International Journal of Herbal Medicine 2020; 8(6): 36-49

E-ISSN: 2321-2187
P-ISSN: 2394-0514
[Link] Botany, phytochemistry and antimicrobial activity of
IJHM 2020; 8(6): 36-49
Received: 20-09-2020 ginger (Zingiber officinale): A review
Accepted: 27-10-2020

Mohd Aleem Mohd Aleem, Md Imran Khan, Fayyaz Ahmad Shakshaz, Nusra Akbari
Department of Pharmacology,
National Institute of Unani and Daraksha Anwar
Medicine, Kottigepalya Magadi
Main Road, Bangalore, DOI: [Link]
Karnataka, India
Abstract
Md Imran Khan
Antibiotic resistance in every corner of the planet is growing to dangerously high levels. New
Department of Pharmacology,
mechanisms of resistance are emerging and spreading globally which threatens our ability to treat
National Institute of Unani
common infectious diseases. Many scientists documented some plants having antimicrobial properties.
Medicine, Kottigepalya Magadi
Main Road, Bangalore,
Zingiber officinale Roscoe (ZO), the most recognised member of Zingiber, is one of them. This review
Karnataka, India aims to validate the antimicrobial activity of ginger. The information and data on ZO were collated from
various resources like ethnobotanical textbooks, Pub Med, Google Scholar, Science Direct, Web of
Fayyaz Ahmad Shakshaz Science, and Scopus. ZO has many medicinal, nutritional and ethnomedical values and is commonly used
Department of Pharmacology, as a spice, flavouring agent and herbal remedy worldwide. In addition to giving ginger its pungent aroma,
National Institute of Unani volatile oil gingerol and other pungent principles are the most medically potent since they inhibit the
Medicine, Kottigepalya Magadi production of prostaglandin and leukotriene, which are chemicals that affect blood flow and
Main Road, Bangalore, inflammation. Traditionally, it has been used as an herbal remedy for centuries in Ayurvedic, Tibb-
Karnataka, India Unani, Chinese, Islamic, Africans, the Caribbean and many other medicinal systems to cure a variety of
diseases like throat infections, asthma, inflammation, dyspepsia, loss of appetite, palpitation, constipation
Nusra Akbari and indigestion, colds, arthritis, nausea, hypertension, migraines, and many more. It has a high proportion
Department of Pharmacology, of α-Zingiberene, β-sesquiphellandrene, (E,E)- α-farnesene, geranial and ar-curcumene. The ZO extracts,
National Institute of Unani essential oil and chemical constituents exhibited antimicrobial, anticonvulsant, analgesic, anti-
Medicine, Kottigepalya Magadi inflammatory, antiulcer, immunomodulatory, and other beneficial activities. The research suggests that
Main Road, Bangalore, there are marked antimicrobial activities in the ginger that could be beneficial and applied in various
Karnataka, India research areas, such as the pharmaceutical and food industries. To understand the molecular mechanisms
by which these effects are exerted, more research may be required.
Daraksha Anwar
Department of Pharmacology, Keywords: Ginger, Zingiber officinale, antimicrobial, terpenes, zingiberene
National Institute of Unani
Medicine, Kottigepalya Magadi 1. Introduction
Main Road, Bangalore,
Karnataka, India
In 1911, Salvarsan and its derivative neoarsphenamine were used against syphilis as the first
antimicrobial drugs successfully used against life-threatening infectious diseases. This
breakthrough, which transformed the definition of drug therapy, was named the “magic
bullet,” and the word “chemotherapy” was introduced [1]. After the Golden Age revolution,
when virtually all necessary antibiotics were discovered, and the main chemotherapy problems
were solved in the 1960s, history is now repeating itself. These exciting compounds are at risk
of losing their potency due to increased microbial resistance [2]. Antibiotic resistance in every
corner of the planet is growing to dangerously high levels. New mechanisms of resistance are
emerging and spreading globally, threatening our ability to treat common infectious diseases.
As antibiotics become less successful, a rising list of infections such as pneumonia,
tuberculosis, blood poisoning, gonorrhoea, and foodborne diseases are becoming more
complicated and even impossible to treat [3, 4]. Consequently, there is an urgent need to find an
alternative to chemotherapy drugs, especially those of plant origin, which are readily available
and have substantially fewer side effects in treating diseases. The use of higher plants and their
extracts in many parts of the world has long been practiced to treat infectious diseases [5, 6].
Since the late 19th century, scientific studies have reported the antimicrobial existence of
individual spices, herbs, and their components. Approximately 80 per cent of the world’s
population currently depends on botanical preparations as medicines to meet their health
needs. Fortunately, it is not clear that even long-term use of these substances would cause any
Corresponding Author: side effects. Since ancient times they have been widely used in many countries of Asia and
Mohd Aleem
Department of Pharmacology,
Africa. However, in recent years, the use of spices/herbs in developing countries has also
National Institute of Unani steadily increased because of their beneficial effects [7, 8].
Medicine, Kottigepalya Magadi Many scientists documented some plants having antimicrobial properties. Zingiber officinale is
Main Road, Bangalore, one of them [9]. It has many medicinal, nutritional, and ethnomedical values and is commonly
Karnataka, India used as a spice, flavouring agent, and herbal remedy worldwide [10].
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International Journal of Herbal Medicine [Link]

