ABSTRACT

This comprehensive collection of notes is accurately crafted to empower students

to excel academically, ensuring they achieve a minimum of 80% marks in
their examinations. The content is organized with clarity and precision,
focusing on key concepts, critical analyses, and practical applications tailored
to the syllabus. These notes serve as a reliable resource for both thorough
preparation and last-minute revision. Designed to inspire confidence and
mastery, this guide is an essential tool for students striving for academic
excellence.

Maha Malik
Language Learning Theories

ENG505
Mid-Term (Solved)
 ENG505_Language Learning Theories
Mid-Term (Solved)

Q. Describe language universe (Topic 06)

The theory advocates that children are born with Language Acquisition Device (Hadley, 2001, p.
58) and are innately programmed to learn language. The presence of language universals is seen
to be the key characteristic which contains parameters setting. UG emphasizes that biological
mechanism determines the language learning process supported by the representation of ‘core
grammar.’
Q. Briefly discuss the theory of universal grammar (Topic 06)
UG refers to the mentalist approach that supports nativism and cognitivism. The theory advocates
that children are born with Language Acquisition Device (Hadley, 2001, p. 58) and are innately
programmed to learn language. The presence of language universals is seen to be the key
characteristic which contains parameters setting. UG emphasizes that biological mechanism
determines the language learning process supported by the representation of ‘core grammar.’
Q. Difference b/t monitor over user and under user Krashen 5 marks (Topic 06)
Stephen Krashen’s ‘Monitor Model’ distinguishes acquisition (subconscious learning) and
learning (conscious learning) as responsible factors for developing competence in the second
language acquisition. The monitor hypothesis claims that the acquisition process is responsible for
all second language utterances and fluency. On the contrary, learning is the ‘editor’ and ‘monitor’
for the output (Hadley, 2001). The input hypothesis states that speaking fluency emerges over time
and that acquisition process is subject to our exposure to the language, which is beyond our current
level of comprehension.
Q. Schumann Acculturation theory: (Topic 07)
The basis of Schumann’s ‘Acculturation Theory’ is a ‘social theory’ which considers social forces
as the deriving factors that affect language learning and acquisition processes. It emphasizes that
instead of internal mental activities, the external factors facilitate learning by providing the target
language culture for specific language functions. Language being social phenomena does consider
attitudes and stereotypes towards the target language as affective learning factors. Errors can be
corrected.
Q. Edward Anthony Model (Topic 08)
Edward Anthony proposed a ‘three-level framework’ (1965) based on ‘Approach, Methods, and
Techniques.’ ‘Approach’ is a set of principles or ideas about the nature of language learning;
‘Method’ is an overall mechanism; ‘Technique’ is a specific strategy/way. Researchers vary in
terms of design, procedure and approach; Anthony’s framework emphasized ‘Approach,’ whereas
Richards and Rogers considered ‘Method’ as a broader term in comparison to approach. Repka
and Stern claim that ‘method or methodology’ is a broader term that covers the rest. Goal
orientation, organization, progressiveness, and linking of age to content and successiveness are the
general characteristics of methods. However, methods and methodology are related to planning of
a specific task, content, procedure, and assessment.

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Q. Differentiate between the Characteristics of controlled and free techniques? (Topic 11)
Controlled Techniques Free Techniques
Teacher Centered  Manipulative Student Centered
Structure Communicated Open Ended
Predicted Response  Unpredicted Response  Negotiated
 Pre-planned Objectives Objectives

