Introduction To Environmental Science

Introduction To Environmental Science

 Stay within planet boundaries or face consequences
 Problems as we are pushing boundaries:
 Climate change
 Ocean acidification
 Ozone depletion
 Nitrogen cycle
 Phosphorus cycle
 Fresh water use
 Deforestation
 Biodiversity loss
 Particle pollution
 Chemical pollution
 Sustainability needs to be driven by economics not because of altruism
 Ecological footprint → usage of resources (bigger use → bigger footprint)
 Environmental sciences has natural sciences, social sciences and humanities.
Environmental Systems
ENVIRONMENT
Atmosphere - Introduction
 The envelope of gases surrounding the earth or
another planet, held by gravity, is called
atmosphere.
 Without atmosphere, there would be no life on
Earth.
 The bulk of atmosphere is made up of two gases:
Nitrogen (78%) and Oxygen (21%).
 Earth’s atmosphere has a layered
structure/composition.
Atmosphere - Introduction
Atmosphere – Climate
 Weather → current
 Climate → weather over a long period of time
 Latitudes:
 Equator (0) → rainfaill
 30 → deserts
 60 → boreal forests
 Unequal heating due to:
 Surface area
 Atmosphere due to sphere shape of Earth
 Tilt
 Albedo (reflection)
 Unequal heating leads to circulation:
 Hadley 0-30 , Ferrel 60-30, polar cell 60-pole
 Coriolis effect leads to trade winds (clockwise in N, anticlockwise in S)
 Oceanic currents
Atmosphere - Structure
1. Troposphere
 First layer above the surface.
 Weather occurs in this layer.
 Also known as lower atmosphere.
 It gets colder the higher you go.
 4 to 12 miles/6 to 20 km from the Earth’s surface.
 Tropopause: region between Troposphere and Stratosphere with mixing
characteristics.
2. Stratosphere
 Stable part of the atmosphere; this results in aircraft flying.
 About 50 km from the Earth’s surface.
 Contains the ozone layer.
 It gets hotter the higher you go.
 Stratopause: transition boundary between Stratosphere and Mesosphere.
3. Mesosphere
 From 50 km to 85 km above the surface.
 The gases become dense resulting in high temperatures.
 Slowing down and burning of meteors due to thick gases.
4. Thermosphere
 Layer with Auroras and space shuttles.
 From 80 km to 1000 km.
 High energy radiations (UV-rays and X-rays) from the sun are
absorbed by the molecules in this layer causing a large temperature
increase.
5. Exosphere
 Also known as the upper atmosphere.
 Last layer which is extremely thin in terms of gases.
 Up to 10,000 above the Earth.
Atmosphere - Structure
Hydrosphere - Introduction
 All of the water found on the Earth is called
Hydrosphere.
 It includes:
 Oceans
 Seas
 Lakes
 Ponds
 Rivers
 Streams
 It is estimated that 97% of Earth’s surface is covered by
water.
Hydrosphere - Introduction
Hydrosphere – Distribution of Water
1. Oceans – 97%
 Saline water
2. Freshwater – 0.16%
 Rivers, streams, lakes, etc.
3. Land – 2.1%
 Water held in the form of ice, snow and depression storage.
 Depression storage is the storage of water in small depressions e.g.
puddles.
4. Groundwater – 0.68%
 Water under the ground
5. Atmosphere – 0.02%
 Water exists in the form of water vapor, water droplets and ice
crystals.
Hydrosphere – Water Cycle
 The hydrological or water cycle is a conceptual
model that describes the storage and movement of
water between the biosphere, atmosphere,
lithosphere and hydrosphere.
 Physical changes involved:
 Liquid

