CHAPTER 1

LIQUID OVERFEED SYSTEMS

Overfeed System Operation ...................................................... 1.1 Controls ..................................................................................... 1.5
Refrigerant Distribution ........................................................... 1.2 Evaporator Design .................................................................... 1.5
Oil in System ............................................................................. 1.3 Refrigerant Charge ................................................................... 1.6
Circulating Rate ........................................................................ 1.4 Start-Up and Operation ............................................................ 1.6
Pump Selection and Line Sizing ................................................................................. 1.7
Installation ............................................................................. 1.5 Low-Pressure Receiver Sizing .................................................. 1.7

O VERFEED systems are those in which excess liquid is forced,

either mechanically or by gas pressure, through organized-
flow evaporators, separated from the vapor, and returned to the
• Refrigerant level controls, level indicators, refrigerant pumps, and
oil drains are generally located in the equipment rooms, which are
under operator surveillance or computer monitoring.
evaporators. • Because of ideal entering suction gas conditions, compressors last
longer. There is less maintenance and fewer breakdowns. The oil
Terminology circulation rate to the evaporators is reduced as a result of the
Low-pressure receiver. Sometimes referred to as an accumula- low compressor discharge superheat and separation at the low-
tor, this vessel acts as the separator for the mixture of vapor and liq- pressure receiver (Scotland 1963).
uid returning from the evaporators. A constant refrigerant level is • Overfeed systems have convenient automatic operation.
usually maintained by conventional control devices. The following are possible disadvantages:
Pumping unit. One or more mechanical pumps or gas-operated
liquid circulators arranged to pump the overfeed liquid to the evap- • In some cases, refrigerant charges are greater than those used in
orators. The pumping unit is located below the low-pressure other systems.
receiver. • Higher refrigerant flow rates to and from evaporators cause the
Wet returns. Connections between the evaporator outlets and liquid feed and wet return lines to be larger in diameter than the
the low-pressure receiver through which the mixture of vapor and high-pressure liquid and suction lines for other systems.
overfeed liquid is drawn. • Piping insulation, which is costly, is generally required on all feed
Liquid feeds. Connections between the pumping unit outlet and and return lines to prevent condensation, frost formation, or heat
the evaporator inlets. gain.
Flow control regulators. Devices used to regulate the overfeed • The installed cost may be greater, particularly for small systems
flow into the evaporators. They may be needle valves, fixed orifices, or those having fewer than three evaporators.
calibrated manual regulating valves, or automatic valves designed • The operation of the pumping unit requires added expenses that
to provide a fixed liquid rate. are offset by the increased efficiency of the overall system.
• The pumping units may require maintenance.
Advantages and Disadvantages • Pumps sometimes have cavitation problems to due low available
The main advantages of liquid overfeed systems are high system net positive suction pressure.
efficiency and reduced operating expenses. These systems have
lower energy cost and fewer operating hours because Generally, the more evaporators used, the more favorable are the
initial costs for liquid overfeed compared to a gravity recirculated or
• The evaporator surface is used efficiently through good refriger- flooded system (Scotland 1970). Liquid overfeed systems compare
ant distribution and completely wetted internal tube surfaces. favorably with thermostatic valve feed systems for the same reason.
• The compressors are protected. Liquid slugs resulting from fluc- For small systems, the initial cost for liquid overfeed may be higher
tuating loads or malfunctioning controls are separated from suc- than for direct expansion.
tion gas in the low-pressure receiver. Ammonia Systems. Easy operation and lower maintenance are
• Low-suction superheats are achieved where the suction lines attractive features for even small ammonia systems. However, for
between the low-pressure receiver and the compressors are short. ammonia systems operating below −18°C evaporating temperature,
This causes a minimum discharge temperature, preventing lubri- some manufacturers do not supply direct-expansion evaporators due
cation breakdown and minimizing condenser fouling. to unsatisfactory refrigerant distribution and control problems.
• With simple controls, evaporators can be hot-gas defrosted with
little disturbance to the system. OVERFEED SYSTEM OPERATION
• Refrigerant feed to evaporators is unaffected by fluctuating ambi-
ent and condensing conditions. The flow control regulators do not Mechanical Pump
need to be adjusted after the initial setting because the overfeed Figure 1 shows a simplified pumped overfeed system in which a
rates are not generally critical. constant liquid level is maintained in a low-pressure receiver. A
• Flash gas resulting from refrigerant throttling losses is removed at mechanical pump circulates liquid through the evaporator(s). The
the low-pressure receiver before entering the evaporators. This two-phase return mixture is separated in the low-pressure receiver.
gas is drawn directly to the compressors and eliminated as a factor The vapor is directed to the compressor(s). The makeup refrigerant
in the design of the system low side. It does not contribute to enters the low-pressure receiver by means of a refrigerant metering
increased pressure drops in the evaporators or overfeed lines. device.
Figure 2 shows a horizontal low-pressure receiver with a mini-
The preparation of this chapter is assigned to TC 10.1, Custom Engineered mum pump pressure, two service valves in place, and a strainer on
Refrigeration Systems. the suction side of the pump. Valves from the low-pressure receiver

Copyright © 2002 ASHRAE 1.1

1.2 2002 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (SI)

Fig. 3 Double Pumper Drum System

Fig. 1 Liquid Overfeed with Mechanical Pump

Fig. 1 Liquid Overfeed with Mechanical Pump Fig. 3 Double Pumper Drum System

Fig. 2 Pump Circulation, Horizontal Separator Fig. 4 Constant-Pressure Liquid Overfeed System

