Principles of Programming using C

Course Code: 22POP13/23 CIE Marks:50

Course Type SEE Marks:50
Integrated
(Theory/Practical/Integrated) Total marks:100
Teaching Hours/Week
[Link] Exam Hours 3+2
(L:T:P: S)

Total Hours of Pedagogy 40 hours Credits 03

Module-1 (6 Hours of Pedagogy)

Introduction to C: Introduction to computers, input and output devices, designing efficient programs.
Introduction to C, Structure of C program, Files used in a C program, Compilers, Compiling and
executing C programs, variables, constants, Input/output statements in C,

Textbook:
1. Computer fundamentals and programming in c, “Reema Thareja”, Oxford University, Second
edition, 2017.

Chapter 1
Introduction to Computers
Takeaways:
• Characteristics of computers
• Digital computers
• Stored program concept
• Generations of computers
• Types of computers
• Applications of computers
• Basic organization of a computer

By-
Prof. Santosh K C
Dept. of C S E
B.I.E.T
Davangere-04
Contact: +91 9886134300
e-mail:santoshkc@[Link]
blog: [Link]
Principles of Programming using C- 22POP13

Chapter 1
Introduction to Computers
1.1 COMPUTER
A computer, in simple terms, can be defined as an electronic device that is designed to accept
data, perform the required mathematical and logical operations at high speed, and output the result. We
all have seen computers in our homes, schools, and colleges. In fact, in today’s scenario, we find
computers in most aspects of our daily lives. For some of us, it is hard to even imagine a world without
them.
In the past, computers were extremely large in size and often required an entire room for
installation. These computers consumed enormous amounts of power and were too expensive to be used
for commercial applications. Therefore, they were used only for limited tasks, such as computing
trajectories for astronomical or military applications. However, with technological advancements, the
size of computers became smaller and their energy requirements reduced immensely. This opened the
way for adoption of computers for commercial purposes.

1.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS

These days, computers have become a crucial part of our everyday lives, and we need computers
just like we need televisions, telephones, or other electronic devices at home. Computers are basically
meant to solve problems quickly and accurately. The important characteristics of a computer (refer to
Figure 1.1) are discussed in the following text.

Figure 1.1 Characteristics of computers

Speed Computers can perform millions of operations per second, which means that data that may
otherwise take many hours to process is output as information in the blink of an eye. The speed of
computers is usually given in nanoseconds and picoseconds, where 1 nanosecond = 1 × 10 −9 seconds
and 1 picosecond = 1 × 10 −12 seconds.

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Accuracy: A computer is a very fast, reliable, and robust electronic device. It always gives
accurate results, provided the correct data and set of instructions are input to it. Hence, in the event of an
error, it is the user who has fed the incorrect data/program is responsible. This clearly means that the
output generated by a computer depends on the given instructions and input data. If the input data is
wrong, then the output will also be erroneous. In computer
terminology, this is known as garbage-in, garbage-out (GIGO).
Automation: Besides being very fast and accurate, computers are automatable devices that can
perform a task without any user intervention. The user just needs to assign the task to the computer, after
which it automatically controls different devices attached to it and executes the program instructions.
Diligence: Unlike humans, computers never get tired of a repetitive task. It can continually work
for hours without creating errors. Even if a large number of executions need
to be executed, each and every execution requires the same duration, and is executed with the same
accuracy.
Versatile: Versatility is the quality of being flexible. Today, computers are used in our daily life
in different fields. For example, they are used as personal computers (PCs) for home use, for business-
oriented tasks, weather forecasting, space exploration, teaching, railways, banking, medicine, and so on,
indicating that computers can perform different tasks simultaneously. On the PC that you use at home,
you may play a game, compose and send e-mails, listen to music, etc. Therefore, computers are versatile
devices as they can perform multiple tasks of different nature at the same time.
Memory: Similar to humans, computers also have memory. Just the way we cannot store
everything in our memory and need secondary media, such as a notebook, to record certain important
things, computers also have internal or primary memory (storage space) as well as external or secondary
memory. While the internal memory of computers is very expensive and limited in size, the secondary
storage is cheaper and of bigger capacity.
The computer stores a large amount of data and programs in the secondary storage space. The
stored data and programs can be retrieved and used whenever required. Secondary memory is the key for
data storage. Some examples of secondary devices include floppy disks, optical disks (CDs and DVDs),
hard disk drives (HDDs), and pen drives.
No IQ: Although the trend today is to make computers intelligent by inducing artificial
intelligence (AI) in them, they still do not have any decision-making abilities of their own. They need
guidance to perform various tasks.
Economical: Today, computers are considered as short term investments for achieving long-term
gains. Using computers also reduces manpower requirements and leads to an elegant and efficient way
of performing various tasks. Hence, computers save time, energy, and money. When compared to other
systems, computers can do more work in lesser time.