 Gas/Vapor

 Solidification of water
Hydrosphere – Water Cycle
 There are multiple processes that take place during the water cycle:
1. Evaporation – sun energy is the main source of evaporation as the
kinetic energy of water molecules increases due to heat energy. About
90% of the atmosphere’s water comes from evaporation.
2. Perspiration – water released from living organisms due to
metabolism and heat.
3. Condensation – air/water vapor rises upwards and cools down
4. Precipitation – the cool air turns into water droplets and fall down to
the Earth in the form of fog, rain or snow.
5. Infiltration – movement of water from the surface into the ground. It
depends upon the type of soil and rock permeability.
6. Absorption – ways in which water is used by living organisms.
7. Transpiration – where moisture is carried through plants from roots to
small pores on the underside of leaves, where it changes to vapor and
is released to the atmosphere.
Hydrosphere – Water Cycle
Lithosphere - Introduction
 Lithosphere is the solid outer most layer of Earth,
which includes the Earth’s crust and the underlying
cool part of the upper mantle.
 It has a depth of about 70-100 km.
 It contains a rich variety of minerals.
 It continually interacts with the atmosphere and
hydrosphere.
Lithosphere - Introduction
Lithosphere - Types
1. Oceanic Lithosphere (Oceanic Crust)
 Part of Earth’s lithosphere present in the ocean basins.
 It is generally less than 10 km thick with a mean density of
about 3.3 g/cm^3
 It is mainly composed of mafic rocks which are dark in
color.
2. Continental Lithosphere (Continental Crust)
 Part of Earth’s lithosphere that forms the continents.
 It is 70 to 100 km thick with a density of less than 3
g/cm^3
 It is mainly composed of felsic rocks which are light in
color.
Lithosphere – Plate Tectonics
 The lithosphere is broken up into what are called
tectonic plates. It is divided into (7 major) (10 minor)
across the Earth.
 The large scale motion of these plates is known as
tectonic activity.
 Most tectonic activity takes place at the boundaries of
these plates known as fault lines.
 Hotspots exist within the plates.
 Tectonic activity is responsible for Earth’s most dramatic
geological events e.g. earthquakes, volcanoes, orogeny,
etc.
Lithosphere – Plate Tectonic Activities
1. Convergent
 When two plates come towards each other.
 It results in powerful earthquakes.
 When a continental plate converges on a oceanic plate, the oceanic
plate is forced down into the mantle where it begins to melt. Magma
rises and solidifies which results in a new continental crust.
2. Divergent
1. When two plates slide each other apart.
2. This results in volcanic activity and lava spews out.
3. Oceanic crust, made of basin, may be created.
3. Transformation
 When two plates slide past each other pulverizing the rocks.
 This results in earthquakes but no magma is formed in this case.
 Crust is not created or destroyed.
Lithosphere – Rocks
 Rock is any coherent, naturally occurring solid material
consisting of one or more minerals.
 Rocks are broadly classified into three groups based on
their process of formation: igneous rocks, metamorphic
rocks and sedimentary rocks.
1. Igneous Rocks
 Formed from solidification and cooling of magma.
 Igneous rocks have either coarse grained texture or fine
grained texture.
 Some are light colored and some are dark colored.
 They have silica content in them.
 Quartz, visible minerals, texture
Lithosphere – Rocks
2. Metamorphic Rocks
 Rocks that have experienced change due to high
pressure and temperatures.
 Texture is either foliated (platy minerals) or non-
foliated.
 Gneiss