Fig. 2 Pump Circulation, Horizontal Separator

to the pump should be selected to have a minimal pressure drop. The

strainer protects hermetic pumps when oil is miscible with the
refrigerant. It should have a free area twice the transverse cross-
sectional area of the line in which it is installed. With ammonia, use
of a suction strainer should be evaluated. Open drive pumps do not
require strainers. If no strainer is used, a dirt leg should be used to
reduce the risk of solids getting into the pump.
Generally, the minimum pump pressure should be at least double
the net positive suction pressure to avoid cavitation. The liquid
velocity to the pump should not exceed 0.9 m/s. Net positive suction
pressure and flow requirements vary with pump type and design. The
pump manufacturer should be consulted for specific requirements. Fig. 4 Constant-Pressure Liquid Overfeed System
The pump should be evaluated over the full range of operation at low
and high flow conditions. Centrifugal pumps have a “flat curve” and
have difficulty with systems in which discharge pressure fluctuates. inlets, resulting in continuous liquid feed at constant pressure. The
flash gas is drawn into the low-pressure receiver through a receiver
Gas Pump pressure regulator. Excess liquid drains into a liquid dump trap from
the low-pressure receiver. Check valves and a three-way equalizing
Figure 3 shows a basic gas-pumped liquid overfeed system, in valve transfer the liquid into the controlled-pressure receiver during
which the pumping power is supplied by gas at condenser pressure. the dump cycle. Refinements of this system are used for multistage
In this system, a level control maintains the liquid level in the low- systems.
pressure receiver. There are two pumper drums; one is filled by the
low-pressure receiver, while the other is drained as hot gas pushes
liquid from the pumper drum to the evaporator. Pumper drum B
REFRIGERANT DISTRIBUTION
drains when hot gas enters the drum through valve B. To function To prevent underfeeding and excessive overfeeding of refriger-
properly, the pumper drums must be correctly vented so they can fill ants, metering devices regulate the liquid feed to each evaporator
during the fill cycle. and/or evaporator circuit. An automatic regulating device continu-
Another common arrangement is shown in Figure 4. In this sys- ously controls refrigerant feed to the design value. Other devices
tem, the high-pressure liquid is flashed into a controlled-pressure commonly used are hand expansion valves, calibrated regulating
receiver that maintains constant liquid pressure at the evaporator valves, orifices, and distributors.
Liquid Overfeed Systems 1.3

It is time-consuming to adjust hand expansion valves to achieve orifice is 55 kPa, and the coefficient of discharge for the orifice is 0.61.
ideal flow conditions. However, they have been used with some suc- The circulation per circuit is 33.3 mL/s.
cess in many installations prior to the availability of more sophisti- Solution: Orifice diameter may be calculated as follows:
cated controls. One factor to consider is that standard hand expansion
valves are designed to regulate flows caused by the relatively high Q 0.5 ρ 0.25
d Z  ------  --- (1)
pressure differences between condensing and evaporating pressure.  C d  p
In overfeed systems, large differences do not exist, so valves with
larger orifices may be needed to cope with the combination of the where
increased quantity of refrigerant and the relatively small pressure
differences. Caution must be exercised when using larger orifices d = orifice diameter, mm
Q = discharge through orifice, mL/s
because controllability decreases as orifice size increases.
p = pressure drop through orifice, Pa
Calibrated, manually operated regulating valves reduce some of ρ = density of fluid at −35°C
the uncertainties involved in using conventional hand expansion = 683.7 kg/m3
valves. To be effective, the valves should be adjusted to the manu- Cd = coefficient of discharge for orifice
facturer’s recommendations. Because the refrigerant in the liquid
feed lines is above saturation pressure, the lines should not contain 33.3 0.5 683.7 0.25
flash gas. However, liquid flashing can occur if excessive heat gains d Z  ----------  ------------------------ Z 2.47 mm
 0.61  55 × 1000
by the refrigerant and/or high pressure drops build up in the feed
lines. Note: As noted in the text, use a 2.5 mm diameter orifice to avoid
Orifices should be carefully designed and selected; once in- clogging.
stalled they cannot be adjusted. They are generally used only for
top- and horizontal-feed multicircuit evaporators. Foreign matter
and congealed oil globules can cause flow restriction; a minimum OIL IN SYSTEM
orifice of 2.5 mm is recommended. With ammonia, the rate of cir- In spite of reasonably efficient compressor discharge oil separa-
culation may have to be increased beyond that needed for the min- tors, oil finds its way into the system low-pressure sides. In ammo-
imum orifice size because of the small liquid volume normally nia overfeed systems, the bulk of this oil can be drained from the
circulated. Pumps and feed and return lines larger than minimum low-pressure receivers with suitable oil drainage facilities. In low-
may be needed. This does not apply to halocarbons because of the temperature systems, a separate valved and pressure-protected, non-
greater liquid volume circulated as a result of fluid characteristics. insulated oil drain pot can be placed in a warm space at the accumu-
Conventional multiple-outlet distributors with capillary tubes of lator. The oil/ammonia mixture flows into the pot, and the
the type usually paired with thermostatic expansion valves have refrigerant evaporates. This arrangement is shown in Figure 6. At
been used successfully in liquid overfeed systems. Capillary tubes pressures lower than atmospheric, high-pressure vapor must be
may be installed downstream of a distributor with oversized orifices piped into the oil pot to force oil out. Because of the low solubility
to achieve the required pressure reduction and efficient distribution. of oil in liquid ammonia, thick oil globules circulate with the liquid
Existing gravity-flooded evaporators with accumulators can be and can restrict flow through strainers, orifices, and regulators. To
connected to liquid overfeed systems. Changes may be needed maintain high efficiency, oil should be removed from the system by
only for the feed to the accumulator, with suction lines from the regular draining.
accumulator connected to the system wet return lines. An accept- Except at low temperatures, halocarbons are miscible with oil.
able arrangement is shown in Figure 5. Generally, gravity-flooded Therefore, positive oil return to the compressor must be ensured.
evaporators have different circuiting arrangements from overfeed There are many methods, including oil stills using both electric heat
evaporators. In many cases, the circulating rates developed by ther- and heat exchange from high-pressure liquid or vapor. Some
mosiphon action are greater than the circulating rates used in con- arrangements are discussed in Chapter 2. At low temperatures, oil
ventional overfeed systems. skimmers must be used because oil migrates to the top of the low-
pressure receiver.
Example 1. Find the orifice diameter of an ammonia overfeed system with Buildup of excessive oil in evaporators must not be allowed
a refrigeration load per circuit of 4.47 kW and a circulating rate of 7.
because it causes efficiency to decrease rapidly. This is particularly
The evaporating temperature is –35°C, the pressure drop across the
critical in evaporators with high heat transfer rates associated with
Fig. 5 Liquid Overfeed System Connected on Common Sys- low volumes, such as flake ice makers, ice cream freezers, and
tem with Gravity-Flooded Evaporators scraped-surface heat exchangers. Because the refrigerant flow rate
Fig. 6 Oil Drain Pot Connected to Low-Pressure Receiver

