Power Semi Conductor Drives

UNIT-I
Fundamentals of Electric Drives
Introduction
Drive: Drive is a system which supplies mechanical energy for motion control.

Electric Drive: An electric drive is a system that converts electrical energy to mechanical energy.

Applications of Electric Drives:

1. Transportation Systems
2. Rolling Mills
3. Paper Mills
4. Textile Mills
5. Machine Tools
6. Fans and Pumps
7. Robots
8. Washing Machines etc.

Block Diagram of Electric Drive:

Sources:
 Mostly Single and Three phase 50Hz supply is used base on the power requirements.
 When 50Hz Supply is used, maximum of 3000 RPM can only be obtained. For increased speed,
higher frequency supply is required.
 For low and medium power ratings: 400V used.
 For Higher power ratings: 3.3kV, 6.6kV, 11kV and higher voltages are used.

Mr. T. PAPI NAIDU, Assistant Professor, EEE, LIET

Power Semi Conductor Drives
 Some drives are powered from battery and even solar powered drives are also used. But these
drives are not economical and having restrictions.
 Type of motor used is independent of the supply available.

Power Modulator:
 The switches within the converter are controlled by the modulator which determines which
switches should be on, and for what time interval, normally on a micro-second timescale. An
example is the Pulse Width Modulator that realizes a required pulse width at a given carrier
frequency of a few kHz.
 The power modulators are classified as follows:
Converters
i. AC to DC Converters – Variable DC Voltage
ii. AC Voltage Regulators – Variable AC Voltage
iii. Choppers – Variable DC Voltage
iv. Inverters
 Stepped wave inverter – Variable Frequency Fixed Voltage
 PWM Inverter – Variable Frequency Variable Voltage
v. Cycloconverters – Variable Frequency and Variable Voltage
Variable impedances: Variable resistors are commonly used for the control and dynamic
breaking of low cost AC and DC drives. In high power applications, liquid rheostats are
employed to get stepless variation of resistance. Two step (full and zero) inductors are employed
for limiting starting current of AC motors.
Switching Circuits:
 Switching operations are performed by high power electromagnetic relays. Now a day, thyrister
switches are used.
 Switching operations are required for the following:
i. For changing motor connections to change its quadrant of operation
ii. For changing motor circuit parameters in discrete steps for automatic starting and braking
control
iii. For operating motors and drives according to predetermined sequence
iv. To provide interlocking to prevent maloperation and
v. To disconnect motor when abnormal operating conditions occur.

Control Unit:
 Controls for a power modulator are provided in the control unit.
 The control unit, typically a digital signal processor (DSP), or micro-controller contains a number
of software based control loops which control, for example, the currents in the converter and
machine.
 In addition torque, speed and shaft angle control loops may be present within this module. Shown
in the diagram are the various sensor signals which form the key inputs to the controller together
with a number of user set-points (not shown in the diagram). The output of the controller is a set
of control parameters which are used by the modulator.

Motors:
DC Motors:
 Shunt, series, compound and permanent magnet motors

Induction motors:
 Squirrel cage, slip ring and linear induction motors

Mr. T. PAPI NAIDU, Assistant Professor, EEE, LIET

Power Semi Conductor Drives
Synchronous Motors:
 Wound field and permanent magnet motors
For variable speed operations, DC motors are preferred. The development of solid state devices helps to
use AC motors in variable speed applications.

Because of numerous advantages of AC motors, AC drives have succeeded DC drives in a number of

variable speed applications.

Advantages of Electric Drives:

1. They have flexible control characteristics.
2. They are available in wide range of torque, speed and power.
3. Electric motors have high efficiency, low no load losses and considerable short time overloading
capacity.
4. They are adoptable to almost any operating conditions such as explosive environment, submerged,
vertical mountings and so on.
5. They do not pollute the environment.
6. Can operate in all the four quadrants of speed torque plane.
7. They can be started instantly and can immediately be fully loaded.

Choice of Electrical drives

Selection of electrical drive depends on number of factors such as,
1. Steady state operation requirements:
 Nature of speed torque characteristics
 Speed regulation
 Speed range
 Efficiency
 Duty cycle
 Quadrants of operation
 Ratings
2. Transient operation requirements:
 Acceleration and deceleration
 Starting
 Braking and reversing performance
3. Requirements related to the source:
 Types and capacity of the source
 Magnitude of voltage
 Voltage fluctuations
 Power factor
 Harmonics and effect on other loads
4. Capital, running and maintenance needs, life.
5. Space and weight restrictions if any.
6. Environment and location.
7. Reliability.

Status of AC and DC drives:

Mr. T. PAPI NAIDU, Assistant Professor, EEE, LIET
Power Semi Conductor Drives
 Previously induction and synchronous motors were only preferred for constant speed and DC
motors were dominated in variable speed applications.