3. Sedimentary Rocks
 Rocks formed by the deposition of material at the
Earth’s surface and within bodies of water.
 Examples are limestone, sandstone, coal, etc.
Lithosphere – Rock Cycle
Biosphere - Introduction
 The zone of the Earth where the atmosphere,
hydrosphere, lithosphere meet and interact together
to make life possible is known as the Biosphere.
 It has two components:
 Abiotic – non loving components e.g. hydrosphere,
atmosphere, lithosphere, etc.
 Biotic – living components like animals, plants, microbes,
etc.
Biosphere - Biomes
 Biomes are large ecological areas on the Earth’s
surface with fauna and flora (animals and plants)
adapting to their environments.
 Biomes are often defined by their abiotic factors
such as climate, geology, soil, vegetation, etc.
 A biome is not an ecosystem; many ecosystems can
exist within one biome.
Biosphere – Five Biomes Categories
1. The Desert Biome
 Deserts make up 20% of the total land on Earth and their main
characteristic is little to no rainfall.
 There are four major kinds of desert biomes: hot and dry
deserts, semi-arid deserts, coastal deserts, cold deserts.
 Desert biomes have extreme temperatures: either very high or
very low.
 They have little to no vegetation and they support only a
specific type of vegetation.
 Animals tend to burrow or stay in hideaways to avoid the harsh
temperature; they are mainly carnivores.
 Examples are the Sahara desert of North Africa and parts of
Mexico.
Biosphere – Five Biomes Categories
2. The Aquatic Biome
 Water biomes which make up about 73% of the Earth’s
surface.
 Aquatic biomes are divided into two types: Freshwater
Biomes (lakes, ponds, rivers, etc.) and Marine Biomes
(oceans, coral reefs, etc.).
 Aquatic life form depends upon abiotic factors such as
sunlight, temperature, pressure, amount of salt in the water,
etc.
 Water biomes with a lot of light tend to have more flora
diversity. However, growth of algae and plankton is
common.
Biosphere – Five Biomes Categories
3. The Forest Biome
 Forests cover about 30% of land on Earth.
 They play a very important role in climate control and life on Earth. It is
believed forests have the most biodiversity.
 There are three main types of forests: tropical, temperate and boreal.
 Tropical forests (evergreen forests) are hot, moist forests that are found near
the equator and receive rainfall throughout the year.
 Temperate forests are forests found between the tropics and polar regions in
the area of the earth with the widest seasonal changes, the temperate zone.
 Boreal forests (snow forests) are found in the cold polar regions and are
characterized by being coniferous.
 Soils are loose and airy with high acidity and decaying organic matter.
 All forest biomes support a variety of animal and plant life.
 Examples would be the Amazon rainforest or the Scandinavian forest (boreal).
Biosphere – Five Biomes Categories
4. The Grassland Biome
 Massive areas dominated by a species of grass with few
sparsely distributed trees.
 There are two main types of grassland biomes: the Savanna
Grasslands and the Temperate Grasslands.
 Savanna grasslands are mixed woodland grasslands
characterized by the trees being sufficiently widely spaced
so that the canopy does not close.
 Temperate grasslands have extreme temperatures with
high summers and freezing winters.
 Rainfall is moderate but not enough to cause major floods.
 The grasslands support a wide variety of bio-diversity e.g.
large mammals, hawks, deer, mice, foxes, rabbits, etc.
Biosphere – Five Biomes Categories
5. The Tundra Biome
 Coldest type of biome with the least bio-diversity.
 The biome has very little rain with freezing
temperatures.
 There are two major Tundra biomes: the artic biome
and the Alpine biome.
 Artic biome is located in the northern hemisphere
around the north pole.
 The Alpine biome is very cold and located on top of
high mountains often with very little vegetation.
Biosphere - Ecosystem
 Ecosystem: an ecosystem is a self-sustaining
structural and functional unit of the biosphere.
Biosphere consists of several ecosystems which
exchange material and energy among themselves.
 There are many different types of ecosystems:
 Land ecosystems
 Aquatic ecosystems

 Artificial ecosystems

 Forest ecosystems
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION
Atmospheric Pollution - Introduction
 When the atmosphere contains gases, dust or odor in
harmful amount then it is known as pollution.
 The phenomena through which the air is polluted is
called air pollution.
 The causes of air pollution are called pollutants which
are of two types:
1. Primary Pollutants
◼ Pollutants which directly go into the atmosphere from the source
without any chemical reaction e.g. CO, SO2
2. Secondary Pollutants
1. Pollutants which undergo chemical reactions in the atmosphere
e.g. Ozone (O3) from Oxygen (O2)
Atmospheric Pollution - Introduction
Different Pollutants
1. Carbon Monoxide
2. Sulphuric Oxides
3. Volatile Organic Compounds
1. Formaldehyde
4. Methyl Chloride
5. Particulate Matter
6. Coarse Material
7. Fine Particle
8. Tropospheric Ozone
9. Dioxin
Pollutants – Carbon Monoxide (CO)
 Causes
 Naturally from volcanic eruptions
 Fuel burning in various vehicles
 Forest fires
 Combustion of agricultural products
 Iron, steel, petroleum and cement industries
 Brick kilns
 Effects
 Binds blood hemoglobin more strongly than oxygen resulting in
breathing problems
 Headache
 Fatigue
 unconciousness
Pollutants – Nitrogen Oxides
 The oxides of Nitrogen; NO and NO(2)
 Causes
 Natural bacterial activities
 Burning of coal, oil, natural gas, gasoline, etc.
 Burning of fuel in internal combustion engine
 Effects
 Forms acid rain and produces harmful effects on humans,
plants and animals
 NO2 + VOCs → SMOG
 High exposure can lead to coughing
 Shortness of breath
Pollutants – Sulphuric Oxides
 The oxides of Sulphur; SO(2) and SO(3)
 Causes
 Volcanoes

