersonal intelligence Skills in interacting with others, such as sensitivity to the moods,
temperaments, motivations, and intentions of others
Intrapersonal intelligence Knowledge of the internal aspects of oneself; access to one’s own feelings
and emotions
Naturalist intelligence Ability to identify and classify patterns in nature
Howard Gardner describes eight major kinds of intelligences, corresponding to abilities in different
domains.
© McGraw Hill LLC 41
Practical and Emotional Intelligence:
Toward a More Intelligent View of
Intelligence
Practical intelligence: according to psychologist Robert
Sternberg, intelligence related to overall success in living.
• Analytical intelligence: focuses on the traditional types of
problems measured on IQ tests.
• Creative intelligence: involves the generation of novel ideas and
products.
Emotional intelligence: a set of skills that underlie the
accurate assessment, evaluation, expression, and regulation
of emotions.
© McGraw Hill LLC 42
MODULE 23 FIGURE 2
Most standard tests of intelligence primarily measure analytical skills; more comprehensive tests
measure creative and practical abilities as well.
Access the text alternative for slide images.
© McGraw Hill LLC Source: Adapted from Sternberg, 2000. 43
MODULE 23 FIGURE 3
The major approaches to intelligence. Just as there are many views of the nature of intelligence, there
are also numerous ways to demonstrate intelligent behavior. This summary provides an overview of the
various approaches used by psychologists.
© McGraw Hill LLC 44
Assessing Intelligence
Intelligence tests: tests devised to quantify a person’s level
of intelligence.
• These have proved of great benefit in identifying students in
need of special attention in school; diagnosing specific learning
difficulties; and helping people make the best educational and
vocational choices.
• Their use has proved controversial, however.
• Francis Galton, an English scientist, first put forth
the—completely erroneous—idea that head size and shape are
related to intellectual performance, based on his personal
prejudices.
© McGraw Hill LLC 45
Binet and the Development of IQ Tests
French psychologist Alfred Binet developed the first real
intelligence test.
Mental age: age for which a given level of performance is
average.
Intelligence quotient (IQ): takes into account an individual’s
mental age (MA) and chronological age (CA).
© McGraw Hill LLC 46
MODULE 23 FIGURE 4
The average and most common IQ score is 100, and 68% of all people are within a 30-point range
centered on 100. Some 95% of the population have scores that are within 30 points above or below 100,
and 99.8% have scores that are between 55 and 145.
Access the text alternative for slide images.
© McGraw Hill LLC 47
Contemporary IQ Tests: Gauging
Intelligence 1
The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale consists of a series of
items that vary according to the age of the person being
tested.
The IQ tests most frequently used in the United States are
the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-IV (WAIS-IV) and the
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-5 (WISC-5).
The WAIS and WISC measure:
• Verbal comprehension;
• Perceptual reasoning;
• Working memory; and
• Processing speed.
© McGraw Hill LLC 48
Contemporary IQ Tests: Gauging
Intelligence 2
The Stanford-Binet, WAIS-IV, and WISC-V:
• All require individualized administration.
• Are relatively difficult to administer and score on a large-scale
basis.
Consequently, there are now a number of IQ tests that allow
group administration.
• Generally offer fewer kinds of questions.
• People may be less motivated to perform at their highest ability
in a group setting.
• Cannot be administered in certain cases, such as with people
with unusually low IQs.
’
© McGraw Hill LLC 49
Reliability and Validity: Taking the
Measure of Tests
Reliability: the consistency of a test in measuring what it is
trying to measure.
Validity: the degree to which a test actually measures what it
is supposed to measure.
Both are prerequisites for accurate assessment of
intelligence.
Norms: standards of test performance that permit the
comparison of one person’s score on a test with the scores of
other individuals who have taken the same test.
• Tests for which there are norms are standardized tests.
© McGraw Hill LLC 50
MODULE 23 FIGURE 5 1
Name Goal of Item Example
Information Assess general information. Who wrote Tom Sawyer?
Comprehension Assess understanding and Why is copper often used for electrical
evaluation of social norms wires?
and past experiences.
Arithmetic Assess math reasoning Three golfers divided 18 golf balls
through verbal problems. equally among themselves. How many
golf balls did each person receive?
Similarities Test understanding of how In what way are a circle and a triangle
objects or concepts are alike?
alike, tapping abstract
reasoning.
Types of Items on WAIS-IV. Typical kinds of items similar to those found on the Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scales (WAIS-IV). (Simulated items are similar to those in the Wechsler Adult Intelligence
Scale, Fourth Edition [WAIS-IV].)
© McGraw Hill LLC Source: Adapted from Wechsler (2008) 51
MODULE 23 FIGURE 5 2
Name Goal of Item Example
The image shows three weighing scales. Scales 1 and 2 have items on the balance. For scale 3, candidate has to choose from 5 options provided below.
Figure Test perceptual Problems require test-taker to
weights reasoning determine which possibility
balances the final scale.
The image shows 2 by 2 grid with three designs inside and one empty cell. For the empty cell, candidate has to choose from 5 options provided below.