 The development of thyristors in 1960s brought the induction motor widely in to variable speed
applications with increased efficiency and equivalent performance compared to DC drives. It was
expected that the efficient induction motor may occupy the place of DC drives in variable speed
applications.
 But the expectation prohibited by the following reasons:
i. The cost of converters and controllers made the induction motor drive expensive than those of DC
drive.
ii. The control technology of DC drives was well established than the new technology of AC drives.
iii. AC drives were not reliable than DC drives.
iv. Implementation of the developed digital and VLSI design were helpful in improving the performance
of AC drive and the same led to improvements in DC drives.
 Use of recent developments in power electronics have resulted into reduction in cost, simplified
controller, increased efficiency and reliable performance of AC drives.
 Even now-a-days, in between widely used variable speed DC drives, induction motors are used in
low to high power ranges and synchronous motor drives are used in medium and very high power
applications.
 The permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSM) and brushless DC (BLDC) motors are
replacing DC servomotors for fractional HP range.

Torque Speed Characteristics of Electrical Motors

 The main advantage of electrical drives is that their wide range of speed variation. They are
explained below:

 Synchronous or Reluctance motor:

o They exhibit constant speed characteristics as shown in curve I.
o At steady state conditions, these motors operate at constant speed irrespective of the value of
load torque.
 DC Shunt/Separately excited motor:

Mr. T. PAPI NAIDU, Assistant Professor, EEE, LIET

Power Semi Conductor Drives
o The characteristic curve II shows that the speed is slightly reduced when the load torque
increases.
 DC Series Motor:
o The speed is high at light load and low at heavy loading condition as shown in the curve III.
 Induction Motors:
o They exhibit complex characteristics as shown in curve IV.
o During steady state, they operate at the linear proportion of speed torque characteristic, which
resembles the characteristic of a DC shunt motor.
o The maximum developed torque of induction motors is limited to Tmax.
 In electric drive applications, the selection of the motor should match with the required
performance of the loads. For example, the synchronous motor is probably the best option for the
constant speed applications. Other motors, such as induction or DC shunt motors can also be used
in constant speed applications, provided that feedback circuits are used to compensate for the
change in speed when load torque changes.

Multiquardrant Operation and Speed torque conventions

Consider the sign conventions of torque and speed. Motor speed is considered +ve when rotating
in the forward direction. In load involving up-and-down motions, the speed of motor which causes
upward motion is considered forward motion. Then the rotation in opposite direction gives reverse speed
which is assigned the negative sign.

Positive motor torque is defined as the torque which produces acceleration or the positive rate of
change of speed in forward direction. According to the torque equation. Positive load torque is opposite
in direction to the positive motor torque. Motor torque is considered negative if it produces declaration.

A motor operates in two modes-motoring and braking. In motoring, it converts electrical energy
to mechanical energy, which supports its motion.
In braking, it works as a generator converting mechanical energy to electrical energy, and thus
opposes the motion motor can provide motoring and braking operations for both forward and reverse
directions.

The figure shows the torque and speed coordinates for both forward (+ve) and reverse (-ve)
motions. Power developed by a motor is given by the product of speed and torque.

In Quadrant I: Developed power is +ve. Hence so operation in Quadrant I is called forward

motoring in quadrant II power is –ve. Hence machine works under braking opposing the motion. So it is
known as forward braking. Similarly operations in quadrant III and IV can be identified as reverse
motoring and braking respectively.

Example of Four quadrant operation:

Operation of a hoist:

Take the directions of motor and load torques, and direction of speed are marked by arrows.

Mr. T. PAPI NAIDU, Assistant Professor, EEE, LIET

Power Semi Conductor Drives

A hoist consists of a rope wound on a drum coupled to the motor shaft. One end of the rope is tied
to a cage which is used to transport material from one level to another level. Other end of a rope has a
counter weight. Weight of the counter weight is chosen to be higher than the weight of an empty cage but
lower than of a fully loaded cage.

Forward direction of motor speed will be one which gives upward motion of the cage.

In the N- characteristic, the load torque has been shown to be constant and independent of speed
(Friction of windage negligible compared to gravity). Gravitational torque does not change its sign even
when the direction of driving motor is reversed. Load torque line TL1 in quadrants I and IV represents
speed torque characteristics for the loaded hoist. This torque is the difference of torques due to loaded
hoist and counter weight.

Load torque line TL2 in quadrants II and III is the speed torque characteristic for an empty hoist.
This torque is the difference of torques due to counter weight and the empty hoist. Its sign is negative
because the weight of a counter weight is always higher than that of an empty cage.

The quadrant I operation of a hoist requires the movement of the cage upward. Which
corresponds to the positive motor speed which is in anticlockwise direction here.

This motion will be obtained if the motor produces +ve torque in anti clockwise direction equal to
the magnitude of load torque TL1. Since developed motor power is positive, this is forward motoring
operation.

The quadrant - IV operation is obtained when a loaded age is lowered. Since the weight of a loaded cage
is higher than that of a counter weight it is able to come down due to the gravity itself. In order to limit

Mr. T. PAPI NAIDU, Assistant Professor, EEE, LIET

Power Semi Conductor Drives
the speed of the cage within a safe value, motor must produce a +ve torque equal to L2 in anti clockwise
direction. As both power and speed are negative, drive is operating in reverse braking.