 Oxidationof Sulphur
 Combustion of fuel

 Effects
 Asthma

 Pungent odor is very irritating and suffocating

Pollutants – Volatile Organic Compounds

 Those organic compounds that easily become

vapors or gases. They contain element along with
carbon, nitrogen and hydrogen.
 Causes
 Paints,
wood preservatives, etc.
 Benzene from forest fires and volcanoes

 Effects
 Causes dizziness, vomiting, sleeping, rapid heart beat
 High exposure may cause death
Pollutants – Formaldehyde
 Formaldehyde evaporates from paint, wall boards,
ceiling tiles etc.
 Effects
 Irritates the mucus membrane of people
Pollutants – Methyl Chloride
 Methyl Chloride is found in adhesive removers and
aerosol spray
 Effects
 Toxic:can cause death, red eyes, tears and stomach
problems
Pollutants – Fine Particles
 Particles (diameter <2.5 um) formed when fuel is
burnt in automobiles.
 Effects
 Small so they can penetrate into lungs
 Difficulty in breathing

 Irregular heartbeat

 Aggravated asthma

 Irritation of airways
Pollutants – Tropospheric Ozone
 Ozone formed in the Troposphere.
 Causes
 Burning of fossil fuels
 Industries
 NO2 + VOC
 Effects
 Asthma attacks
 Breathing difficulty
 Coughing
 Sore throat
 Ozone even hurts blood cells
Pollutants – Dioxin
 Dioxin is a general form that describes a group of hundreds
of chemicals that are highly persisted in the environment.
 Causes
 Formed by burning chlorine based substances with hydrocarbon
 Chemical and pesticide manufacturing gives dioxins as a by
product
 Paper mills emit dioxin
 Effects
 Dioxins are Carcinogens which cause cancer
 If inhaled, they can cause reproductive problems
 Causes birth defects
 Damages immune system
Acid Rain
 Rain that has a pH level of less than 5.6
 Acid rain is formed when Oxides of Nitrogen and Sulfite combine with moisture in
the atmosphere to make Nitric and Sulfuric acids.
 Causes
 Sulfur Dioxide (SO(2))
 oxides of Nitrogen
 Effects
 Remove nutrients from the soil by making it acidic
 Makes some elements toxic e.g. it makes Aluminum soluble
 Plant diseases
 Negative effects on aquatic biomes
 Problems in reproductivity
 Corrosion of metals
 Downgrades leather and rubber
 Health issues
Acid Rain
 Solutions
 Reduce the use of fossil fuels
 Adding scrubbers to utility plants

 Alternate power sources

Ozone Depletion
 Ozone is a layer of O(3) in the stratosphere which
protects humans from harmful radiations that emit from
the sun.
 It is a highly reactive molecule that is constantly being
formed and broken down in a high atmosphere.
 Causes of Ozone depletion
 Natural causes by sun-spots and stratospheric winds
 CFCs
 Halons in fire extinguishers
 HCFCs
Ozone Depletion
 Effects
 Skin cancer
 Cataracts, blindness, eye diseases