Q. Brown taxonomy (Topic 11)

Analysis of ‘Language Learning Theories’ requires understanding of the terms ‘Technique,
Activity and Procedure.’ ‘Technique’ is a broader term for specific tasks and refers to Brown’s
taxonomy of techniques: controlled, semicontrolled and free techniques. However, ‘Activity’ and
‘Procedure’ deal with learner’s performance and practices/behaviors in teaching respectively.
Q. Define language learning (Topic 12)
Learning belongs to behaviorist approach and deals with a mechanical process of habit formation.
As opposed to acquisition which is a subconscious process, learning involves both explicit
(learner’s is aware of modification of his/her knowledge base) as well as implicit (change in the
learner’s knowledge base but outside his/her conscious introspection) learning processes. Drill,
imitation, and repetition are the basic elements of learning.
Q. Key Features of Performance (Topic 13)
Parole (Saussure) describes the physical manifestation of langue (competence).
Performance can be full of errors.
Performance and its products are complex phenomena due to speaker hearer’s linguistic
competence, speech production, memory, dialectical environment, idiolect and individual
style, factual knowledge, health and emotional state, and other related factors.
Q. Differentiate b/w deductive and inductive learning? (Topic 14)
deductive inductive
Deductive Learning, being teacher centered Inductive Learning, being learner centered,
approach, refers to providing learners with an begins with examples first and requires learner
understanding of the rules followed by to determine rules relevant to the examples.
examples and practice. The rules are of Determining the relevancy of rules appropriate
primary focus and the practice is encouraged to examples is a challenging task for the
through examples that inculcate rules. learner. It equips learners with the knowledge
of the concepts

Q. Describe Behaviorism (Topic 15)

The behaviorist movement began with John Watson in 1913. It is also known as a psychological
approach which emphasizes scientific and objective methods of investigation. The behaviorists

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claim that knowledge is external, and humans are born with blank slate. Learning takes place
through association between stimuli response processes resulting into specific habit formation.
Q. Pavlovian conditioning key features. 5 marks (Topic 16)
Stimulus
Response
Unconditioned Stimulus
Conditioned Stimulus
Conditioned Response
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Generalization
Discrimination
Q. Classical Conditioning (Topic 17)
John Watson (1913) took the lead from Pavlov’s idea of conditioning that a neutral stimuli
becomes conditioned due to specific response and proposed that process of learning may also be
referred to as the process of classical conditioning (based on Pavlov’s observations). Similar to the
Pavlovian Conditioning, the Classical
Q. Bandore mediating Process. (Topic 18)
Conditioning supports the habit formation and opposes the idea of consciousness as responsible
factors for learning. The theory of Classical Conditioning is a scientific theory that follows three
stages: Before, During, and After Conditioning as the concrete processes of learning. The concept
of Reciprocal Determinism was proposed by Albert Bandura in 1977. He introduced Social
Learning Theory which advocated that behavior is not a single phenomenon, rather a result of the
interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental determinants. Since external and
internal both factors were considered vital for developing a particular behavior; therefore,
Meditating and Observational learning were emphasized by Bandura. Mediating processes occur
between stimuli and responses
Q. What Skinner says about verbal Behaviour? (Topic 19)
B.F Skinner proposed the concept of ‘Operant Conditioning.’ He introduced the theory of Verbal
Behavior in 1957. According to this theory, a person’s behavior gets reinforced through the
mediation of other persons. Any change that occurs in Page 4 Maha Malik’s Compilation one’s
behavior is a result of others’ reinforcement. Skinner identified following three types of responses
that can follow behavior:
1. Neutral Operant
2. Reinforcer
3. Punisher
Q. Mediation theory (3 marks): (Topic 20)

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The ‘Mediation Theory’ was introduced by Charles Osgood (1953, 1957). It claims that the
linguistic stimulus (a word or sentence) elicits a ‘mediating’ response that is self-stimulating.
Mediation process is viewed as covert and invisible, acting within the learner. This makes it a
cognitive theory which rationalizes internal and external processes for developing behavioral
association.
Q. Give the levels where the theory functions. (Topic 20)
Sensational Level: basic stimulus response reaction occurs
Perception Level: input occurs relating it to the past experiences
Representational Level: outward reaction, overt behavioral response to the word
Q. Features of Mediation Theory (Topic 20)
1. Physical stimulus: reaction of a body (hear, see, touch or smell causes us to feel
something)
2. Internal response: internalization
3. Internal stimulus: leads to internal stimulus – which is the thought in which you relate the
stimulus to outward response
4. Outward response: visible or physical response that takes place due to the first response
Q. Law of effect: (Topic 21)
‘Law of Effect’ was introduced by Edward Thorndike (1898). It proposed that pleasant feedback
leads to the repetition of a particular behavior and unpleasant feedback ceases it. The theory views
learning as a process of developing association between a certain situation and its resultant
pleasant.
Q. Five assumptions of behaviorism. (5) (Not sure about the answer) (Topic 21)
1. Multiple or varied response
2. Set of behaviors or attitude
3. Partial activity or prepotency of elements
4. Assimilation
5. Associative shifting
Q. Define nativism. (3) (Topic 22)
Chomsky’s (1965) idea of innateness has been a hallmark of language learning mechanism. It
attempts to explain the child’s mastery of a native language in such a short time despite the highly
abstract nature of the rules of language.
Q. Mac Neill four rules for Lad (5 marks) (Topic 22)
MacNeill (1966) supported appropriateness of LAD and justified its existence based on the
following: The ability to distinguish speech sounds from other sounds in the environment
The ability to organize linguistic data into various classes that can later be refined
Knowledge that only a certain kind of linguistic system is possible