The quadrant II operation is obtained when an empty cage is moved up. Since a counter weight is
heavier than an empty cage, it is able to pull it up. In order to limit the speed with in a safe value, motor
must produce a braking equal to L2 in clockwise (negative) direction. Since speed is +ve and developed
power is –ve, it is forward braking operation. Operation in quadrant III is obtained when an empty cage
is lowered. Since an empty cage has a lesser weight than a counter weight, the motor should produce a
torque in clockwise direction. Since speed is –ve and developed power positive, this is reverse motoring
operation.

Electric braking
Whenever an electric dive is disconnected from the supply, the speed of the motor gradually
decreases and becomes zero. Sometimes this natural braking may not be satisfactory. So we will provide
a braking torque by artificial means - by mechanical brakes or electro dynamically.

Electric braking is employed for two purposes, 1) Braking while bringing the drive to rest and
braking while lowering loads. In the first type, the device absorbs the kinetic energy of the moving parts
and in the second it absorbs kinetic energy, potential energy and usually gravitational, which can drive
the system at an excessively high speed.

Braking may be employed for:

i) Reducing the time taken to stop
ii) Stopping exactly at specified points.
iii) Controlling the speed at which the load comes down
iv) Feeding power back to the supply

Disadvantages of Mechanical braking

1. Frequent maintenance
2. Replacement of brake shoes
2. Lower Life
4. Braking power is always wasted as heat

Electrical Braking:
The disadvantages in mechanical braking are overcome by the electrical braking. In electrical
braking the motor works as a generator developing a negative torque which opposes the motion. Even
when electrical braking is employed, the mechanical brakes may also be provided to ensure reliable
operation of the drive. Mechanical brakes are also employed to hold the drive at stand still because many
braking methods are not able to produce torque at stand-still. Acceleration and deceleration modes are
transient operations. Drive operates in acceleration mode whenever an increase in its speed is required.
For this motor speed- Torque curve must be changed so that motor torque exceeds the load torque. Time
taken for a given change in speed depends on inertia of motor. Load system and the amount by which
motor torque exceeds the load torque.

Braking is of the three types:

1. Regenerative
2. Dynamic or rheostat
3. Plugging or reverse voltage
Mr. T. PAPI NAIDU, Assistant Professor, EEE, LIET
Power Semi Conductor Drives

Mr. T. PAPI NAIDU, Assistant Professor, EEE, LIET

Power Semi Conductor Drives

Mr. T. PAPI NAIDU, Assistant Professor, EEE, LIET

Power Semi Conductor Drives

Plugging
For plugging, the supply voltage of separately excited motor is reversed so that it assists the back emf in
forcing armature current in reverse direction. A resistance RB is also connected in series with armature to
limit the current. For plugging of a series motor armature along is reversed. Speed torque characteristics
can be calculated from the below equations.

A particular case of plugging for motor rotation in reverse direction arises, when a motor connected for
forward motoring, is driven by an active load in the reverse direction.
Here again back emf and applied voltage act in the same direction. However the direction of T remains
positive. This type of situation arises in crave and hoist applications and the braking is then called
counter torque braking.

Figure

Plugging gives fast braking due to high average torque even with one section of braking resistance RB.

close to zero speed. Centrifugal switches are employed to disconnect the supply. Plugging is highly
inefficient because in addition to the generated power, the power supplied by the source is also wasted in
resistances.

Mr. T. PAPI NAIDU, Assistant Professor, EEE, LIET

Power Semi Conductor Drives

In regenerative braking, generated energy is supplied to the source. The condition to happen this is

E > V and negative Ia.

Field flux can’t be increased substantially beyond rated because of saturation. Therefore according to the
equations

Mr. T. PAPI NAIDU, Assistant Professor, EEE, LIET

Power Semi Conductor Drives
1. For a source of fixed voltage of a rated value regenerative braking is possible only for speeds higher
than rated
2. With variable voltage source it is also possible below rated speeds.
The speed torque characteristics can be calculated from the above equations and are shown in fig.
for a separately excited motor. In series motor as speed increases, armature current, and therefore, flux
decreases consequently condition of equation (2) cannot achieved. Thus regenerative braking is not
possible.

The regenerative braking is possible only when there are loads connected to the line and they are
in need of power more are equal to the regenerated power. Because in actual supply system when the
machine regenerates its terminal voltage rises. Consequently the regenerated power flows in to the loads
connected to the supply and the source is relieved from supplying this much amount of power.

When the capacity of the load is less than the regenerated power, all the regenerated power will
not be absorbed by the loads. The remaining power will be supplied to capacitors in line and the line
voltage will rise to dangerous values leading to insulation breakdown. Alternatively an arrangement is
made to divert the excess power to a resistance bank where it is dissipated as heat. Such a braking is
known as composite braking because it is a combination of regenerative braking the generated energy
can be stored in the battery.

Mr. T. PAPI NAIDU, Assistant Professor, EEE, LIET

Power Semi Conductor Drives

Mr. T. PAPI NAIDU, Assistant Professor, EEE, LIET