 Loss of biodiversity

 Weakening of the human immune system

 Measures to control Ozone depletion

 194 nations signed international agreement to end the
production of CFCs called the Montreal Protocol.
MIST, FOG, SMOG, HAZE AND VOG
 Mist is a phenomenon caused by small droplets of water suspended
in air.
 Fog is a cloud that reaches ground level, even if that "ground" is a
hill or mountaintop.
 Smog is a kind of air pollution, originally named for the mixture of
smoke and fog in the air. Classic smog results from large amounts of
coal burning in an area and is caused by a mixture of smoke and
sulfur dioxide. NO2 → NO + O. NO combines with VOC. O + O2
→ O3 leading to smog in troposphere.
 Haze is traditionally an atmospheric phenomenon in which dust,
smoke, and other dry particulates obscure the clarity of the sky.
 Vog is a form of air pollution that results when sulfur dioxide and
other gases and particles emitted by an erupting volcano react with
oxygen and moisture in the presence of sunlight.
Climate Change
 Climate change refers to the significant, long-term
changes in the global climate.
 Everything is connected with a system which affects
climate.
 Pollution and global warming affect the global
climate which may melt the ice in Antarctica which
may flood cities in the future.
Global Warming
 Global war is the slow increase in the average
temperature of the atmosphere.
 This is because an increased amount of the energy is
being trapped in the atmosphere due to Greenhouse
gases rather than being radiated out into space.
 Facts
 Global sea level has risen 7 inches in the past century
 Carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere are at 406.5 ppm
as of 2017, the highest ever.
 Average global temperature has increased by 0.94 degree
Celsius.
Global Warming
Global Warming
 Effects
 Melting glaciers
 Rising sea levels

 Increased flooding

 Droughts

 Extreme weather conditions

INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS
Montreal Protocol (1987/1989)
 Purpose
◼ control substances that deplete the ozone layer.
 197 members; Sudan joined in 2017
 Former UN secretary stated, “Perhaps the single most successful
international agreement to date has been the Montreal Protocol.”
 The hole in the Ozone layer has started to recover and may be
fixed by 2075 according to the scientist panel of Montreal
Protocol.
 Policy of compliance.
 Criticisms
◼ funds were not provided to developing countries which continued the
use of CFCs.
◼ Black trading of HCFCs also began in countries where it was banned.
Kyoto Protocol (1997/2005)
 Purpose
◼ To control the emission of greenhouse gases that lead to global
warming and climate change.
 Took place in Kyoto, Japan.
 Features
◼ Deals with six anthropogenic gases which account for global warming
◼ Collective reduction of greenhouses gases
◼ It was signed by 81 countries and EU as of May 2014.
 Criticisms
◼ Non universal nature
◼ Based on goodwill
◼ Withdrawal of Canada
◼ India’s two sided controversy
WATER POLLUTION
Water Pollution - Introduction
 Water pollution is the contamination of water
bodies when pollutants are discharged into them
either directly or indirectly.
 Without adequate treatment to remove the harmful
compounds, the water becomes harmful for plant
and animal life.
 Sources:
 Point
(waste pipe)
 Non-point (water over field with pesticide)
 Groundwater (traditional latrines)
Water Pollution - Introduction
Major Water Pollutants
1. Synthetic Organic Compounds (SOCs)
 Organic compounds which are man-made
 Sources
1. Pesticides
2. Detergents
3. Chemical dyes
4. Industrial chemicals
 Effects
1. Toxic
2. Exposure is chronic
3. Carcinogens (cancerous)
Major Water Pollutants
 Wastewater/Oxygen Demanding Water
 Oxygen required by biological organisms to break down
organic matter in wastewater.
 Can be measured with BOD (biological oxygen demand)
 Sources
1. Dead plants and animal tissues
2. Urbanization
 Effects
1. Organisms which require Oxygen for their high metabolism are
harmed.
2. Freely moving organisms will move out of their zones
3. Deadzones
Major Water Pollutants
 Thermal Pollution
 The sudden increase or decrease on temperature of a
natural water body by human activities.
 Sources
1. Deforestation
2. Nuclear activities
3. Water used as cooling agent leaving it warmed
4. Soil erosion
 Effects
1. Toxic
2. Change in environment may cause some species to shift their
origin
3. Marine reproduction affected
Major Water Pollutants
 Infectious Bacteria
 Sources
1. Fecal pollution
 Effects
1. Diseases such as gastro enteritis, fatal dysentery, cholera and
typhoid
 Virus
 Sources
1. Sewerage discharge
 Effects
1. Hepatitis A
2. Respiratory diseases
3. Fever and vomiting
Major Water Pollutants
 Protozoa
 The Protozoa are a diverse group of unicellular
eukaryotic organisms.
 Sources
◼ These organisms live in soil and water. They contaminate
them when they come in contact with sewage and animal
waste.
 Effects
◼ Infections
of blood or tissues
◼ Sleeping sickness
◼ Severe diarrhea
Major Water Pollutants
 Plant Nutrients
 Nutrients essential to plants may contain water resources.
 Sources
◼ Flow from fertilizers of plants to water resources
◼ Weathering of rocks and soil
◼ Run off from rain