Fig. 5 Liquid Overfeed System Connected on Common

System with Gravity-Flooded Evaporators Fig. 6 Oil Drain Pot Connected to Low-Pressure Receiver
1.4 2002 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (SI)

through such evaporators is high, excessive oil can accumulate and and horizontal feed coils may be determined by the minimum
rapidly reduce efficiency. rates from the orifices or other distributors in use.
Figure 7 provides a method for determining the liquid refrigerant
CIRCULATING RATE flow (Niederer 1964). The charts indicate the amount of refrigerant
vaporized in a 1 kW system with circulated operation having no
In a liquid overfeed system, the circulating number or rate is
flash gas in the liquid feed line. The value obtained from the chart
the mass ratio of liquid pumped to amount of vaporized liquid. The
may be multiplied by the desired circulating rate and by the total
amount of liquid vaporized is based on the latent heat for the refrig-
refrigeration to determine total flow.
erant at the evaporator temperature. The overfeed rate is the ratio of
liquid to vapor returning to the low-pressure receiver. When vapor The pressure drop through the flow control regulators is usually
leaves an evaporator at saturated vapor conditions with no excess 10 to 50% of the available feed pressure. The pressure at the outlet
liquid, the circulating rate is 1 and the overfeed rate is 0. With a cir- of the flow regulators must be higher than the vapor pressure at the
culating rate of 4, the overfeed rate at full load is 3; at no load, it is low-pressure receiver by an amount equal to the total pressure
4. Most systems are designed for steady flow conditions. With few drop of the two-phase mixture through the evaporator, any evapo-
exceptions, the load conditions may vary, causing fluctuating tem- rator pressure regulator, and wet return lines. This pressure loss
peratures outside and within the evaporator. Evaporator capacities could be 35 kPa in a typical system. When using recommended
vary considerably; with constant refrigerant flow to the evaporator, liquid feed sizing practices, assuming a single-story building, the
frictional pressure drop from the pump discharge to the evapora-
the overfeed rate fluctuates.
tors is about 70 kPa. Therefore, a pump for 140 to 170 kPa should
For each evaporator, there is an ideal circulating rate for every
be satisfactory in this case, depending on the lengths and sizes of
loading condition that will result in the minimum temperature dif-
feed lines, the quantity and types of fittings, and the vertical lift
ference and the best evaporator efficiency (Lorentzen 1968;
involved.
Lorentzen and Gronnerud 1967). With few exceptions, it is impos-
sible to predict ideal circulating rates or to design a plant for auto-
matic adjustment of the rates to suit fluctuating loads. The optimum PUMP SELECTION AND
INSTALLATION
rate can vary with heat load, pipe diameter, circuit length, and num- INSTALLATION
ber of parallel circuits to achieve the best performance. High circu-
lating rates can cause excessively high pressure drops through Types of Pumps
evaporators and wet return lines. The sizing of these return lines,
discussed in the section on Line Sizing, can have a bearing on the Mechanical pumps, gas pressure pumping systems, and injector
ideal rates. Many evaporator manufacturers specify recommended systems are available for liquid overfeed systems.
circulating rates for their equipment. The rates shown in Table 1 Types of mechanical pump drives include open, semihermetic,
agree with these recommendations. magnetic clutch, and hermetic. Rotor arrangements include positive
Because of distribution considerations, higher circulating rates rotary, centrifugal, and turbine vane. Positive rotary and gear pumps
are common with top feed evaporators. In multicircuit systems, the are generally operated at slow speeds up to 900 rpm. Whatever type
refrigerant distribution must be adjusted to provide the best possible of pump is used, care should be taken to prevent flashing at the
results. Incorrect distribution can cause excessive overfeed in some pump suction and/or within the pump itself.
circuits, while others may be starved. Manual or automatic regulat- Centrifugal pumps are typically used for larger volumes, while
ing valves can be used to control flow for the optimum or design semihermetic pumps are best suited for halocarbons at or below
value. atmospheric refrigerant saturated pressure. Regenerative turbines
Halocarbon densities are about twice that of ammonia. If halocar- are used with relatively high pressure and large swings in discharge
bons R-22, R-134a, and R-502 are circulated at the same rate as ammo- pressure.
nia, the halocarbons require 6 to 8.3 times more energy for pumping to Open pumps are fitted with a wide variety of packing or seals.
the same height than the less dense ammonia. Because this pumping For continuous duty, a mechanical seal with an oil reservoir or a
energy must be added to the system load, halocarbon circulating rates liquid refrigerant supply to cool, wash, and lubricate the seals is
are usually lower than those for ammonia. Ammonia has a relatively commonly used. Experience with the particular application or the
high latent heat of vaporization, so for equal heat removal, much less recommendations of an experienced pump supplier are the best
ammonia mass must be circulated compared to halocarbons. guide for selecting the packing or seal. A magnetic coupling
Although halocarbons circulate at lower rates than ammonia, the between the motor and the pump can be used instead of shaft cou-
wetting process in the evaporators is still efficient because of the liq- pling to eliminate shaft seals. A small immersion electric heater
uid and vapor volume ratios. For example, at –40°C evaporating within the oil reservoir can be used with low-temperature systems
temperature, with constant flow conditions in the wet return connec- to ensure that the oil remains fluid. Motors should have a service
tions, similar ratios of liquid and vapor are experienced with a cir- factor that compensates for drag on the pump if the oil is cold or
culating rate of 4 for ammonia and 2.5 for R-22, R-502, and R-134a. stiff.
With halocarbons, some additional wetting is also experienced Considerations should include ambient temperatures, heat leak-
because of the solubility of the oil in these refrigerants. age, fluctuating system pressures from compressor cycling, internal
When bottom feed is used for multicircuit coils, a minimum bypass of liquid to pump suction, friction heat, motor heat conduc-
feed rate per circuit is not necessary because orifices or other dis- tion, dynamic conditions, cycling of automatic evaporator liquid
tribution devices are not required. The circulating rate for top feed and suction stop valves, action of regulators, gas entrance with liq-
uid, and loss of subcooling by pressure drop. Another factor to con-
Table 1 Recommended Minimum Circulating Rate sider is the time lag caused by the heat capacity of pump suction,
cavitation, and net positive suction pressure factors (Lorentzen
Refrigerant Circulating Rate* 1963).
Ammonia (R-717) The motor and stator of hermetic pumps are separated from the
Downfeed (large-diameter tubes) 6 to 7 refrigerant by a thin nonmagnetic membrane. The metal membrane
Upfeed (small-diameter tubes) 2 to 4 should be strong enough to withstand system design pressures. Nor-
R-22—upfeed 3 mally, the motors are cooled and the bearings lubricated by liquid
R-134a 2 refrigerant bypassed from the pump discharge. It is good practice to
*Circulating rate of 1 equals evaporating rate. use two pumps, one operating and one standby.
Liquid Overfeed Systems 1.5