In addition to giving ginger its pungent aroma, volatile oil Zingiber. It is a tropical plant that grows well in hot and
(gingerol) and other pungent principles are the most medically humid climates. There are three known ginger types: giant
potent [9]. The characteristic odour and taste of ginger are ginger or white ginger (Zingiber officinale var. Roscoe), small
caused by a mixture of non-volatile pungent compounds such white ginger, (Zingiber officinale var. Amarum), and red
as zingerone, shogaols, and gingerols [11]. Ginger rhizome is ginger (Zingiber officinale var. Rubrum). Zingiber officinale
one of the world’s best-known spices and has been used for Roscoe is one of the most commonly used herbs in Asia, has
its health benefits in complementary medicine dates back been empirically used to treat various disorders [16].
2,500 years [12]. It is cultivated in China, Nepal, India, It is a perennial, herbaceous plant that grows up to a height of
Bangladesh, United States, Taiwan, Jamaica, Nigeria, and about 100 cm. The leaves develop from the branched rhizome
Indonesia. The principal producers and exporters are India [11]
. Leaves are simple, alternate, distichous narrow oblong-
and China. It has been used in Ayurvedic, Tibb-Unani, lanceolate, 2-3 cm broad with sheathing bases, the blade
Chinese, Islamic, Africans, the Caribbean, and many other gradually tapering to point. The inflorescence is solitary,
medicinal systems to cure a variety of diseases like throat lateral radical pedunculate oblong cylindrical spikes. Flowers
infections, asthma, inflammation, palpitation, constipation, are rare, which resemble the orchids, consisting of several
indigestion, arthritis, hypertension, migraines, and many more overlapping scales on an elongated stalk. Each flower has
[10, 13, 14]
. Ginger is a food spice that also has been accepted by three yellowish-orange petals with an additional purplish, lip-
the American Diabetic Association as a nutraceutical. like structure. Rhizomes are aromatic, thick lobed, pale
Nutraceutics are functional foods that provide essential health yellowish. The herb develops several lateral shoots in clumps,
benefits, including disease prevention and treatment [15]. which begin to dry when the plant matures [11, 13].
In recent decades, ZO has been extensively investigated by
advanced scientific techniques for medicinal properties, and 5. Chemical constituent
many bioactive compounds have been isolated from various The chemical compounds found in ginger rhizome was
parts of the plant [16]. It has a high proportion of α- identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, gas
Zingiberene, β-sesquiphellandrene, (E,E)- α-farnesene, chromatography with flame ionisation detection, high-
geranial, and ar-curcumene [15]. Its extracts and active performance liquid chromatography, and liquid
compound exhibited antimicrobial, anticonvulsant, analgesic, chromatography-mass spectrometry. Gas chromatography
anti-inflammatory, antiulcer, gastric antisecretory, helps detect volatile compounds with low molecular weight,
antidiabetic, nephroprotective, hepatoprotective, antitumor, whereas liquid chromatography has distinguished polar
anticancer, antispasmodic, antithrombotic, compounds [22]. The powdered ginger sample’s nutritional
hypocholesterolemic, antiallergic, antiserotonergic, composition consists of carbohydrates, protein, fat, dietary
anticholinergic, antioxidant, larvicidal, immunomodulatory fibre, iron, calcium, vitamin C, and carotene [23]. The main
activities and other beneficial activities [16, 17]. Also, gingerol components of ginger rhizome are essential oils, terpenes