1.3 STORED PROGRAM CONCEPT

All digital computers are based on the principle of stored program concept, which was introduced
by Sir John von Neumann in the late 1940s. The following are the key characteristic features of this
concept:
• Before any data is processed, instructions are read into memory.
• Instructions are stored in the computer’s memory for execution.
• Instructions are stored in binary form (using binary numbers—only 0s and 1s).
• Processing starts with the first instruction in the program, which is copied into a control unit
circuit. The control unit executes the instructions.

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• Instructions written by the users are performed sequentially until there is a break in the current
flow.
• Input/Output and processing operations are performed simultaneously. While data is being
read/written, the central processing unit (CPU) executes another program in the memory that is ready for
execution.

(a)

(b)

Figure 1.2: Von Neumann architecture (a) Shared memory for instructions and data
(b) Separate memories for instructions and data
A computer with a Von Neumann architecture stores data and instructions in the same memory.
There is a serial machine in which data and instructions are selected one at a time. Data and instructions
are transferred to and from memory through a shared data bus. Since there is a single bus to carry data
and instructions, process execution becomes slower.

1.4 HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

Early computers were designed not for entertainment but for solving number-crunching
problems. These computers were punch-card based computers that took up entire rooms. Today, our
smartphones have much more computing power than that was available in those early computers. In this
section, we will read about history of computers way back from the invention of abacus and take a look
at the remarkable achievements in computing technology till the current time.
Timeline of Developments
300 BC: The abacus was an early aid for mathematical computations and was designed to aid human’s
memory while performing calculations. A skilled abacus operator can add and subtract with the same
speed as that of a person performing the same calculation using a hand calculator. The invention of
abacus is often wrongly attributed to China. It was used by the Babylonians even in 300 BC and is still
in use today (in the Far East).

Prof. Santosh K C, Asst. Prof. CSE dept. BIET, Davangere-04

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1822: English mathematician Charles Babbage designed a steam-driven calculating machine that could
compute tables of numbers. Though the project failed as he could not complete the construction of the
engine, it laid the foundation for the first computer
1890: Herman Hollerith, an American inventor, designed a punched card system to calculate the 1880
census. The system completed the task in three years saving the US government $5 million. Later
Herman established a company that we today know as IBM.
1936: British mathematician Alan Turing introduced a universal machine called the Turing machine
capable of computing anything that is computable. The central concept of the modern computer is based
on this machine.
1941: John Vincent Atanasoff, a Bulgarian-American physicist, and his graduate student, Clifford Berry,
at Iowa State College designed Atanasoff–Berry computer (ABC) that could solve 29 equations
simultaneously. It was the first time a computer could store information in its main memory.
1943–1944: John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert built the Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Calculator (ENIAC), which is considered as the grandfather of digital computers. It filled a 20 × 40 feet
room and had 18,000 vacuum tubes.
1946: Mauchly and Presper designed the UNIVAC, which was the first commercial computer for
business and government applications.
1947: William Shockley, John Bardeen, and Walter Brattain of Bell Laboratories invented the transistor.
Soon vacuum tubes in computers were replaced by transistors.
1953: Grace Hopper developed the first computer language COBOL.
1954: The FORTRAN programming language was developed.
1958: Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation
separately invented integrated circuit, which is commonly known as the computer chip.
1964: Douglas Engelbart developed a prototype of the modern computer, with a mouse and a graphical
user interface (GUI). This was a remarkable achievement as it shifted computers from a specialized
machine for scientists and mathematicians to general public.
1969: Unix operating system was developed at Bell Labs. It was written in the C programming language
and was designed to be portable across multiple platforms. Soon it became the operating system of
choice among mainframes at large companies and government entities.
1970: DRAM chip was introduced by Intel.
1971: Alan Shugart with his team in IBM invented the floppy disk which allowed data to be shared
among computers.
1973: Robert Metcalfe, a research member at Xerox, developed Ethernet for connecting multiple
computers and other hardware.
1974–1977: Personal computers started becoming popular.
1975: Paul Allen and Bill Gates started writing software for the Altair 8800 using the new BASIC
language. On April 4, they both formed their own software company, Microsoft.
1976: Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak started Apple Computers and developed Apple I, the fi rst
computer with a single-circuit board.

