Chapter 16: Kinesiology of Running
Part 1 of 3: Spatial & Temporal Descriptors, Joint Kinematics, and Center of Mass Dynamics
Spatial and Temporal Descriptors of Running
Running is a complex locomotor activity characterized by distinct spatial and temporal
parameters that differentiate it from walking. Understanding these descriptors is crucial for
analyzing running mechanics and performance.
Key Temporal Parameters
Stride Duration: The time taken to complete one full stride, encompassing two steps (right
and left foot contacts). In running, stride duration decreases as speed increases.
Step Duration: The time between successive foot contacts of opposite feet. It is half the
stride duration and also decreases with increased running speed.
Cadence: The number of steps taken per minute. Typical running cadence ranges from 150
to 180 steps per minute, with higher cadences often associated with improved running
economy.
Stance and Swing Phases: Unlike walking, running includes a flight phase where both feet
are off the ground. The stance phase occupies approximately 40% of the gait cycle, while
the swing phase and flight phase make up the remaining 60%.
Key Spatial Parameters
Stride Length: The distance covered in one stride. Stride length increases with running
speed but must be optimized to prevent overstriding, which can lead to inefficiencies and
injuries.
Step Length: Half of the stride length, measured from the point of initial contact of one foot
to the point of initial contact of the opposite foot.
Step Width: The lateral distance between the feet during running. A narrower step width is
common in running compared to walking, contributing to energy efficiency.
Foot Angle: The angle between the foot’s direction and the line of progression. Slight
external rotation is typical, but excessive angles may indicate biomechanical issues.
Understanding these parameters aids in assessing running technique, identifying potential
inefficiencies, and developing training or rehabilitation programs.
Joint Kinematics During Running
Joint kinematics refers to the motion of joints without considering the forces that cause
them. In running, joint movements are more dynamic and involve greater ranges of motion
compared to walking.
Hip Joint
Flexion/Extension: The hip undergoes significant flexion during the swing phase to advance
the limb and extension during the stance phase to propel the body forward.
Abduction/Adduction: Minimal but critical for maintaining balance and controlling pelvic
motion.
Internal/External Rotation: Helps in accommodating ground reaction forces and
maintaining forward progression.
Knee Joint
Flexion/Extension: The knee flexes during the swing phase to allow foot clearance and
extends during the stance phase for shock absorption and propulsion.
Rotation: Slight internal and external rotations occur, aiding in accommodating transverse
plane motions and maintaining knee stability.
Ankle and Foot
Dorsiflexion/Plantarflexion: The ankle dorsiflexes during the swing phase for foot clearance
and plantarflexes during the stance phase for push-off.
Inversion/Eversion: These movements help in adapting to uneven surfaces and maintaining
balance.
Pronation/Supination: The foot pronates after initial contact to absorb shock and supinates
during push-off to provide a rigid lever for propulsion.
These joint movements are synchronized to produce efficient and smooth running
mechanics. Deviations can lead to compensatory patterns and potential injuries.
Center of Mass Dynamics in Running
The center of mass (COM) represents the point where the body’s mass is evenly
distributed. Its movement during running is more dynamic compared to walking, with
greater vertical and horizontal displacements.
Vertical Displacement
The COM follows a sinusoidal path, reaching its lowest point during midstance and highest
during the flight phase.
Excessive vertical displacement can lead to increased energy expenditure, while
insufficient displacement may indicate stiffness or restricted motion.
Horizontal Displacement
The COM moves forward continuously, with the highest velocity during the flight phase.
Efficient runners minimize unnecessary lateral or vertical movements to conserve energy.
Medio-Lateral Displacement
Minimal in efficient runners, excessive side-to-side movement can indicate balance issues
or muscular weaknesses, particularly in the hip abductors.
Understanding COM dynamics is essential for optimizing running efficiency and identifying
potential areas for intervention in training or rehabilitation.
Chapter 16: Kinesiology of Running
Part 2 of 3: Energy Expenditure, Muscle Activity Patterns, and Kinetics
Energy Expenditure in Running
Running demands considerably more metabolic energy than walking, and optimizing
economy is a central concern for both athletes and rehabilitative practitioners. Key factors
that influence running energy cost include speed, mechanics, and individual
anthropometrics.
Running Economy
Definition: Running economy is the oxygen consumption (VO₂) at a given running speed.
Better economy means lower VO₂ for the same speed.
Determinants:
Biomechanics: Upright posture, minimal vertical oscillation of the center of mass (COM),
and optimal stride length all reduce wasted energy.
Muscle–Tendon Elasticity: Efficient storage and return of elastic energy in the Achilles
tendon and plantar fascia lowers active muscular work.
Neuromuscular Coordination: Precise timing of muscle activation reduces co-contraction
and unnecessary work.
Oxygen Uptake and Speed
VO₂ increases linearly with running speed up to a point near an individual’s lactate
threshold.
Elite distance runners can sustain a given percentage of their VO₂max at higher speeds due
to superior economy.