and its derivatives are recognised as promising potential (zingiberene, beta-bisabolene, alpha-farnesene, beta-
cancer-preventive and anticancer agents [18]. sesquiphellandrene, alpha-curcumene) Table 1, phenol
compounds (gingerol, shogaol, paradols etc.) Table 2 and
2. Material and methods flavonoid compounds (Luteolin, rutin etc.) Table 3 [16, 23].
A systematic ginger-related literature quest was carried out to Flavonoids and phenolic compounds are the most common
collect all relevant information on common uses, secondary metabolites in plants and are found in food and
phytochemicals, and pharmacological activities. Publicly nutraceutical products [16].
available databases and primary sources, including PubMed, Ginger contains essential oils and oleoresins, which create a
SciFinder, Web of Science, Science Direct, PhD dissertations, robust, sour, and pungent flavour [22]. The most important
have been scanned. A large number of literature articles compounds responsible for ginger’s medicinal activities are
published from 2001 to 2019 were reviewed. Searching for classified into non-volatile and volatile compounds [11, 16]. The
regarding the information on the ginger was carried out by three main groups of compounds present in volatile oils were
using Latin names, Zingiber officinale Roscoe, and vernacular monoterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids, and aldehydes responsible
names as Zanjabil, Ginger, and Sonth. The extracted data for ginger’s sensory characteristics [22, 24]. The sesquiterpene
included isolated compounds and antimicrobial activity. The derivatives (-)- zingiberene, (+)-curcumene, (-)-β-
name of species has been validated using ‘The Plant List’ sesquiphelandrene, and β-bisabolene are responsible for the
([Link]). All chemical structures images were aroma [16]. Camphene has a terpeney camphoraceous taste,
taken from PubChem. while sabinene has a hot, oily-peppery, and a slightly pungent
spicy taste. α-Curcumene has a distinctive turmeric odour and
3. Vernacular names a mildly pungent bitter taste. Zingiberene has a warm, woody-
Arabic: Zanjabil; China: Gan-Jiang (dried), Shēng jiāng spicy, and very persistent odour, while α-farnesene has a very
(fresh); Dutch: Gember; English: Ginger; French: Gingembre; mild, sweet, and warm odour. Neral and geranial are
German: Ingwer; Greek: Piperoriza; Japan: Shouga; Nepal: commonly used as a strong lemon fragrance chemical [24].
Agnimanth, Sutho; Persian: Amveel, Zanjabil; Russian: Non-volatile phenylpropanoid-derived compounds,
Imbir; Spanish: Jengibre; Sanskrit: Adraka (Fresh), Shunthi particularly gingerols, shogaols, paradols, and zingerone, are
(Dried), Shringaveran; Urdu and Hindi: Adrak (fresh), Sonth responsible for the pungent taste [11, 16, 22]. Oleoresins derived
(dry) [19-21]. from various solvents include eugenol, zingerone, trans-6-
shogaol, and geranial as the main compounds [22]. The
4. Botany elements responsible for the spicy taste of ginger have been
The genus Zingiber, belonging to the family Zingiberaceae, known as gingerols [16]. Zingerone developed from gingerols
comprises about 85 species of herbs, mostly grown in Asia, during drying or cooking is responsible for the warm pungent
South, Central America, and Africa [13]. Zingiber officinale sensation in the mouth and many of the pharmacological
Roscoe is the accepted name of a species in the genus effects of the plant are also recorded [11].
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Table 1: Classification and structure of chemical constituent of ZO