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The ability to engage in constant evaluation of the developing linguistic system to construct
the simplest possible system out of the available linguistic input
Q. Criticism on Behaviorism: (Topic 23)
Chomsky, in A Review of B F Skinner’s Verbal Behavior (1959), used language as a tool for
critique of Skinner’s behaviorism. According to Chomsky, learning is not possible only through
repetition and reinforcement as advocated by Skinner. Chomsky believes that a child has the ability
to use finite set of rules to construct infinite sentences, and s/he can create phrases which they have
never heard before.
Q. Rene Descartes’s demon argument. (Topic 24)
He introduced three types of ideas, namely: innate ideas, adventitious ideas, and factitious ideas.
His concept of idea asserts that the knowledge or belief in God determines the truth and reality.
His famous ‘demon argument’ strengthens his idea: Question: What then is real? Answer: Doubt
proves that I am real.
Q. Transcendental theory or Idealism Key features of transcendental idealism include:
(Topic 25)
Concepts without perceptions are empty
Perceptions without concepts are blind
It is true that all knowledge begins with experience
It is not true that all knowledge arises from experience
Phenomenal realm and Noumenal realm
Q. Write any five points of H.H. Stern’s language teaching method in the context of SLA.
(Topic 27)
1. Practice, repeat, and practice in childhood as well as learning a foreign language (L1 and
SLA)
2. Language learning is mainly a matter of imitation (L1 and SLA)
3. Practice the separate sounds, then words, then sentences (L1 and SLA)
4. Understanding always precedes speaking (L1 and SLA)
5. Natural learning order of four skills (L1 and SLA)
Q. Write Arguments in support of Universal Grammar. (3 marks) (Topic 28)
The arguments in support of UG are primarily concerned with its universality, convergence,
poverty of the stimulus, no negative evidence, child’s easy acquisition, uniformity, maturational
effects, dissociation between language and cognition, and neurological separation. Chomsky’s UG
attempts to explain what constitutes knowledge of language, how it is acquired, and put to use.
Q. Define Cognitivism (Topic 31)
Cognitivism replaced behaviorism in 1960s as the dominant paradigm. It is the study in psychology
that focuses on mental processes including how people perceive, think, remember, learn, solve

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problems, and direct their attention to one stimulus rather than another. It enables psychologists to
understand cognition based on cognitivist perspective. The theory refers to mental processes and
also the involvement of sensation, perception, attention and encoding as important factors in
cognitive processes. Mergel (1998) views cognitivism as the thought process behind the behavior.
Q. Define social cultural theory (Topic 31)
It is based on the developmental analysis, the role of language, and the social relation. Vygotsky
believed that learning takes place at two levels:
through interaction with others
integrated into the individual’s mental structure
Q. Vygotsky view of language (Topic 32)
Vygotsky believed that language is one of the most important psychological tools that effects
children’s cognitive development. Firstly, language is an essential factor for communication
(social speech). Next, children begin to use egocentric or private speech to control their own
thinking. Furthermore, understanding of cognitive perceptual processes enables the learners to
analyze the mental processes involved in learning process.
Q. Mention any five levels of learning by Robert Gagne: (imp) (Topic 33)
1. Gain attention
2. Inform of objectives
3. Stimulate prior knowledge recall
4. Present stimulus
5. Provide learning guideline
Q. Write down 3 basic components of Piaget’s cognitive Theory. (Topic 34)
1. Schema: the basic building block of intelligent behavior – a way of organizing knowledge.
2. Adaptation processes
Assimilation: using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation.
Accommodation: existing schema needs to be changed to deal with a new object
or situation.
Equilibrium: Equilibrium occurs when a child's schemas deals with new
information in Schema.
3. Stages of cognitive development
Q. STAGES OF cognitive development (Topic 34)
Sensorimotor (birth to age 2), object permanence
Preoperational (from age 2 to age 7), thinking symbolically
Concrete operational (from age 7 to age 11), operational thoughts
Formal operational (age 11+ -adolescence and adulthood), ability to think about
abstract concepts