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1977: Apple II was launched that offered colour graphics and incorporated an audio cassette drive for
storage.
1978: WordStar, a word processor application, was released by MicroPro International.
1979: VisiCalc, the fi rst computerized spreadsheet program for personal computers, was unveiled.
1981: The fi rst IBM personal computer was introduced that used Microsoft’s MS-DOS operating
system. The term PC was popularized.
1983: The fi rst laptop was introduced. Moreover, Apple introduced Lisa as the fi rst personal computer
with a GUI with drop-down menus and icons.
1985: Microsoft announced Windows as a new operating system.
1986: Compaq introduced Deskpro 386 in the market, which was a 32-bit architecture machine that
provides speed comparable to mainframes.
1990: Tim Berners-Lee invented World Wide Web with HTML as its publishing language.
1993: The Pentium microprocessor introduced the use of graphics and music on PCs.
1994: PC games became popular.
1996: Sergey Brin and Larry Page developed the Google search engine at Stanford University.
1999: The term Wi-Fi was introduced when users started connecting to the Internet without wires.
2001: Apple introduced Mac OS X operating system, which had protected memory architecture and pre-
emptive multi-tasking, among other benefi ts. To stay competitive, Microsoft launched Windows XP.
2003: The fi rst 64-bit processor, AMD’s Athlon 64, was brought into the consumer market.
2004: Mozilla released Firefox 1.0 and in the same year Facebook, a social networking site, was
launched.
2005: YouTube, a video sharing service, was launched. In the same year, Google acquired Android, a
Linux-based mobile phone operating system.
2006: Apple introduced MacBook Pro, its first Intelbased, dual-core mobile computer.
2007: Apple released iPhone, which brought many computer functions in the smartphone.
2009: Microsoft launched Windows 7 in which users could pin applications to the taskbar.
2010: Apple launched iPad, which revived the tablet computer segment.
2011: Google introduced Chrome book, a laptop that runs on the Google Chrome operating system.
2015: Apple released the Apple Watch. In the same year, Microsoft launched Windows 10.
After reading these interesting developments in computing technology, let us also understand the
evolution of computers through different generations.

First Generation (1942–1955)

Hardware Technology First generation computers were manufactured using thousands of vacuum tubes
(see Figure 1.3); a vacuum tube is a device made of fragile glass. Memory Electromagnetic relay was
used as primary memory and punched cards were used to store data and instructions.
Software Technology Programming was done in machine or assembly language.
Used for Scientific applications
Prof. Santosh K C, Asst. Prof. CSE dept. BIET, Davangere-04
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Examples ENIAC, EDVAC, EDSAC, UNIVAC I, IBM 701

Highlights
• They were the fastest calculating device of those times
• Computers were too bulky and required a complete room for storage
• Highly unreliable as vacuum tubes emitted a large amount of heat and burnt frequently
• Required air-conditioned rooms for installation
• Costly
• Difficult to use
• Required constant maintenance because vacuum tubes used fi laments that had limited life time.
Therefore, these computers were prone to frequent hardware failures

Figure 1.3 Vacuum tube

Second Generation (1955–1964)
Hardware Technology Second generation computers were manufactured using transistors (see Figure
1.4). Transistors were reliable, powerful, cheaper, smaller, and cooler than vacuum tubes. Memory
Magnetic core memory was used as primary memory; magnetic tapes and magnetic disks were used to
store data and instructions. These computers had faster and larger memory than the fi rst generation
computers.
Software Technology Programming was done in high level programming languages. Batch operating
system was used.
Used for Scientific and commercial applications
Examples Honeywell 400, IBM 7030, CDC 1604, UNIVAC LARC
Highlights
• Faster, smaller, cheaper, reliable, and easier to use than the first generation computers. They consumed
1/10th the power consumed by first generation computers
• Bulky in size and required a complete room for its installation
• Dissipated less heat than fi rst generation computers but still required air-conditioned rooms
• Costly
• Difficult to use