S. No Classification Chemical compounds Structure References

1 α-Copaene [8, 25–30]

2 β-elemene [8, 25–27, 29, 31]

Zingiberene [8, 24–27, 29, 32, 33]

3
(α-Zingiberene)

[25, 26, 28, 29]

4 Caryophyllene (β-Caryophyllene)

β-Farnesene , trans-β-Farnesene, (E)-beta- [8, 25-27, 29, 31]

5
farnesene

Sesquiterpene
Curcumene [8, 24-27, 29, 32, 33]
6
(ar-Curcumene)

β-Bisabolene [26, 29, 31-33]

7

[8, 25, 26, 30, 33]

8 E,E-α-Farnesene

[25-28, 30]
9 Germacrene D

10 β-Sesquiphellandrene [8, 26, 27, 30, 32, 33]

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[8, 25-27, 32]

11 Germacrene B

[8, 25, 26, 28]

12 Terpinolene

[8, 25, 26, 30]

13 1,8-Cineole

[8, 25-28, 30]

14 α-Phellandrene

[8, 26-28, 30]

15 β-Phellandrene

Monoterpenes
α-pinene [8, 26, 27, 29, 31]
16

Camphene [8, 24-27, 29, 31]

17

Sabinene [8, 24, 26, 29, 31]

18

β-pinene [8, 25-27, 29]

19

20 β-Myrcene [8, 25-27, 29]

[8, 26, 27, 30]

21 p-Cymene

Linalool [8, 26, 27, 29, 32]

22 Alcohols
Oxygenated monoterpenes

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Borneol [8, 25, 27, 29, 31]

23

α-Terpineol [8, 25-27, 29]

24

Citronellol [8, 25, 26, 29, 32]

25
Oxygenated monoterpenes

Elemol [8, 25, 26, 29, 31]

26

β-Eudesmol [8, 25-27, 29, 31]

27

[8, 25-27, 30]

28 Geraniol

[8, 26-28]
29 Zingiberenol

[25, 26, 28]

30 α-Eudesmol

Linalyl acetate [29]

31

Bornyl acetate
32 Esters [27, 29]

33 Geranyl acetate [8, 28, 29]

Geranial/citral [8, 24, 26, 27, 29, 32, 33]

34
Oxygenated monoterpenes

Neral [8, 24, 26, 27, 29, 32]

35 Aldehydes
Oxygenated monoterpenes

[25, 26]
36 Hexanal

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International Journal of Herbal Medicine [Link]

[8, 26, 27]

37 n-Octanal

[8, 26]
38 Citronellal

[26, 27]
39 2-Heptanone

[8, 26, 27]

40 Sulcatone (6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one)

[8, 25-28]
41 Camphor
Ketone

[8, 26, 27]

42 2-Undecanone

[8, 27, 28]

43 2-Nonanone

Table 2: Phenolic compounds of ginger

S. No Name Structure References

Gingerol [34-37]
1
([4]-, [6]-, [7]-, [8]-, [10]- gingerol, Methyl [4]-, Methyl [6]-gingerol)

Shogaol [34-37]
2
([4]-, [6]-, [8]-, [10]-, [12]-Shogaol, Methyl [6]-, Methyl 8]-shogaol)

Paradol [36]
3
([6]-, [7]-, [8]-, [9]-, [10]-, [11]-, [13]- paradol, Methyl [6]-paradol)

[29, 37-41]
4 Gallic acid

Protocatechuic acid [29, 37, 38]

5

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Catechin [29, 37, 41, 42]

6

Chlorogenic acid [29, 37, 43]

7

Epicatechin [29, 37, 39]

8

Caffeic acid [29, 37, 38, 40, 43]

9

Vanillic acid [29, 37, 38, 40-42]

10

Ferulic acid [29, 37, 38, 40-42]

21

Coumarin [29, 37]

12

13 Salicylic acid [29, 37, 39]

[29, 37, 38, 41, 42]

14 Cinnamic acid

Table 3: Flavonoid compounds of ginger

S. No Name Structure References

Luteolin.7-glucoside (Cynaroside) [29, 43]

1

Luteolin [29, 40, 43]

2

Rutin [29, 42, 43]

3

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Rosmarinic acid [29, 43]

4

[29, 41, 42]

5 Kaempferol 3,7-dirhamnoside (Kaempferitrin)

Apigenin 7-glucoside [29, 43]

6

Quercetin [29, 40-43]

7

Naringenin [29, 42]