Matrix Test spatial reasoning Test-taker must decide which of
reasoning the five possibilities replaces the
question mark and completes the
sequence.
The image shows a pattern.
Block Design Test understanding of Problems require test-takers to
item relationship of parts to reproduce a design in fixed
whole amount of time.
© McGraw Hill LLC Source: Adapted from Wechsler (2008) 52
Adaptive Testing: Using Computers to
Assess Performance
Adaptive testing: not every test-taker received identical sets
of questions. Instead, the computer first presents randomly
selected questions and then will give slightly harder or
slightly easier questions based on the response.
• The computer individualizes the test to the test-taker.
Advantages: the total time spent on the test is shorter than
traditional tests.
Disadvantages: a large number of test items must be created
and calibrated; and early mistakes by test-takers can hurt
final scores.
© McGraw Hill LLC 53
Variations in Intellectual Ability
Intellectual disability: a disability characterized by
significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in
adaptive behavior, which covers many everyday social and
practical skills.
Degrees of intellectual disability:
• Mild = IQ of 55–69, constituting 90% of all people with
intellectual disabilities.
• Moderate = IQ of 40–54.
• Severe = IQ of 25–39.
• Profound = IQ below 25.
© McGraw Hill LLC 54
Identifying the Roots of Intellectual
Disabilities
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: the most common cause
of intellectual disability in newborns, occurring when the
mother uses alcohol during pregnancy.
Down syndrome: another major cause, in which a person is
born with 47 chromosomes instead of the usual 46.
• In most cases, there is an extra copy of the 21st chromosome,
which leads to problems in how the brain and body develop.
Familial intellectual disability: intellectual disability in which
no apparent biological or genetic problems exist, but there is
a history of intellectual disability among family members.
© McGraw Hill LLC 55
Integrating Individuals with Intellectual
Disabilities
The Education for All Handicapped Children Act (Public Law
94–142) was passed in the mid-1970s.
• People with intellectual disabilities are entitled to a full
education.
• Must be educated and trained in the least restrictive
environment.
Mainstreaming: integration into regular classrooms.
Full inclusion: total integration of all students, even those with
the most severe intellectual disabilities, into regular classes.
© McGraw Hill LLC 56
The Intellectually Gifted
Intellectually gifted: the 2–4% segment of the population
who have IQ scores greater than 130.
• Despite some negative stereotypes, most are often outgoing,
well-adjusted, healthy, popular—and able to do things better
than the average person.
• Terman’s study of the intellectually gifted in the 1920s resulted
in an overall successful group; but note, not every member of
the study was successful.
High intelligence is not a homogeneous quality or universal
guarantee of success.
• Special programs for the gifted are designed to provide
enrichment that allows participants’ talents to flourish.
© McGraw Hill LLC 57
Group Differences in Intelligence
The background and experience of test-takers have the
potential to affect results.
• Tests may be biased against some racial and cultural groups on
the basis of the types of questions provided.
• Assessments of cognitive ability developed in the United States
may favor responses that implicitly reflect North American
values, customs, and traditions.
Culture-fair IQ test: a test that does not discriminate against
the members of any minority group.
• Creating a truly culture-fair test has been an elusive goal.
© McGraw Hill LLC 58
IQ and Heritability: The Relative
Influence of Genetics and the
Environment 1
Heritability: the degree to which a characteristic is related to
genetic, inherited factors.
When racial gaps exist in cultures, the economically
disadvantaged groups have lower scores.
• Suggests a lack of compelling evidence that racial differences in
IQ are due to genetic factors.
The greatest discrepancies in IQ scores occur when
comparing individuals, not when comparing mean IQ scores
of different groups.
© McGraw Hill LLC 59
MODULE 23 FIGURE 6
Genetic
overlap
Relationship (%) Rearing Correlation
Monozygotic (identical) twins 100 Together .86 The difference between
Dizygotic (fraternal) twins 50 Together .62 these two
correlations—.41 for
Siblings 50 Together .41 siblings raised together
Siblings 50 Apart .24 and .24 for siblings
raised apart—shows the
Parent–child 50 Apart .35 impact of the
Parent–child 50 Apart .31 environment.
The relatively low
Adoptive parent–child 0 Together .16 correlation (.25) for
unrelated children raised
Unrelated children 0 Together .25 together shows the
importance of genetic
Spouses 0 Apart .29 factors.
The relationship between IQ and closeness of genetic relationship. In general, the more similar the
genetic and environmental background of two people, the greater the correlation is. Note, for example,
that the correlation for spouses, who are genetically unrelated and have been reared apart, is relatively
low, whereas the correlation for identical twins reared together is substantial.
Source: Adapted from Henderson, 1982.
© McGraw Hill LLC 60
IQ and Heritability: The Relative
Influence of Genetics and the
Environment 2
Ultimately, we have no final answer to how much
intelligence is influenced by heredity as compared with the
environment.
The more critical question to ask may be this:
What can we do to maximize the intellectual development
of every individual?
Enriched home environments and better schooling are
among the changes that may lead each person to reach
their potential.
© McGraw Hill LLC 61