Fig. 7 Charts for Determining Rate of Refrigerant Feed (No Flash Gas)

Fig. 7 Charts for Determining Rate of Refrigerant Feed (No Flash Gas)

Installing and Connecting Mechanical Pumps CONTROLS

Because of the sensitive suction conditions of mechanical pumps The liquid level in the low-pressure receiver can be controlled
operating on overfeed systems, the manufacturer’s application and by conventional devices such as low-pressure float valves, com-
installation specifications must be followed closely. Suction con- binations of float switch and solenoid valve with manual regula-
nections should be as short as possible, without restrictions, valves, tor, thermostatic level controls, electronic level sensors, or other
or elbows. Angle or full-flow ball valves should be used. Using proven automatic devices. High-level float switches are useful in
valves with horizontal valve spindles eliminates possible traps. Gas stopping compressors and/or operating alarms; they are mandatory
binding is more likely with high evaporating pressures. in some areas. Solenoid valves should be installed on liquid lines
Installing discharge check valves prevents backflow. Relief valves (minimum sized) feeding low-pressure receivers so that positive
should be used, particularly for positive displacement pumps. Strainers shutoff is automatically achieved with system shutdown. This
are not usually installed in ammonia pump suction lines because they prevents excessive refrigerant from collecting in low-pressure
plug with oil. Strainers, although a poor substitute for a clean installa- receivers, which can cause carryover at start-up.
tion, protect halocarbon pumps from damage by dirt or pipe scale. To prevent pumps from operating without liquid, low-level float
Pump suction connections to liquid legs (vertical drop legs from switches can be fitted on liquid legs. An alternative device, a differ-
low-pressure receivers) should be made above the bottom of the legs ential pressure switch connected across pump discharge and suction
to allow collection space for solids and sludge. Vortex eliminators connections, causes the pump to stop without interrupting liquid
should be considered, particularly when submersion of the suction flow. Cavitation can also cause this control to operate. When hand
inlet is insufficient to prevent the intake of gas bubbles. Lorentzen expansion valves are used to control the circulation rate to evapora-
(1963, 1965) gives more complete information. tors, the orifice should be sized for operation between system high
Sizing the pump suction line is important. The general velocity and low pressures. Occasionally, with reduced inlet pressure condi-
should be about 0.9 m/s. Small lines cause restrictions; oversized tions, these valves can starve the circuit. Calibrated, manually
lines can cause bubble formation during evaporator temperature adjusted regulators are available to meter the flow according to the
decrease because of the heat capacity of the liquid and piping. Over- design conditions. An automatic flow-regulating valve specifically
sized lines also impose increased heat gain from the ambient spaces. for overfeed systems is available.
Oil heaters for the seal lubrication system keep the oil fluid, partic- Liquid and suction solenoid valves must be selected for refriger-
ularly during operation below −18°C. Thermally insulating all cold ant flow rates by mass or volume, not by refrigeration ratings from
surfaces of pumps, lines, and receivers increases efficiency. capacity tables. Evaporator pressure regulators should be sized
1.6 2002 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (SI)