8

9 Apigenin [29, 40]

6. Pharmacological activity loaded coating solution has potent antimicrobial activity

The plant is reported for antimicrobial [31], anticonvulsant [44], comparable to gentamicin antibiotic[31]. According to
analgesic [45], anti-inflammatory [46], antiulcer, gastric Mostafa, 2018, volatile oil nanoemulsion formulation was
antisecretory [47], antidiabetic [48], nephroprotective [49], stable and effective on S. mutans [55]. In another study, the
hepatoprotective [29], antitumor [29], anticancer [50], ethanol extract showed considerable activity on Ps.
antispasmodic, antithrombotic, hypocholesterolemic, aeruginosa, Bc. subtilis with zones of inhibition ranging from
antiallergic [51], antiserotonergic, anticholinergic [52], 7±0.4mm at a concentration of 6.25mg/ml to 23.0 ±3.2 mm at
antioxidant, larvicidal, immunomodulatory [53] activities and 100 mg/ml and MIC ranging from 6.25mg/ml to 12.5 mg/ml
other beneficial activities. against Bc. subtilis and Candida albicans. The activity of the
aqueous extract was very minimal at low concentrations, but
6.1 Antimicrobial property marked activity was observed at higher concentrations [56].
Ginger shows antibacterial property against so many gram- In another research, the Antimicrobial potency of fresh,
positive and the gram-negative bacteria; (Table 4) namely, natural, and commercial dried ZO extracts had been
Escherichia (E) coli, Staphylococcus (St) aureus, St. investigated against seven local clinical bacterial isolates by
epidermidis, Klebsiella (K) pneumoniae, Enterococcus (En) the agar disc diffusion method. The result shows that ZO’s
faecalis, Salmonella (Sl) typhi, Sl. typhimurium, chloroform and diethyl ether extracts showed a more
Pseudomonas (Ps) aeruginosa, Proteus (Pr) sp., Bacillus (Bc) significant inhibition zone of tested pathogens except P.
cereus, Bc. subtilis, Bc. megaterium and Streptococcus (S) aeruginosa and E. coli [57]. The Methanolic extract of ZO was
faecalis [13]. Rampogu et al. studied that gingerenone-A and assayed in vitro for antibacterial activity by using the agar
shogaol have a potential St. aureus encodes a unique enzyme, diffusion method. The zone of inhibition was compared with
6-hydroxymethyl-7,8-dihydropterin pyrophosphokinase different standard antibiotics. The result showed good
inhibitors [54]. Noori et al. indicated that the nanoemulsion- antibacterial activity [58].

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Table 4: Antimicrobial activity of ZO

Minimal
The diameter
S. Tested organism inhibitory
Activity Type of extract/ concentration Components models/method of the Positive Controls Ref.
no Concentration
inhibition zone
(MIC)
Agar well diffusion
500 μg/mL to
1 Antibacterial Silver nanoparticle
1.95 μg/mL
------------- assay, 96 well S. aureus and E. coli 16-19 mm 62.5-125 μg/mL --------------- [59]

microtiter plate assay

Vibrio (V) anguillarum, V.
agar well diffusion
Silver nanoparticle alginolyticus, Aeromonas punctata, 11.1±0.02-
2 Antibacterial from ginger extract
0.8–50 μg/mL -------------- method, broth dilution
[Link], V. splendidus, 15.8±0.05 mm
0.4- 6.5 μg/mL 106 CFU/mL bacterial suspensions [60]

assay and V. harveyi

Agar diffusion method, [55]
Leaves essential β-pinene (8.59%), terpinolene
3 Antibacterial oil nano emulsion
100 μl
(7.46%), δ-Cadinene (7.05%)
Broth microdilution S. mutans ATCC 25175 25 ± 1.0 mm 62.5 μl/mL Clindamycin 2 μg/disc
method
St. aureus, Bc. subtilis, Bc. cereus,
In vitro /microdilution
4 Antibacterial ethanolic ---------------- ------------
method
[Link], Pr. mirabilis, E. coli, ------------ 0.0024-> 20 μg/ml Tetracycline [61]

Sl. enterica and Sl. typhimurium

In vitro/agar dilution
5 Antibacterial Methanolic 0.78-100 μg/ml 6-,8-, 10-gingerol and 6-shogoal method Helicobacter pylori ---------- 6.25–50 μg/ml Amoxicillin [62]

Octanal, 2-Naphthale
Namine, Endo-Borneol, Decanal,
1,2-15,16-Diepoxyhexadecane,
Muller-Hinton agar [Link], E. coli, K. 1.99±0.200-
6 Antibacterial methanolic ----------- Propanal,2-methyl-3-phenyl,
plates pneumonia, St. aureus, Pr. mirabilis 4.93±0.290 mm
------------- Streptomycin, Rifampin, Cefotaxime [58]

Benzeneacetic
acid ,4-(1H-1,2,3,4-tetrazol-1-yl),
Ascaridole epoxide etc
0.001-0.6 Solid blood agar
7 Antibacterial ginger extract mg/mL ------------ culture medium S. mutans and S. sanguinis ------------ 0.02-0.3 mg/mL ------------ [63]

E. coli, [Link], St. aureus, 8.0±1.73-

8 Antibacterial Boiled ginger extract --------------- ---------------- Agar diffusion assay Vibrio cholerae, K. spp., and Sl. 11.67±1.53 --------------- Gentamicin [6]

species mm
0.04-5 Broth Microdilution Amoxicillin or
9 Antibacterial Essential oil mg/mL ---------- Assays En. faecalis -------- 0.31 mg/mL ampicillin and 2.5% sodium hypochlorite
[64]