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Q. Explain multi store model. OR Long Term Memories and Short Term Memories: (imp)
(Topic 35)
The Atkinson-Schifrin model is a theory of human memory that was proposed by Richard
Atkinson and Richard Schifrin (1968) and explains how our senses experience different things in
terms of sight, hearing, touch, feeling, and taste, but only a fraction of this is remembered. The
model of Atkinson Shiffrin proposed that the human memory could be broken down into three
different memory stores:
Sensory Memory Short Term Memory Long Term Memory
Duration: ¼ to ½ second Duration: 0-18 seconds Duration: unlimited
Capacity: all sensory Capacity: 7 +/-2 items Capacity: unlimited
experience Encoding: mainly Encoding: mainly
Encoding: sense specific auditory semantic (but can be
(e.g. different stores for visual and auditory)
each sense)

Q. Criticism Faced by Multi-Store Model (Topic 35)

The sensory stores are sensory systems, not memory systems as most people think
of the term ‘memory’.
The model’s claim, that there is nothing in between short-term and long term
memory is refuted by the evidence that information can reside somewhere between
the extremes of active attention and long-term storage.
As opposed to the claim that there is just one short-term system and just one long-
term system, the critics believe that in reality, there are many memory systems
operating in parallel (for example, different systems for vision, language, and odor
memory). Each has short-term and long-term operations.
The Atkinson-Shiffrin model does not give enough emphasis to unconscious
processes.
Q. Key principles of cognitivism. 5 marks (Topic 36)
Construction Grammar
Rational Language Processing
Exemplar-Based Abstraction and Attraction
Emergent Relations and Patterns
Dialectic
Q. The Competition Model and the Associative-Cognitive CREED Theory (Nick Ellis):
(Topic 36)
The Competition Model is a psycholinguistic theory of language acquisition and sentence
processing developed by Elizabeth Bates and Brian MacWhinney which describes language
development in formal and informal settings. It also looks into the role of cognitive mechanisms
that occur in the learner’s brain while processing language. MacWhinney (2002) considers the

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input, the learner, and the context as the three main components in the language learning process.
Lexical Functionalism, Connectionism, Input-Driven Learning, and Capacity are the dominant
features of the model. The Associative-Cognitive CREED Theory in SLA was introduced by Nick
Ellis which claims that language is learned in the same way as any other human skill. This theory
is based on both the behavioral (associations) and cognitivist (cognitive) traditions.
Q. McClelland on Connectionism (1986) (5) (Topic 37)
McClelland (1986) state that there are 8 major components of the PDP model framework:
1) a set of processing units,
2) a state of activation,
3) an output function for each unit,
4) a pattern of connectivity among units,
5) a propagation rule for propagating patterns of activities through the network of
connectivities,
6) an activation rule for combining the inputs impinging on a unit with the current
state of that unit to produce a new level of activation for the unit,
7) a learning rule whereby patterns of connectivity are modified by experience, and
8) An environment within which the system must operate.
Q. Key features of constructivism. (Topic 39)
Learner-centeredness
Environment awareness
According to Jonassen and Land (2002), context, construction and collaboration are the basis of
the constructivist learning
Q. Define constructivism. (3) (Topic 39)
Constructivism Theory is based on observation (learning philosophy) and scientific study about
how people learn (teaching philosophy). The assertion is that the experiences enable people to
construct the knowledge of the world around them. Constructivism has two branches, Cognitive
Constuctivism and Social Constuctivism, and emphasizes learner differences, integration of
linguistic, psychological, and sociological paradigms.
Q. writes any three points of constructivism? (Topic 40)
Learning must be started with the issues around which learners are actively trying
to construct meaning.
The learning process focuses on primary concepts, not isolated facts.
Construction of the knowledge, and not the memorization, is encouraged.
Q. Bruner’s Idea of Scaffolding and Discovery Learning (5) (Topic 45)
Influenced by Vygotsky’s theory of social constructivism, Jerome S. Bruner, psychologist of the
twentieth century, proposed Theory of Scaffolding in 1976. The theory is considered to be an