according to the manufacturer’s ratings for overfeed systems. The • Relative locations of evaporators and low-pressure receivers are
manufacturer should be notified that valves being ordered are for less important
overfeed application because slight modifications may be required. • System design and layout are simpler
When evaporator pressure regulators are used on overfeed systems
The top-feed system is limited by the relative location of compo-
for controlling air defrosting of cooling units (particularly when fed
nents. Because this system sometimes requires more refrigerant cir-
with very low temperature liquid), the refrigerant heat gain may be
culation than bottom-feed systems, it has greater pumping load,
achieved by sensible effect, not by latent effect. In such cases, other
possibly larger feed and return lines, and increased line pressure
defrosting methods should be investigated. The possibility of con-
drop penalties. In bottom-feed evaporators, multiple headers with
necting the units directly to high-pressure liquid should be consid-
individual inlets and outlets can be installed to reduce static pressure
ered, especially if the loads are minor.
penalties. For high lift of return overfeed lines from the evaporators,
When a check valve and a solenoid valve are paired on an over-
dual suction risers eliminate static pressure penalties (Miller 1974,
feed system liquid line, the check valve should be downstream from
1979).
the solenoid valve. When the solenoid valve is closed, dangerous
Distribution must be considered when a vertical refrigerant feed
hydraulic pressure can build up from the expansion of the trapped
is used because of the static pressure variations in the feed and
liquid as it is heated. When evaporator pressure regulators are used,
return header circuits. For example, for equal circuit loadings in a
the pressure of the entering liquid should be high enough to cause
horizontal-airflow unit cooler, use of gradually smaller orifices for
flow into the evaporator.
the bottom-feed circuits than for the upper circuits can compensate
Multicircuit systems must have a bypass relief valve in the pump
for pressure differences.
discharge. The relief valve’s pressure should be set considering the
When the top-feed free-draining arrangement is used for air-
back pressure on the valve from the low-pressure receiver. For exam-
cooling units, liquid solenoid control valves can be used during the
ple, if the low-pressure receiver is set at 300 kPa and the maximum
defrost cycle. This applies in particular to air, water, or electric
discharge pressure from the pump is 900 kPa, the relief valve should
defrost units. Any liquid remaining in the coils rapidly evaporates or
be set at 600 kPa. When some of the circuits are closed, the excess
drains to the low-pressure receiver. Defrost is faster than in bottom-
liquid is bypassed into the low-pressure receiver rather than forced
feed evaporators.
through the evaporators still in operation. This prevents higher evap-
orating temperatures from pressurizing evaporators and reducing
capacities of operating units. Where low-temperature liquid feeds REFRIGERANT CHARGE
can be isolated manually or automatically, relief valves can be Overfeed systems need more refrigerant than dry expansion
installed to prevent damage from excessive hydraulic pressure. systems. Top-feed arrangements have smaller charges than bottom-
feed systems. The amount of charge depends on the evaporator
EVAPORATOR DESIGN volume, the circulating rate, the sizes of flow and return lines, the
operating temperature differences, and the heat transfer coeffi-
Considerations cients. Generally, top-feed evaporators operate with the refrigerant
There is an ideal refrigerant feed and flow system for each charge occupying about 25 to 40% of the evaporator volume. The
evaporator design and arrangement. An evaporator designed for refrigerant charge for the bottom-feed arrangement occupies about
gravity-flooded operation cannot always be converted to an over- 60 to 75% of the evaporator volume with corresponding variations
feed arrangement, and vice versa, nor can systems always be in the wet returns. Under certain no-load conditions in up-feed
designed to circulate the optimum flow rate. When top feed is evaporators, the charge may occupy 100% of the evaporator vol-
used to ensure good distribution, a minimum quantity per circuit ume. In this case, the liquid surge volume from full-load to no-load
must be circulated, generally about 30 mL/s. Distribution in bot- condition must be considered in sizing the low-pressure receiver
tom-feed evaporators is less critical than in top or horizontal feed (Miller 1971, 1974).
because each circuit fills with liquid to equal the pressure loss in Evaporators with high heat transfer rates, such as flake ice mak-
other parallel circuits. ers and scraped-surface heat exchangers, have small charges
Circuit length in evaporators is determined by allowable pressure because of small evaporator volumes. The amount of refrigerant in
drop, load per circuit, tubing diameter, overfeed rate, type of refrig- the low side has a major effect on the size of the low-pressure
erant, and heat transfer coefficients. The most efficient circuiting is receiver, especially in horizontal vessels. The cross-sectional area
determined in most cases through laboratory tests conducted by the for vapor flow in horizontal vessels is reduced with increasing liquid
evaporator manufacturers. Their recommendations should be fol- level. It is important to ascertain the evaporator refrigerant charge
lowed when designing systems. with fluctuating loads for correct vessel design, particularly for a
low-pressure receiver that does not have a constant level control but
Top Feed Versus Bottom Feed is fed through a high-pressure control.
System design must determine whether evaporators are to be top
fed or bottom fed, although both feed types can be installed in a sin- START-UP AND OPERATION
gle system. Each feed type has advantages; no best arrangement is
common to all systems. All control devices should be checked before start-up. If
Advantages of top feed include mechanical pumps are used, the direction of operation must be cor-
rect. System evacuation and charging procedures are similar to
• Smaller refrigerant charge those for other systems. The system must be operating under normal
• Possibly smaller low-pressure receiver conditions to determine the total required refrigerant charge. Liquid
• Possible absence of static pressure penalty height is established by liquid level indicators in the low-pressure
• Better oil return receivers.
• Quicker, simpler defrost arrangements Calibrated, manually operated regulators should be set for the
design conditions and adjusted for better performance when neces-
For halocarbon systems with greater fluid densities, the refrigerant
sary. When hand expansion valves are used, the system should be
charge, oil return, and static pressure are very important.
started by opening the valves about one-quarter to one-half turn.
Bottom feed is advantageous in that
When balancing is necessary, the regulators should be cut back on
• Distribution considerations are less critical those circuits not starved of liquid to force the liquid through the
Liquid Overfeed Systems 1.7