Nano emulsion-based
agar well diffusion (8.66 ± 0.94
edible sodium caseinate 3%, 6% of α-zingiberene, β- Listeria monocytogenes, Sl.
10 Antibacterial coating containing essential oil sesquiphellandrene
assay, paper disc
typhimurium (ATTC 14028)
mm and 10.33 ------------- Chloramphenicol and gentamicin [31]

ginger essential oil method ± 0.93 mm

Cup- Plate Agar
St. aureus, Pr. mirabilis,
Diffusion Method, [65]
[Link], K. pneumoniae, E.
11 Antibacterial ethanolic extract ---------- ------------ macro broth dilution
coli
17-19 mm 3.3-12.5% ---------
methods

Agar-well diffusion 15.08 ± 0.20 -

[Link], K. pneumonia, Sl.
12 Antibacterial Methanol extract 25-100 μg/mL ----------- method, broth
typhi, St. aureus, E. coli
26.03 ± 0.41 12.5-25 μg/mL ---------- [66]

microdilution method mm
Methanol: Water (70: agar well diffusion 27.09 ± 0.003
13 Antibacterial 30) 1-200 mg/ml ----------- method P. aeruginosa mm 10 µg/ml Amikacin [67]

Eudesmol, γ-terpinene, α- S. aureus, S. aureus, S. epidermidis,

6.33 ± 0.57-
0.0125 to 2.0 curcumene, alloaromadendrene, disk-diffusion, agar E. faecalis, E. aerogenes, E. coli, K.
14 Antibacterial Essential oil
mg/mL zingiberene dilution methods oxytoca, K. pneumoniae, S. enterica,
32.66 ± 2.01 0.25- 2.0 µg/ml Chloramphenicol 1 to 15 μg/mL [12]

S. typhi, S. marcescens mm

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International Journal of Herbal Medicine [Link]

Agar well
Alkaloids, saponins, tannins, 19.0 ±1.20
3.125-100 diffusion method, 12.50, 25.00
15 Aqueous extracts
mg/ml
flavonoids, terpenoids, phenols
broth microdilution
Bc. subtilis, [Link] 10.0 ±0.10 mm
mg/ml
and steroids at 100 mg/ml
Antibacterial method [56]
------------
Agar well
Alkaloids, saponins, tannins, 23.0 ±3.20,
3.125-100 diffusion method, 6.25, 12.50 mg/ml,
16 ethanol extracts
mg/ml
flavonoids, terpenoids, phenols, Bc. subtilis, [Link] 14.0 ±0.60 mm
broth microdilution
and steroids at 100 mg/ml,
method
Aqueous,
Antibacterial 0.32-50, E. faecalis, S. aureus, S.
17 70% ethanol,
mg/ml
----------- Well diffusion assay
epidermidis, A. baumannii
12-16 mm 25-50 mg/ml Vancomycin (30μg) and Amikacin (30μg) [68]

Ethyl acetate
Alkaloid, Anthraquinone,
K. pneumonia, Sl. typhi, Shigella 12.1±0.13-
Antibacterial saponin, phenol, Flavonoid,
18 aqueous extract 2.5-10 (μg /ml) Disc diffusion method species, [Link], E. coli, St. 15.0±0.12 mm ----------- Ciprofloxacin 10 μg
terpenoid and glycoside, steroid
aureus at 10 μg /ml
and reducing sugar
Alkaloid, Anthraquinone,
K. pneumonia, Sl. typhi, Shigella 15.4±0.17-
Antibacterial saponin, phenol, Flavonoid,
19 ethanol extract 2.5-10 (μg /ml)
terpenoid and glycoside, steroid
Disc diffusion method species, [Link], E. coli, St. 18.3±0.47 mm ------------ Ciprofloxacin 10 μg [69]

aureus at 10 μg /ml
and reducing sugar
Alkaloid, Anthraquinone,
K. pneumonia, Sl. typhi, Shigella 08.8±0.17-
Antibacterial saponin, phenol, Flavonoid,
20 n-hexane extract 2.5-10 (μg /ml)
terpenoid and glycoside, steroid
Disc diffusion method species, [Link], E. coli, St. 13.3±0.11 at 10 ---------------- Ciprofloxacin 10 μg
aureus μg /ml
and reducing sugar
endophytic actinomycetes (ZoA1,
ZoA2, ZoA3, ZoA4, ZoA5, Ciprofloxacin
Antibacterial Sl. enterica typhi, St. aureus, Bc. 8–14 mm- >21
21 methanolic extract ------------- ZoA6, ZoA7, ZoA8, well diffusion method
subtilis and Vibrio cholerae mm
---------------- Vancomycin, [70]