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influential contribution in the field of education because it proposed scaffolding as vital for all
types of learning. It enables a learner to overcome fears and focus on acquiring knowledge.
According to Bruner, the goal of education should be directed to learning to learn; therefore,
teachers should design curriculum which facilitate rot learning, problem-solving, and learning
through discovery. He introduced Discovery Learning Theory (1961) with the following three
stages known as stages of ‘Representation’:
Enactive: representation of knowledge through actions
Iconic: the visual summarization of images
Symbolic representation: the use of words and other symbols to describe
experiences
Q. Jerome Bruner contribution in education. 3 marks (Topic 46)
1. The modes of representation
2. The importance of teaching and learning ‘optimal structure,’
3. The spiral curriculum,
4. Learning through the acts of discovery
Q. Three scale of Self-efficacy or Bandura’s Socio-Cognitive Model of Human Behavior
(Topic 47)
Albert Bandura suggested three scales to measure self-efficacy:
1. Self-efficacy magnitude (Level of difficulty)
2. Self-efficacy strength (One’s determination or surety about oneself)
3. Generality of self-efficacy (One’s surety about the application of same thing to new)
Q. Discuss any five important features of Krashen’s input hypothesis (Topic 51)
Stephen Krashen, is known for his theories of language acquisition and development. Krashen's
theory of language input hypothesis advocates that the acquisition of second language is highly
dependent on the learner's comprehension of the input. The focus of the hypothesis is on the
acquisition and not the learning. Krashen explained his hypothesis as:
Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language, natural
communication, in which speakers are not concerned with the form of their
utterances but with the messages, they are conveying and understanding.
Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious grammatical
rules, and does not require tedious drill.
Comprehensible input is the crucial and necessary ingredient for the acquisition of
language.
Q. What is meant by input hypothesis? (Topic 54)
Krashen’s theory of Input Hypothesis advocates that the acquisition of second language is highly
dependent on the learner’s comprehension of the input. He suggested the following techniques for
comprehensible input:

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Use expression and body language

Provide thinking time
Pauses between phrases
Shorter sentences
Stress high frequency words
Q. Discuss criticism on communicative language teaching approach (imp) (Topic 56)
According to Stern (1992), CLT has become more successful in ESL (English as a second
language) settings, but failed to show successful results in EFL (English as a foreign language)
contexts. Some CLT proponents, e.g. Littlewoods even proposed to treat it as an umbrella term
which the opponents of CLT considered the renaming of the existing old approaches and nothing
new or revolutionary. CLT focuses more on developing fluency while accuracy is neglected. It
does overburden teachers as it demands developing of functional syllabus for effective classroom
activities.
Q. Language Meta function by M.A.K Holiday (Topic 57)
M.A.K. Halliday, a British linguist, developed the concept of Systemic Functional linguistics in
1960. It claims that language is a resource for making meaning. The systemic functional linguistics
is based on three levels; namely, meaning (semantics), sound (phonology), and wording or lexico-
grammar (syntax, morphology, and lexis).
Q. Steps in Acculturation Model: (imp) (Topic 58)
Acculturation Model was introduced by John Schumann, an American linguist (1986), who
claimed that the extent of contact between L2 and L2 speaker affects the success of SLA. Social
and psychological factors are key components of acculturation process. According to Brown
(1980), the stages of acculturation in the target language are Euphoria, Culture-shock, Cultural
stress, Gradual recovery, and Full-recovery. Language shock, culture shock, culture stress,
motivation, and ego permeability are the factors that are responsible for creating psychological
distance as claimed by Ushioda (1993). Domination of high culture causing low self-esteem among
L2 learners and lack of explanation about the internal processes of SLA are the major points of the
criticism of Acculturation Model.
Q. Describe the term legitimate peripheral participation. (Topic 59)
Inspired by the works of Vygotsky and Dewey, Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger introduced the
theory of Situated Learning as an instructional approach in the early 1990s. The theory laid down
great emphasis on the learning as a social process and encouraged to maximize social interaction
for the purpose of meaningful learning. They proposed Legitimate Peripheral Participation,
Peripherality, Full Participation, and Community of Practice as key factors of Situated Learning
theory.
Q. What is the basic of BLC theory? (Topic 60)