Cost of Uphill and Downhill Running
Uphill: Energy cost rises steeply with grade because muscles must do positive work against
gravity.
Downhill: Although gravity assists, eccentric muscle work to brake the descent increases
metabolic cost—often more than level running at equivalent speeds.
Muscle Activity Patterns During Running
Electromyographic (EMG) studies reveal the temporal sequences and magnitudes of
muscle activation needed to control limb motion, absorb shock, and generate propulsion.
Running divides into stance (foot contact) and swing (foot in air), with a brief flight phase in
between.
Stance Phase
1. Initial Contact (about 0–10% of stride)
Tibialis anterior fires eccentrically to lower the foot and control plantarflexion.
Quadriceps (vastii) activate strongly to absorb impact and resist knee flexion.
Hip extensors (gluteus maximus and hamstrings) begin to decelerate forward thigh motion.
2. Midstance (10–40%)
Gastrocnemius–soleus complex eccentric control of tibial progression over the foot.
Gluteus medius and tensor fasciae latae stabilize the pelvis in the frontal plane.
Quadriceps activity tapers but remains active to support body weight.
3. Terminal Stance and Pre-Swing (40–60%)
Plantarflexors (soleus and gastrocnemius) transition from eccentric braking to concentric
push-off, generating propulsive force.
Hip flexors (iliopsoas, rectus femoris) begin to prepare for limb advancement.
Energy stored in the Achilles tendon is released to assist plantarflexion.
Swing Phase
1. Initial Swing (60–73%)
Hip flexors concentrically lift the thigh, advancing the limb.
Biceps femoris (short head) assists in knee flexion to clear the foot.
Tibialis anterior rapidly dorsiflexes the foot to avoid toe drag.
2. Mid-Swing (73–87%)
Muscle activity quiets briefly; the limb “coasts” forward.
Stabilizers like vastus lateralis maintain knee extension as momentum builds.
3. Terminal Swing (87–100%)
Hamstrings eccentrically decelerate knee extension to prepare for foot strike.
Quadriceps activate to stabilize the knee at contact.
Gluteus maximus fires to stabilize the pelvis and decelerate the trunk.
Kinetics: Ground Reaction Forces and Joint Moments
Kinetics analysis examines the forces between the foot and ground (ground reaction
forces—GRF), and the internal joint moments and powers required to control and generate
those forces.
Ground Reaction Forces (GRF)
Vertical GRF: Two distinct peaks—an early impact peak at initial contact (shock
absorption) and a larger active peak during mid-stance (support and propulsion).
Anterior–Posterior GRF: Shows a braking force immediately after contact (negative)
followed by a propulsive force before toe-off (positive).
Medio–Lateral GRF: Generally smaller in magnitude; reflects the side-to-side loading of the
foot, influenced by foot strike pattern and stability.
Joint Moments and Powers
Inverse dynamics computes net joint moments (torque) and joint powers (moment ×
angular velocity) to understand muscle-tendon demands.
1. Ankle
Dorsiflexion moment early in stance to control foot lowering.
Plantarfexion moment in mid- to late stance to generate push-off power.
Power absorption during weight acceptance and power generation during propulsion.
2. Knee
Extension moment in early stance (quadriceps) to resist flexion under load.
Flexion moment later in stance (hamstrings and gastrocnemius) to initiate swing.
Net power often shows absorption in early stance (shock absorption) and generation in late
swing.
3. Hip
Extensor moment at initial contact and midstance (gluteus maximus, hamstrings) to
support trunk and decelerate thigh.
Flexor moment in late stance to advance the leg (iliopsoas, rectus femoris).
Power absorption during loading and power generation during push-off.
Influence of Running Speed and Surface
Speed: As running speed increases, both the magnitude of GRFs and joint
moments/powers rise, demanding greater muscular strength and tendon elasticity.
Surface: Softer surfaces (e.g., grass) attenuate GRF peaks but require greater muscular
work for stability; harder surfaces (e.g., track) increase GRF magnitudes but allow more
efficient energy return.
Summary of Part 2
Energy expenditure in running is governed by running economy, elastic energy return, and
biomechanics; efficient runners minimize unnecessary COM movements.
Muscle activation patterns are finely timed to absorb impact, stabilize joints, and generate
propulsion during the stance and swing phases.
Kinetic analysis reveals how GRFs translate into joint moments and powers, highlighting
the demands on ankle plantarflexors, knee extensors, and hip musculature.
Chapter 16: Kinesiology of Running
Part 3 of 3: Abnormal Mechanics, Injury Risks, Footwear, and Clinical Applications
Abnormal Running Mechanics and Injury Risks
Running is a high-repetition, high-impact activity. Even subtle biomechanical abnormalities
can lead to overuse injuries due to the cumulative load placed on musculoskeletal tissues.
Understanding faulty mechanics is key for prevention and rehabilitation.
Common Deviations and Their Implications
1. Overstriding
Defined by foot landing significantly ahead of the body’s center of mass.
Increases braking forces and vertical loading rates.
Often linked with increased risk of shin splints, knee pain, and hip stress injuries.