ZoA9, ZoA10, ZoA 11, ZoA 12, Gentamycin

ZoA 13 and ZoA 14)
E. coli, [Link], K.
Fresh zinger Diethyl Cardiac glycosides, flavonoids,
Antibacterial agar disc diffusion pneumonia, St. aureus, S. pyogenes, 3.67±1.33-
22 Ether extract 200 μl alkaloids, tannins, saponins, and
method St. epidermidis, 23.33±2.88 mm
------------ ---------- [57]

steroids
Serratia marcesnces
E. coli, [Link], K.
Fresh zinger Cardiac glycosides, flavonoids,
Antibacterial agar disc diffusion pneumonia, St. aureus, S. pyogenes, 6.00±2.64-
23 Chloroform extract 200 μl alkaloids, tannins, saponins, and
method St. epidermidis, 36.33±2.08 mm
------------ ------------ [57]

steroids
Serratia marcesnces
Fresh zinger Ethanolic E. coli, [Link], K.
Cardiac glycosides, flavonoids,
Antibacterial extract agar disc diffusion pneumonia, St. aureus, S. pyogenes, 2.00±1.00-
24 200 μl alkaloids, tannins, saponins, and
method St. epidermidis, 15.00±1.00 mm
------------ ------------ [57]

steroids
Serratia marcesnces
E. coli, [Link], K.
Fresh zinger Cardiac glycosides, flavonoids,
Antibacterial agar disc diffusion pneumonia, St. aureus, S. pyogenes, 1.33±0.58-
25 Methanolic extract 200 μl alkaloids, tannins, saponins, and
method St. epidermidis, 26.33±1.58 mm
------------ ------------ [57]

steroidas
Serratia marcesnces
E. coli, [Link], K.
Cardiac glycosides, flavonoids,
Antibacterial Fresh zinger Aqueous agar disc diffusion pneumonia, St. aureus, S. pyogenes, 5.33±1.33-
26 extract
200 μl alkaloids, tannins, saponins, and
method St. epidermidis, 32.00±2.00 mm
------------ ------------ [57]

steroids
Serratia marcesnces
E. coli, [Link], K.
Naturally dried zinger Cardiac glycosides, flavonoids,
Antibacterial agar disc diffusion pneumonia, St. aureus, S. pyogenes, 3.33±0.33-
27 Diethyl Ether extract 200 μl alkaloids, tannins, saponins, and
method 22.00±2.00 mm
------------ ------------ [57]
St. epidermidis,
steroids
Serratia marcesnces
Antibacterial Naturally dried zinger. Cardiac glycosides, flavonoids, agar disc diffusion E. coli, [Link], K. 2.33±0.33-
28 Chloroform extract 200 μl alkaloids, tannins, saponins, and method pneumonia, St. aureus, S. pyogenes, 32.33±2.08 mm ------------ ------------ [57]

~ 45 ~
International Journal of Herbal Medicine [Link]

steroids St. epidermidis,

Serratia marcesnces
E. coli, [Link], K.
Naturally dried zinger. Cardiac glycosides, flavonoids,
Antibacterial agar disc diffusion pneumonia, St. aureus, S. pyogenes, 0.00±0.00-
29 Ethanolic extract 200 μl alkaloids, tannins, saponins, and
method St. epidermidis, 35.67±2.08 mm
------------ ------------ [57]

steroids
Serratia marcesnces
E. coli, [Link], K.
Naturally dried zinger. Cardiac glycosides, flavonoids,
Antibacterial agar disc diffusion pneumonia, St. aureus, S. pyogenes, 2.00±1.00-
30 Methanolic extract 200 μl alkaloids, tannins, saponins, and
method St. epidermidis, 27.67±2.51 mm
------------ ------------ [57]