underfed circuits. The outlet temperature of the return line from increases with reduced vapor flow and increases pressure loss
each evaporator should be the same as the saturation temperature of because of gravity and two-phase pressure drop.
the main return line, allowing for pressure drops. Starved circuits • Use double risers with halocarbons to maintain velocity at partial
are indicated by temperatures higher than those for adequately fed loads and to reduce liquid static pressure loss (Miller 1979).
circuits. Excessive feed to a circuit increases the evaporator temper- • Add the equivalent of a 100% liquid static height penalty to the
ature because of excessive pressure drop. pressure drop allowance to compensate for liquid holdup in
The relief bypass from the liquid line to the low-pressure receiver ammonia systems that have unavoidable vertical risers.
should be adjusted and checked to ensure that it is functioning. Dur- • As alternatives in severe cases, provide traps and a means of
ing operation, the pump manufacturer’s recommendations regard- pumping liquids, or use dual-pipe risers.
ing lubrication and maintenance should be followed. Regular oil • Install low pressure drop valves so the stems are horizontal or
draining procedures should be established for ammonia systems; a nearly so (Chisolm 1971).
comparison should be made between the quantities of oil added to
and drained from each system. This comparison determines whether LOW-PRESSURE RECEIVER SIZING
oil is accumulating in systems. Oil should not be drained in halocar-
bon systems. Due to the miscibility of oil with halocarbons at high Low-pressure receivers are also called liquid separators, suction
temperatures, it may be necessary to add oil to the system until an traps, accumulators, liquid-vapor separators, flash coolers, gas and
operating balance is achieved (Stoecker 1960; Soling 1971). liquid coolers, surge drums, knock-out drums, slop tanks, or low-
side pressure vessels, depending on their function and the prefer-
Operating Costs and Efficiency ence of the user.
Operating costs for overfeed systems are generally lower than for The sizing of low-pressure receivers is determined by the
other systems. Operating costs may not be lower in all cases due to required liquid holdup volume and the allowable gas velocity. The
the variety of inefficiencies that exist from system to system and volume must accommodate the fluctuations of liquid in the evapo-
from plant to plant. However, in cases where existing dry expansion rators and overfeed return lines as a result of load changes and
plants were converted to liquid overfeed, the operating hours, defrost periods. It must also handle the swelling and foaming of the
power, and maintenance costs were reduced. The efficiency of the liquid charge in the receiver, which is caused by boiling during tem-
early gas pump systems has been improved by using high-side pres- perature increase or pressure reduction. At the same time, a liquid
sure to circulate the overfeed liquid. This type of system is indicated seal must be maintained on the supply line for continuous circula-
in the controlled pressure system shown in Figure 4. Refinements of tion devices. A separating space must be provided for gas velocity
the double pumper drum arrangement (shown in Figure 3) have also low enough to cause a minimum entrainment of liquid drops into the
been developed. suction outlet. Space limitations and design requirements result in a
Gas-pumped systems, which use refrigerant gas to pump liquid wide variety of configurations (Miller 1971; Stoecker 1960;
to the evaporators or to the controlled-pressure receiver, require Lorentzen 1966; Niemeyer 1961; Scheiman 1963, 1964; Sonders
additional compressor volume, from which no useful refrigeration and Brown 1934; Younger 1955).
is obtained. These systems consume 4 to 10% or more of the com- In selecting a gas-and-liquid separator, adequate volume for the
pressor power to maintain the refrigerant flow. liquid supply and a vapor space above the minimum liquid height
If the condensing pressure is reduced as much as 70 kPa, the for liquid surge must be provided. This requires an analysis of oper-
compressor power per unit of refrigeration drops by about 7%. ating load variations. This, in turn, determines the maximum oper-
Where outdoor dry- and wet-bulb conditions allow, a mechanical ating liquid level. Figures 8 and 9 identify these levels and the
pump can be used to pump the gas with no effect on evaporator per- important parameters of vertical and horizontal gravity separators.
formance. Gas-operated systems must, however, maintain the con- Vertical separators maintain the same separating area with level
densing pressure within a much smaller range to pump the liquid variations, while separating areas in horizontal separators change
and maintain the required overfeed rate. with level variations. Horizontal separators should have inlets and
outlets separated horizontally by at least the vertical separating dis-
LINE SIZING tance. A useful arrangement in horizontal separators distributes the
inlet flow into two or more connections to reduce turbulence and
The liquid feed line to the evaporator and the wet return line to horizontal velocity without reducing the residence time of the gas
the low-pressure receiver cannot be sized by the method described flow within the shell (Miller 1971).
in Chapter 35 of the 2001 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals. In horizontal separators, as the horizontal separating distance is
Figure 7 can be used to size liquid feed lines. The circulating rate increased beyond the vertical separating distance, the residence
from Table 1 is multiplied by the evaporating rate. For example, an time of the vapor passing through is increased so that higher veloc-
evaporator with a circulating rate of 4 that forms vapor at a rate of ities than allowed in vertical separators can be tolerated. As the sep-
50 g/s needs a feed line sized for 4 × 50 = 200 g/s. arating distance is reduced, the amount of liquid entrainment from
Alternative methods that may be used to design wet returns gravity separators increases. Table 2 shows the gravity separation
include the following:
Fig. 8 Basic Horizontal Gas-and-Liquid Separator
• Use one pipe size larger than calculated for vapor flow alone.
• Use a velocity selected for dry expansion reduced by the factor
1 ⁄ Circulating Rate . This method suggests that the wet-return
velocity for a circulating rate of 4 is 1 ⁄ 4 = 0.5, or half that of
the acceptable dry-vapor velocity.
• Use the design method described by Chaddock et al. (1972). The
report includes tables of flow capacities at 0.036 K drop per metre
of horizontal lines for R-717 (ammonia), R-12, R-22, and R-502.
When sizing refrigerant lines, the following design precautions
should be taken:
• Carefully size overfeed return lines with vertical risers because
more liquid is held in risers than in horizontal pipe. This holdup Fig. 8 Basic Horizontal Gas-and-Liquid Separator
1.8 2002 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (SI)