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BLC Theory was proposed by Hulstijin in 2015. The bases of the theory are the understanding of
individual differences in monolingual and bilingual people and the matters of L2 proficiency
assessment. Hulstijin believes that cognition is a term that refers to neural network which consists
of the representation and use of information for both knowledge and skills; whereas, ‘Basic’ is
concerned with what native speakers have common related to language cognition. The term
‘Higher’ is used here as an extended language cognition. The core linguistic cognition includes:
phonetic-phonological, morphonological, morpho-syntactic, and lexical domains of linguistic
knowledge. It also looks into how to use language forms as appropriate to the communicative
situation. BLC focuses more on reading and writing rather speech reception and speech production.
In the words of Hulstijin (2015): ‘BLC pertains to:
1) the largely implicit, unconscious knowledge in the domains of phonetics, prosody,
phonology, morphology, and syntax,
2) the largely explicit, conscious knowledge in the lexical domain (form meaning
mappings), in combination with,
3) the automaticity with which these types of knowledges can be processed.
Q. Generative grammar (5 marks) (Topic 63)
The Generative School of thought derived its concepts form the Generative Grammar theory of
Chomsky. It focuses on the study of syntax, but does include semantics, phonology, and
morphology. Generative Grammar theory provides the set of rules that can accurately predict
which combinations of words make grammatically correct sentences. Transformational Generative
Grammar was driven from Generative Grammar as a process of language creativity, whereby, a
learner can transform rules from one structure. In TG theory, phrase structure rules explain,
mathematically, our knowledge to assemble the basic units of a sentence.
S --> NP + VP
In the above formula, ‘a sentence consists of a noun phrase followed by a verb phrase’. TG has set
forth, two levels of syntactic structure: deep structure (an abstract underlying structure of a
sentence) and surface structure (outward form of a sentence)
Q. Two sets of cognitive skills Intention-reading and pattern-finding are two sets of cognitive
skills proposed by Tomasello that reinforce usage-based theory. (Topic 64)
‘Intention-reading’ is what children must do to determine the goals or intentions
of mature speakers when they use linguistic conventions to achieve social ends, and
thereby to learn these conventions from them culturally in accordance with the
functional approach mentioned above.
‘Pattern-finding’ is what children must do in order to extract abstract linguistic
schemas or constructions from the individual utterances in accordance with the
grammatical approach mentioned above. Therefore, this theory has two main
dimensions: functional and grammatical.
Q. Usage base theory verses UG. (5 marks) (Topic 65)

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The differences between innate UG and usage-based accounts of L1 and L2 acquisition can be
summarized as follows (James H-Y. Tai, 2014):
At the level of brain, UG approach assumes that linguistic representation is
localized in a language-specific module with its own rules of processing. In
contrast, usage-based approach assumes ‘plasticity’ to a great extent. Linguistic
representation in brain can change in the course of Ll as well as L2 acquisition and
development.
Children are creative and productive to start with innate UG. However, in usage-
based approach, children are conservative and unproductive to start with and only
gradually become productive by induction through experience.
In UG approach, the role of input is underdetermined because of ‘poverty of the
stimulus’ with lack of negative evidence (ungrammatical sentences). In usage-
based approach, all linguistic structures emerge from generalization of the input
through induction.
In UG approach, innate core grammar needs mechanism such as maturation,
triggering, and linking rules to activate it. In contrast, the usage-based approach
requires children to figure out linguistic system by adaptive social communicative
behaviors.
Q. Names the types of Proficiency Assessments. (Topic 66)
Discrete-point versus integrative assessment
Direct versus indirect assessment
Objective versus subjective assessment
Group testing versus individual assessment
Q. what are the three aspects of linguistic competence? (Topic 68)
Assessment component
Planning component
Execution component (Bachman, 1990, pp. 84-108)
Q. Lyle Bachman provide classification of language or What type of Communicative
Language Ability (CLA) (Topic 68)
Lyle Bachman, one of the leading theorists in the field of language testing, proposed
Communicative Language Ability (1990) which attempted to distinguish between ‘Knowledge’
and ‘Skills’. CLA is concerned with the knowledge and capacity to use it appropriately in a given
context. Bachman classifies the component called ‘Language Competence’ in two divisions:
1. Organizational Competence
Grammatical Competence
Textual Competence
2. Pragmatic Competence