steroids
Serratia marcesnces
commercially dried E. coli, [Link], K.
Cardiac glycosides, flavonoids,
Antibacterial zinger Diethyl Ether agar disc diffusion pneumonia, St. aureus, S. pyogenes, 1.33±0.33-
31 200 μl alkaloids, tannins, saponins, and
method St. epidermidis, 32.00±2.00 mm
------------ ------------ [57]
extract
steroids
Serratia marcesnces
Commercially dried E. coli, [Link], K.
Cardiac glycosides, flavonoids,
Antibacterial zinger. Chloroform agar disc diffusion pneumonia, St. aureus, S. pyogenes, 2.00±1.00-
32 extract
200 μl alkaloids, tannins, saponins, and
method St. epidermidis, 30.00±1.00 mm
------------ ------------ [57]

steroids
Serratia marcesnces
E. coli, [Link], K.
Commercially dried Cardiac glycosides, flavonoids,
Antibacterial agar disc diffusion pneumonia, St. aureus, S. pyogenes, 1.33±0.33-
33 zinger Ethanolic extract 200 μl alkaloids, tannins, saponins, and
method St. epidermidis, 20.67±1.58 mm
------------ ------------ [57]

steroids
Serratia marcesnces
E. coli, [Link], K.
Commercially dried Cardiac glycosides, flavonoids,
Antibacterial agar disc diffusion pneumonia, St. aureus, v pyogenes, 2.00±1.00-
34 zinger. Methanolic 200 μl alkaloids, tannins, saponins, and
method St. epidermidis, 30.33±1.58 mm
------------ ------------ [57]

extract steroids
Serratia marcesnces
St. aureus, Bc. subtilis, Pr. Nitrofurantoin, Augmentin, Norfloxacin,
saponins, tannins, alkaloids and
35 Antibacterial Ethanol Extract -------------
flavonoids
agar diffusion method mirabilis, [Link], E. coli, Sl. 0.00- 13.00 mm Tetracycline Gentamycin, Ciprofloxacin,
typhi Chloramphenicol, Ampicillin, Nalidixic acid, [9]
------------
St. aureus, Bc. subtilis, Pr. Cefuroxime, Drovid, Cephalexin,
saponins, tannins, alkaloids and
36 Antibacterial Aqueous Extract
flavonoids
agar diffusion method mirabilis, [Link], E. coli and 0.00- 17.00 mm Erythromycin, Clindamycin, Septrin, Amoxil,
Sl. typhi Amplicox
Antifungal Endophytic actinomycetes
37 activity methanolic extract ---------- well diffusion method Pythium myriotylum 1-14 mm ------------ [70]

Alkaloids, saponins, tannins, Agar well diffusion

Antifungal 3.125-100 Aspergillus flavus and Candida
38 activity
Aqueous
mg/ml
flavonoids, terpenoids, phenols, method, broth
albicans
18.0 ±1.30 mm 6.25 mg/ml ----------
and steroids microdilution method [56]
Alkaloids, saponins, tannins, Agar well diffusion
Antifungal 3.125-100 Aspergillus flavus and Candida 19±1.80 mm
39 activity ethanol extracts
mg/ml
flavonoids, terpenoids, phenols, method, broth
albicans
6.25 mg/ml ---------
and steroids microdilution method
Eudesmol (8.19%), γ-terpinene
inhibition of radial
Antifungal 0.0625 to 2.0 (7.88 %), α-curcumene (7.28%), A. niger, F. moniliforme, F. FC50 value: 0.08-
40 activity
Essential oil
mg/mL alloaromadendrene (6.56%),
growth, 24-well plates
sporotrichum and T. entagrophytes
-----------
1.5 mg/mL
Ketoconazole (60 μg) [12]

zingiberene (6.06 %) for filamentous fungi,

Eudesmol (8.19%), γ-terpinene Kirby-Bauer agar
14.50 ± 12.12
Antifungal 0.0625 to 2.0 (7.88 %), α-curcumene (7.28%), diffusion method, 24- C. albicans17MR, C. tropicalis and
41 activity
Essential oil
mg/mL alloaromadendrene (6.56%), C. glabrata
to 30.00± 0.00 0.25-0.75 mg/mL Nystatin (30 μg/disc) [12]
well plates for yeast
zingiberene (6.06 %) fungi, mm

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International Journal of Herbal Medicine [Link]

7. Discussion of the antimicrobial potential of herbal drugs used in

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8. Singh G, Kapoor IPS, Singh P, de Heluani CS, de
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Lampasona MP, Catalan CAN. Chemistry, antioxidant
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2008;46(10):3295-302.
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Conflict of interest rhizome recovery Ginger germplasm (Zingiber officinale
There is no conflict of interest to declare. Roscoe) from NE-India using RAPD and ISSR markers.
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