 Effects
◼ Excessive amount of nutrients accelerate algae growth which
blocks light for plants
◼ Low oxygen levels which is dangerous to aquatic life
◼ High nutrient areas leading to cultural eutrophication (algae)
Major Water Pollutants
 Sediments
 Naturally occurring material that is broken down by the
processes of weathering and erosion. It is transported by
wind or water.
 Sources
◼ Soil loss and land degradation
◼ Silt and clay
 Effects
◼ Water bed rises due to deposition of sediments
◼ Effect navigation channels
◼ Can cause flooding
◼ Harm to dams
Major Water Pollutants
 Radioactivity
 Deposition of radioactive substances on surface or within water. In
fact, radioactive materials emit radiation which is harmful for
health.
 Sources
◼ Radioactive materials
◼ Medical use of isotopes
◼ Waste of nuclear fuel
 Effects
◼ Cancer
◼ Changes in DNA structure
◼ Loss of hair
◼ Damage to blood vessels
◼ Death
Major Water Pollutants
 Heavy Metals and Acids
 Metals with high atomic mass
 Sources
◼ Mineralprocessing
◼ Mercury emission from coal powered plants

 Effects
◼ Toxic
◼ Damage to tissues
◼ Lung damage and lung cancer
◼ Kidney damage
Drinking Water
 Quality
 Drinking water quality refer to the chemical, physical
and biological characteristics of water.
 It is a measure of condition of water relative to the
requirement of one or more biotic species (especially
humans).
 It is judged by
◼ DissolvedOxygen
◼ Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
◼ Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Drinking Water Quality Standards
 Parameters to judge quality
 Color
 Haziness
 pH level
 Organoleptic parameter
 Taste
 Australian, EU and US standards vary from each other
 WHO Guidelines
 Good quality of water ingredients
◼ Arsenic
◼ Garium
◼ Benzene
◼ CCl4
LAND POLLUTION
Land Pollution - Introduction
 Land pollution is the deposition of solid or liquid waste
material on land or underground which contaminates the soil
or ground water.
 Land pollution may be different on the basis of the material
polluting the land; it ranges from hazardous material to
nonhazardous material.
 Materials which cause land pollution
1. Municipal Solid Waste Material (MSW)
◼ Rubbish, trash, plastic, etc.
2. Construction and Demolition Waste (C&D)
◼ Wood, metal objects, concrete, asphalt
3. Hazardous Waste
◼ Waste of chemicals, waste of industries, dry cleaners, paper mills
Land Pollution – Solid Waste Management

 Techniques to dispose solid and liquid waste in such

a way that it minimizes the risk of adverse effects
on human beings, plants and aquatic life.
 Ways to manage waste
 Land Fill
 Incineration of solid waste

 Treatment of industrial waste

 Recycling
Soil Salinity
 Soil salinity is the salt content in the soil; the process of
increasing the salt content is known as salinization.
 Salts occur naturally within soils and water.
 Salinization can be caused by
 Natural processes such as mineral weathering
 The gradual withdrawal of an ocean
 Effects
 Corrosive action to plants
 Formation of alkali soil
 Preventive measures
 Controlled irrigation
 Reducing surface evaporation
Water Logging
 Waterlogging refers to the saturation of soil with
water.
 Soil may be regarded as waterlogged when it is
nearly saturated with water much of the time such
that its air phase is restricted and anaerobic
conditions prevail.
 Effects
 Breeding grounds for mosquitoes
 Agricultural issues
 Soil erosion