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Figure 1.4 Transistors

Third Generation (1964–1975)
Hardware Technology Third generation computers were manufactured using integrated chips (ICs)
(shown in Figure 1.5). ICs consist of several components such as transistors, capacitors, and resistors on
a single chip to avoid wired interconnections between components. These computers used SSI and MSI
technology. Minicomputers came into existence.
Note- Initially, ICs contained 10–20 components. This technology was called Small Scale Integration
(SSI). Later, it was enhanced to contain about 100 components. This was called MSI (Medium Scale
Integration).
Memory Larger magnetic core memory was used as primary memory; larger capacity magnetic tapes
and magnetic disks were used to store data and instructions.
Software Technology Programming was done in high level programming languages such as
FORTRAN, COBOL, Pascal, and BASIC. Time sharing operating system was used. Software was
separated from the hardware. This allowed users to invest only in the software they need.
Used for Scientific, commercial, and interactive online applications
Examples IBM 360/370, PDP-8, PADP-11, CDC6600
Highlights
• Faster, smaller, cheaper, reliable, and easier to use than the second generation computers
• They consumed less power than second generation computers
• Bulky in size and required a complete room for installation
• Dissipated less heat than second generation computers but still required air-conditioned rooms
• Costly
• Easier to use and upgrade.
Fourth Generation (1975–1989)
Hardware Technology Fourth generation computers were manufactured using ICs with LSI (Large
Scale Integrated) and later with VLSI technology (Very Large Scale Integration). Microcomputers came
into existence. Use of personal computers became widespread. High speed computer networks in the
form of LANs, WANs, and MANs started growing. Besides mainframes, supercomputers were also
used.

Prof. Santosh K C, Asst. Prof. CSE dept. BIET, Davangere-04

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Figure 1.5 Integrated circuits

Memory Semiconductor memory was used as primary memory, large capacity magnetic disks were used
as built-in secondary memory. Magnetic tapes and floppy disks were used as portable storage devices.
Software Technology Programming was done in high level programming language such as C and C++.
Graphical User Interface (GUI) based operating system (e.g. Windows) was introduced. It had icons and
menus among other features to allow computers to be used as a general purpose machine by all users.
UNIX was also introduced as an open source operating system. Apple Mac OS and MS DOS were also
released during this period. All these operating systems had multi-processing and multiprogramming
capabilities.
Used for Scientific, commercial, interactive online, and network applications
Examples IBM PC, Apple II, TRS-80, VAX 9000, CRAY-1, CRAY-2, CRAY-X/MP

Figure 1.6: VLSI Chip

Fifth Generation (1989–Present)

Hardware Technology Fifth generation computers are manufactured using ICs with ULSI Ultra Large
Scale Integrated) technology. The use of Internet became widespread and very powerful mainframes,
desktops, portable laptops, and smartphones are being used commonly. Supercomputers use parallel
processing techniques.

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Memory Semiconductor memory is used as primary memory; large capacity magnetic disks are used as
built-in secondary memory. Magnetic tapes and floppy disks were used as portable storage devices,
which have now been replaced by optical disks and USB flash drives.
Software Technology Programming is done in high-level programming languages such as Java, Python,
and C#. Graphical User Interface (GUI)-based operating systems such as Windows, Unix, Linux,
Ubuntu, and Apple Mac are being used. These operating systems are more powerful and user friendly
than the ones available in the previous generations.
Used for Scientific, commercial, interactive online, multimedia (graphics, audio, video), and network
applications.
Examples IBM notebooks, Pentium PCs, SUM workstations, IBM SP/2, Param supercomputer.
Highlights
• Faster, smaller, cheaper, powerful, reliable, and easier to use than the previous generation computers
• Speed of microprocessors and the size of memory are growing rapidly.