Fig. 9 Basic Vertical Gravity Gas and Table 2 Maximum Effective Separation Velocities for R-717,
Liquid Separator R-22, R-12, and R-502, with Steady Flow Conditions

Vertical
Temp., Separation Maximum Steady Flow Velocity, m/s
°C Distance, mm R-717 R-22 R-12 R-502
+10 250 0.15 0.07 0.08 0.06
610 0.64 0.31 0.36 0.25
910 0.71 0.39 0.43 0.32
−7 250 0.21 0.10 0.11 0.08
610 0.87 0.44 0.49 0.35
910 0.99 0.52 0.58 0.42
−23 250 0.31 0.14 0.16 0.11
610 1.29 0.61 0.69 0.49
910 1.43 0.72 0.81 0.59
−40 250 0.48 0.21 0.24 0.17
610 1.99 0.88 1.01 0.71
910 2.17 1.04 1.17 0.84
−57 250 0.80 0.33 0.37 0.25
610 3.30 1.36 1.54 1.08
910 3.54 1.57 1.78 1.25
Source: Adapted from Miller (1971).

separators may be preferable where vertical height is critical and/or

where large volume space for liquid is required. The procedures for
designing vertical and horizontal separators are different.
A vertical gas-and-liquid separator is shown in Figure 9. The end
C1 = inlet pipe diameter, OD, mm of the inlet pipe C1 is capped so that flow dispersion is directed
C2 = outlet pipe diameter, OD, mm downward toward the liquid level. The suggested opening is four
SH = slot height = C1/4, mm times the transverse internal area of the pipe. The height H1 with a
SL = slot length = 3C1, mm 120° dispersion of the flow reaches to approximately 70% of the
H1 = height of C1 above maximum liquid level, mm; internal diameter of the shell.
for pseudo D = 600 mm An alternative inlet pipe with a downturned elbow or mitered
H1 = 51Q ⁄ V , mm (at D = 600 mm) bend can be used. However, the jet effect of entering fluid must be
Q = maximum gas flow in the shell at maximum sustained considered to avoid undue splashing. The outlet of the pipe must be
operating conditions, L/s a minimum distance of IDS/5 above the maximum liquid level in the
V = separation velocity, m/s shell. H2 is measured from the outlet to the inside top of the shell. It
H2 = location of C1 from inside top of shell, mm equals D + 0.5 times the depth of the curved portion of the head.
H2 = D + 0.5 × depth of curved portion of head or 50 mm
For the alternative location of C2, determine IDS from the fol-
lowing equation:
D = vertical separation distance, mm actual
H3 = location of gas exit point for alternate location of C2
1270Q
measured from inside top of shell, mm
IDS Z ---------------- H C 22 (2)
H3 = 0.5 × depth of curved portion of shell or 50 mm, V
whichever is greater
IDS = internal diameter of shell = 1270Q ⁄ V , mm The maximum liquid height in the separator is a function of the
type of system in which the separator is being used. In some systems
Fig. 9 Basic Vertical Gravity Gas and this can be estimated, but in others, previous experience is the only
Liquid Separator guide for selecting the proper liquid height. The accumulated liquid
must be returned to the system by a suitable means at a rate compa-
rable to the rate at which it is being collected.
velocities. For surging loads or pulsating flow associated with large With a horizontal separator, the vertical separation distance used
step changes in capacity, the maximum steady-flow velocity should is an average value. The top part of the horizontal shell restricts the
be reduced to a value achieved by a suitable multiplier such as 0.75. gas flow so that the maximum vertical separation distance cannot be
The gas-and-liquid separator may be designed with baffles or used. If Ht represents the maximum vertical distance from the liquid
eliminators to separate liquid from the suction gas returning from level to the inside top of the shell, the average separation distance as
the top of the shell to the compressor. More often, sufficient separa- a fraction of IDS is as follows:
tion space is allowed above the liquid level for this purpose. Such a
design is usually of the vertical type, with a separation height above Ht /IDS D/IDS Ht /IDS D/IDS
the liquid level of from 600 to 900 mm. The shell diameter is sized 0.1 0.068 0.6 0.492
to keep the suction gas velocity at a value low enough to allow the 0.2 0.140 0.7 0.592
liquid droplets to separate and not be entrained with the returning 0.3 0.215 0.8 0.693
suction gas off the top of the shell. 0.4 0.298 0.9 0.793
Although separators are made with length-to-diameter (L/D) 0.5 0.392 1.0 0.893
ratios of 1/1 increasing to 10/1, the least expensive separators usu-
ally have L/D ratios between 3/1 and 5/1. Vertical separators are nor- The suction connection(s) for refrigerant gas leaving the hori-
mally used for systems with reciprocating compressors. Horizontal zontal shell must be located at or above the location established by
Liquid Overfeed Systems 1.9