2. Excessive Pronation
Over-rolling of the foot during stance phase.
Associated with plantar fasciitis, tibial stress syndrome, and medial knee pain.
May indicate weakness in the tibialis posterior or gluteus medius.
3. Contralateral Pelvic Drop
Occurs when the pelvis on the swing leg side drops excessively.
Indicates weak hip abductors on the stance leg.
Linked with iliotibial band syndrome, hip bursitis, and lower back strain.
4. Knee Valgus or “Knock-Knee” Collapse
Often caused by poor control of femoral rotation and adduction.
Common in runners with weak hip external rotators and abductors.
Increases stress on the patellofemoral joint and ACL.
5. Lack of Hip Extension
Reduces stride efficiency and limits gluteal activation.
Can shift excessive load to the lumbar spine, hamstrings, or knee extensors.
6. Asymmetrical Running Patterns
Subtle differences in limb mechanics due to prior injury, leg length discrepancy, or muscle
imbalance.
Increase injury risk due to uneven loading.
Common Running Injuries and Biomechanical Contributors
1. Patellofemoral Pain Syndrome (Runner’s Knee)
Most prevalent running injury.
Related to poor hip control, excessive femoral IR, overstriding.
Pain localized to the anterior knee, worsened by stairs or prolonged sitting.
2. Iliotibial Band Syndrome (ITBS)
Caused by excessive tension or friction along the lateral thigh.
Worsened by downhill running and weak hip abductors.
3. Plantar Fasciitis
Sharp heel pain from repetitive strain of the plantar fascia.
Associated with excessive pronation and tight calf muscles.
4. Medial Tibial Stress Syndrome (Shin Splints)
Pain along the tibia, often from poor shock absorption.
Linked to overpronation and abrupt training increases.
5. Achilles Tendinopathy
Results from overuse or poor calf flexibility/strength.
Aggravated by rapid changes in intensity or poor footwear.
6. Stress Fractures (tibia, femur, metatarsals)
Caused by repetitive impact exceeding bone remodeling capacity.
Contributing factors include poor shock absorption and low bone density.
Influence of Footwear, Orthotics, and Surfaces
Footwear plays a major role in modulating the forces transmitted to the body during
running. The structure, cushioning, and motion-control features all impact biomechanics.
Footwear Considerations
Cushioned Shoes: Reduce GRF peaks but may encourage overstriding.
Minimalist Shoes: Promote forefoot strike and reduce load on the knee but increase stress
on foot and calf.
Motion-Control Shoes: Useful for runners with overpronation by stabilizing the arch and
subtalar joint.
Orthotics
Custom or prefabricated orthoses can help:
Realign foot posture.
Improve load distribution.
Reduce symptoms of plantar fasciitis, ITBS, and Achilles tendinopathy.
Running Surface
Hard Surfaces (asphalt, concrete): Increase impact forces but offer stability.
Soft Surfaces (grass, dirt): Decrease peak impact but may increase muscular demands for
stabilization.
Uneven terrain introduces balance challenges, potentially exacerbating asymmetries or
instabilities.
Clinical and Training Applications
For clinicians, coaches, and athletes, applying kinesiological principles to running helps
optimize performance and reduce injury risk.
Gait Retraining
Uses real-time feedback (audio, visual, tactile) to correct running form.
Common strategies:
Increase cadence (reduce overstriding).
Shorten stride length.
Emphasize midfoot landing.
Encourage upright posture and forward trunk lean.
Strengthening and Flexibility Programs
Key muscle groups:
Gluteus medius/maximus (pelvic control and propulsion).
Calf muscles (shock absorption and push-off).
Core stabilizers (trunk control and posture).
Addressing tightness in hip flexors, hamstrings, and calves can restore stride length and
mechanics.
Recovery and Periodization
Include adequate rest days and vary intensity to allow tissue recovery.
Use cross-training (cycling, swimming) to maintain fitness while offloading joints.
Biomechanical Assessments
Video gait analysis helps identify mechanical faults in real time.
Force plate and EMG evaluations (in lab settings) provide detailed insight into load patterns
and muscle function.
Evolving Trends and Technology
1. Wearable Devices
Measure cadence, foot strike pattern, vertical oscillation, and symmetry.
Help runners and therapists monitor mechanics and adjust in real time.
2. Virtual and Augmented Reality
Used in gait labs and training centers to simulate varied terrains and enhance
neuromuscular adaptation.
3. Artificial Intelligence and Running Apps
Analyze patterns over time to predict injury risk and suggest optimal cadence, mileage, and
recovery.
Summary of Chapter 16 (Part 3)
Abnormal running mechanics such as overstriding, excessive pronation, and poor hip
control are common contributors to running-related injuries.
Proper footwear, strength training, and biomechanical assessment are central to injury
prevention and recovery.
Gait retraining and technological tools are increasingly used to correct inefficient patterns
and monitor performance.
A comprehensive, individualized approach that combines kinematic, kinetic, and muscular
strategies is critical for safe and efficient running.