Figure 1.7: ULSI Chip

1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers can be broadly classified into four categories based on their speed, amount of data that they
can process and price (refer to Figure 1.8). These categories are as follows:
• Supercomputers
• Mainframe computers
• Minicomputers
• Microcomputers

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Figure 1.8: Classification of Computers

1.5.1 Supercomputers
Among the four categories, the supercomputer is the fastest, most powerful, and most expensive
computer. Supercomputers were first developed in the 1980s to process large amounts of data and to
solve complex scientific problems. Supercomputers use parallel processing technology and can perform
more than one trillion calculations in a second.
1.5.2 Mainframe Computers
Mainframe computers are large-scale computers (but smaller than supercomputers). These are
very expensive and need a very large clean room with air conditioning, thereby making them very costly
to deploy. As with supercomputers, mainframes can also support multiple processors. For example, the
IBM S/390 mainframe can support 50,000 users at the same time. Users can access mainframes by either
using terminals or via PCs. The two types of terminals that can be used with mainframe systems are as
follows:
Dumb Terminals
Dumb terminals consist of only a monitor and a keyboard (or mouse). They do not have their own CPU
and memory and use the mainframe system’s CPU and storage devices.
Intelligent Terminals
In contrast to dumb terminals, intelligent terminals have their own processor and thus can perform some
processing operations. However, just like the dumb terminals, they do not have their own storage space.
Usually, PCs are used as intelligent terminals to facilitate data access and other services from the
mainframe system.
Mainframe computers are typically used as servers on the World Wide Web. They are also used
in organizations such as banks, airline companies, and universities, where a large number of users
frequently access the data stored in their databases. IBM is the major manufacturer of mainframe
computers. Some examples of mainframe computers include IBM S/390, Control Data CYBER 176, and
Amdahl 580.
1.5.3 Minicomputers
As the name suggests, minicomputers are smaller, cheaper, and slower than mainframes. They
are called minicomputers because they were the smallest computer of their times. Also known as
midrange computers, the capabilities of minicomputers fall between mainframe and personal computers.
1.5.4 Microcomputers
Microcomputers, commonly known as PCs, are very small and cheap. The first microcomputer
was designed by IBM in 1981 and was named IBM-PC. Later on, many computer hardware companies

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copied this design and termed their microcomputers as PC-compatible, which refers to any PC that is
based on the original IBM PC design. Another type of popular PC is designed by Apple. PCs designed
by IBM and other PC-compatible computers have a different architecture from that of Apple computers.
Moreover, PCs and PC-compatible computers commonly use the Windows operating system, while
Apple computers use the Macintosh operating system (MacOS). PCs can be classified into the following
categories:
Desktop PCs
A desktop PC is the most popular model of PCs. The system unit of the desktop PC can be placed
flat on a desk or table. It is widely used in homes and offices.
Laptops
Laptops (Figure 1.9) are small microcomputers that can easily fi t inside a briefcase. They are
very handy and can easily be carried from one place to another. They may also be placed on the user’s
lap (thus the name). Hence, laptops are very useful, especially when going on long journeys. Laptops
operate on a battery and do not always have to be plugged in like desktop computers.
Workstations
Workstations are single-user computers that have the same features as PCs, but their processing
speed matches that of a minicomputer or mainframe computer. Workstation computers have advanced
processors, more RAM and storage capacity than PCs. Therefore, they are more expensive and powerful
than a normal desktop computer.
Network Computers
Network computers have less processing power, memory, and storage than a desktop computer.
These are specially designed to be used as terminals in a networked environment. For example, some
network computers are specifically designed to access data stored on a network (including the Internet
and intranet)
Handheld Computers
The mid-1990s witnessed a range of small personal computing devices that are commonly known
as handheld computers, or mobile computers. These computers are called handheld computers because
they can fit in one hand, while users can use the other hand to operate them.
Handheld computers are very small in size, and hence they have small-sized screens and
keyboards. These computers are preferred by business travellers and mobile employees whose jobs
require them to move from place to place. Some examples of handheld computers are as follows:
• Smartphones • Tablet PCs
Smartphones These days, cellular phones are web-enabled telephones. Such phones are also known as
smartphones because, in addition to basic phone capabilities, they also facilitate the users to access the
Internet and send e-mails, edit Word documents, generate an Excel sheet, create a presentation, and lots
more. Smartphones run an advanced mobile operating system that enables it to run various applications.
The four major mobile operating systems are iOS, Android, BlackBerryOS, and Windows Mobile.
Smartphones also have a CPU, more storage space, more memory, and a larger screen than a regular cell
phone. In a nutshell, smartphone refers to a multi-functional mobile phone handset that packs in varied
functionalities from a camera to a web browser to a high-density display.