the average distance for separation. The maximum cross-flow Chisholm, D. 1971. Prediction of pressure drop at pipe fittings during two-
velocity of gas establishes the residence time for the gas and any phase flow. Proceedings I.I.R., Washington, D.C.
entrained liquid droplets in the shell. The most effective removal of Lorentzen, G. 1963. Conditions of cavitation in liquid pumps for refrigerant
entrainment occurs when the residence time is at a maximum prac- circulation. Progress Refrigeration Science Technology I:497.
Lorentzen, G. 1965. How to design piping for liquid recirculation. Heating,
tical value. Regardless of the number of gas outlet connections for
Piping & Air Conditioning (June):139.
uniform distribution of gas flow, the cross-sectional area of the gas Lorentzen, G. 1966. On the dimensioning of liquid separators for refrigera-
space is tion systems. Kältetechnik 18:89.
Lorentzen, G. 1968. Evaporator design and liquid feed regulation. Journal
2000DQ
A x Z --------------------- (3) of Refrigeration (November-December):160.
VL Lorentzen, G. and R. Gronnerud. 1967. On the design of recirculation type
evaporators. Kulde 21(4):55.
where Miller, D.K. 1971. Recent methods for sizing liquid overfeed piping and
Ax = minimum transverse net cross-sectional area or gas space, mm2 suction accumulator-receivers. Proceedings I.I.R., Washington, D.C.
D = average vertical separation distance, mm Miller D.K. 1974. Refrigeration problems of a VCM carrying tanker.
Q = total quantity of gas leaving vessel, L/s ASHRAE Journal 11.
L = inside length of shell, mm Miller, D.K. 1979. Sizing dual suction risers in liquid overfeed refrigeration
V = separation velocity for separation distance used, m/s systems. Chemical Engineering 9.
Niederer, D.H. 1964. Liquid recirculation systems—What rate of feed is rec-
For nonuniform distribution of gas flow in the horizontal shell, ommended. The Air Conditioning & Refrigeration Business (December).
determine the minimum horizontal distance for gas flow from point Niemeyer, E.R. 1961. Check these points when designing knockout drums.
of entry to point of exit as follows: Hydrocarbon Processing and Petroleum Refiner (June).
Scheiman, A.D. 1963. Size vapor-liquid separators quicker by nomograph.
Hydrocarbon Processing and Petroleum Refiner (October).
1000QD
RTL Z --------------------- (4) Scheiman, A.D. 1964. Horizontal vapor-liquid separators. Hydrocarbon
VA x Processing and Petroleum Refiner (May).
Scotland, W.B. 1963. Discharge temperature considerations with multicyl-
where inder ammonia compressors. Modern Refrigeration (February).
RTL = residence time length, mm Scotland, W.B. 1970. Advantages, disadvantages and economics of liquid
Q = maximum flow for that portion of the shell, L/s overfeed systems. ASHRAE Symposium Bulletin KC-70-3, Liquid over-
feed systems.
All connections must be sized for the flow rates and pressure drops Soling, S.P. 1971. Oil recovery from low temperature pump recirculating
permissible and must be positioned to minimize liquid splashing. hydrocarbon systems. ASHRAE Symposium Bulletin PH-71-2, Effect of
Internal baffles or mist eliminators can reduce the diameter of ves- oil on the refrigeration system.
sels; however, test correlations are necessary for a given configura- Sonders, M. and G.G. Brown. 1934. Design of fractionating columns, en-
tion and placement of these devices. trainment and capacity. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry (January).
Stoecker, W.F. 1960. How to design and operate flooded evaporators for
An alternative formula for determining separation velocities that cooling air and liquids. Heating, Piping & Air Conditioning (December).
can be applied to separators is Younger, A.H. 1955. How to size future process vessels. Chemical Engi-
neering (May).
ρl Ó ρv
v Z k ---------------- (5)
ρv BIBLIOGRAPHY
where Chaddock, J.B. 1976. Two-phase pressure drop in refrigerant liquid overfeed
systems—Design tables. ASHRAE Transactions 82(2):107-133.
v = velocity of vapor, m/s
Chaddock, J.B., H. Lau, and E. Skuchas. 1976. Two-phase pressure drop in
ρl = density of liquid, kg/m3
refrigerant liquid overfeed systems—Experimental measurements.
ρv = density of vapor, kg/m3
ASHRAE Transactions 82(2):134-150.
k = factor based on experience without regard to vertical separation Geltz, R.W. 1967. Pump overfeed evaporator refrigeration systems. Air Con-
distance and surface tension for gravity separators ditioning, Heating & Refrigeration News (January 30, February 6, March
6, March 13, March 20, March 27).
In gravity liquid/vapor separators that must separate heavy Lorentzen, G. and A.O. Baglo. 1969. An investigation of a gas pump recir-
entrainment from vapors, use a k of 0.03. This gives velocities culation system. Proceedings of the Xth International Congress of
equivalent to those used for 300 to 350 mm vertical separation dis- Refrigeration, p. 215. International Institute of Refrigeration, Paris.
tance for R-717 and 350 to 400 mm vertical separation distance for Richards, W.V. 1959. Liquid ammonia recirculation systems. Industrial
halocarbons. In knockout drums that separate light entrainment, use Refrigeration (June):139.
a k of 0.06. This gives velocities equivalent to those used for Richards, W.V. 1970. Pumps and piping in liquid overfeed systems.
900 mm vertical separation distance for R-717 and for halocarbons. ASHRAE Symposium Bulletin KC-70-3, Liquid overfeed systems.
Slipcevic, B. 1964. The calculation of the refrigerant charge in refrigerating
systems with circulation pumps. Kältetechnik 4:111.
REFERENCES Thompson, R.B. 1970. Control of evaporators in liquid overfeed systems.
Chaddock, J.B., D.P. Werner, and C.G. Papachristou. 1972. Pressure drop in ASHRAE Symposium Bulletin KC-70-3, Liquid overfeed systems.
the suction lines of refrigerant circulation systems. ASHRAE Trans- Watkins, J.E. 1956. Improving refrigeration systems by applying established
actions 78(2):114-123. principles. Industrial Refrigeration (June).