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Illocutionary Competence
Sociolinguistics Competence
Communicative Competence
3. Strategic Competence is another aspect of Language Competence proposed by Bachman with
the following three components:
Assessment component
Planning component
Execution component (Bachman, 1990, pp. 84-108)
Q. Types of Competencies (Topic 69)
Linguistic Competence
Strategic Competence
Sociolinguistic Competence
Discourse Competence
Q. Five characters of communicative competence. (5) (Topic 69)
Dynamic nature of communicative competence.
Communicative competence applies to both written and spoken language, as well
as too many other symbolic systems.
Communicative competence is context specific.
Competence is what one knows. Performance is what one does.
Communicative competence is relative, not absolute
Q. Write the core components of sociolinguistic knowledge according to Bachman and
Palmer's revised model (1995, 2010) of CLA? (Topic 71)
In the revised model of Bachman and Palmer, nomenclature was changed from the term
competence to knowledge and strategic competence being proposed as a set of met cognitive
strategies.
Q. Formulaic competence (Topic 72)
Formulaic competence refers to formulaic expressions. They are fixed or prefabricated chunks
which commonly used by native speakers in everyday life. Native speakers tend to use particular
formulaic expressions frequently therefore to sound like native, nonnative speakers have to use
those formulaic expressions.
Q. Symbolic competence: (Topic 73)
Kramsch and Whiteside (2008) defined Symbolic Competence as the ability to position oneself as
a multilingual subject, to understand the cultural memories evoked by symbolic systems, to
perform and create alternative realities, and to reframe and shape the multilingual game in which
one invests. Kramsch believes that there are three dimensions of language as symbolic system,
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role in the interpretation of symbolic competence as it refers to language use beyond the sentence
level. Relationship between language and contexts contribute in the understanding of symbolic
competence. It is believed that ‘Symbolic Competence is also engaged in the symbolic power game
of challenging established meanings and redefining the real.’
Q. Five factors of psychology distances (Topic 93)
1. Methods based on the behaviorist theory of language learning lay emphasis on accuracy
and form and do not allow errors.
2. Methods based on the interactionist theory give learners the opportunity for conversation
where they receive meaningful input from teachers and students.
3. Methods based on the ‘comprehensible input’ theory, most closely associated with Stephen
Krashen, do not put emphasis on interaction, but on providing input through listening
and/or reading.
4. Methods based on teaching what the learner is ready to learn
5. Methods that not only ‘recognize the role for instruction, but also assume that not
everything has to be taught’ (Lightbown & Spada, 1993, p. 97).
Q. Positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement (Topic 96)
Positive reinforcement adding something to enforce the result(you do this, you get
this). Usually praise and rewards.
Negative reinforcement: taking something negative away in order to increase a
response.
Q. types of Acculturation (Topic 109)
According to Brown (1980), the stages of acculturation in the target language are:
1. Euphoria – A stage where learner get excited in learning new culture
2. Culture-shock – where learner is exposed to new values and belief
3. Cultural stress – where learner is partially adjusted in the environment
4. Gradual recovery – with time being learner get recover in performance
5. Full-recovery – it is learner’s adaptation of new culture
Q. the child series activities etc {don’t know exactly it might be receptive and productive
activities.}(5 marks) (Topic 125)
Receptive Activities: Receptive Activities are designed to develop the receptive skills. Listening
and Reading are called receptive skills as the learner receives the input and does not produce the
language. They are sometime referred to as passive skills, but the learner is still required to
participate in the process by comprehending the input to create meaningful learning. Reading, as
a receptive skill provides the learner with knowledge of technological developments, world news,
and scientific discoveries etc.
Productive Activities: Productive Activities are designed for the development of the productive
skills. Speaking and writing are known as productive skills as they produce language. Writing is

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 ENG505_Language Learning Theories
Mid-Term (Solved)

the most important productive activity for L2 learners to express themselves for developing
relevant texts according to the target situation requirements.
Q. Six stages of Second language acquisition.
Pre- production. This is also called "the silent period," when the student takes in the new
language but does not speak it.
Early. Production.
Speech. Emergent.
Beginning. Fluency.
Intermediate. Fluency.
Advanced. Fluency.

[Link]. (1.5 Years) BS English Files

Maha Malik’s Compilation