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Tablet PCs A tablet PC (see Figure 1.10) is a computing device that is smaller than a laptop, but bigger
than a smartphone. Features such as user-friendly interface, portability, and touch screen have made
them very popular in the last few years. These days, a wide range of high-performance tablets are
available in the market. While all of them look similar from outside, they may differ in features such as
operating system, speed of data connectivity, camera specifications, size of the screen, processing power,
battery life, and storage capability.
1.6 APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS
When the first computers were developed, they were used only in the fields of mathematics and
science. In fact, the first effective utilization of computers was for decoding
messages in military applications. Later on, computers were used in real-time control systems, like for
landing on the moon. However, with the advancement of technology, the cost of computers and their
maintenance declined. This opened the way for computers to be extensively used in the business and
commercial sector for information processing. Today, computers are widely used in fields such as
engineering, health care, banking, education, etc. Let us discuss how computers are being effectively
utilized to perform important tasks.
Word processing Word processing software enables users to read and write documents. Users can also
add images, tables, and graphs for illustrating a concept. The software automatically corrects spelling
mistakes and includes copy–paste features (which is very useful where the same text has to be repeated
several times).
Internet The Internet is a network of networks that connects computers all over the world. It gives the
user access to an enormous amount of information, much more than available in any library. Using e-
mail, the user can communicate in seconds with a person who is located thousands of miles away. Chat
software enables users to chat with another person in real-time (irrespective of the physical location of
that person). Video conferencing tools are becoming popular for conducting meetings with people who
are unable to be present at a particular place.
Digital video or audio composition Computers make audio or video composition and editing very
simple. This has drastically reduced the cost of equipment to compose music or make a fi lm. Graphics
engineers use computers for developing short or full-length films and creating 3-D models and special
effects in science fiction and action movies.
Desktop publishing Desktop publishing software enables us to create page layouts for entire books.
After discussing how computers are used in today’s scenario, let us now have a look at the different
areas where computers are being widely utilized.
Bioinformatics Bioinformatics is the application of computer technology to manage large amount of
biological information. Computers are used to collect, store, analyse, and integrate biological and genetic
information to facilitate gene-based drug discovery and development. The need for analysis has become
even more important with enormous amount of genomic information available publicly from the Human
Genome Project.
Health care Last few years have seen a massive growth of computers and smartphone users. Like in our
daily lives, computers have also become a necessary device in the health care industry. The following
are areas in which computers.
o Storing records To begin with, computers are first and foremost used to store the
medical records of patients. Earlier, patient records were kept on paper, with separate
records dealing with different medical issues from separate healthcare organizations.
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o Surgical procedures Computers are used for certain surgical procedures. They enable the
surgeon to use computer to control and move surgical instruments in the patient’s body
for a variety of surgical procedures. In such surgeries, a small incision is made, and then a
small surgical tool with an attached camera is placed inside the patient’s body. This
reduces the risk of complications from a larger surgical wound, and minimizes damage
done to the patient’s body.
Better diagnosis and treatment Computers help physicians make better diagnoses and recommend
treatments. Moreover, computers can be used to compare expected results with actual results in order to
help physicians make better decisions.
Meteorology Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere. This branch of science observes variables of
Earth’s atmosphere such as temperature, air pressure, water vapour, and the gradients and interactions of
each variable, and how they change over time. Meteorology has applications in many diverse fields such
as the military, energy production, transport, agriculture, and construction.
Multimedia and Animation Multimedia and animation that combine still images, moving images, text,
and sound in meaningful ways is one of most powerful aspects of computer technology. We all have
seen cartoon movies, which are nothing but an example of computer animation.
Retail Business Computers are used in retail shops to enter orders, calculate costs, and print receipts.
They are also used to keep an inventory of the products available and their complete description.
Sports In sports, computers are used to compile statistics, identify weak players and strong players by
analysing statistics, sell tickets, create training programs and diets for athletes, and suggest game plan
strategies based on the competitor’s past performance. Computers are also used to generate most of the
graphic art displays flashed on scoreboards.

Travel and Tourism Computers are used to prepare tickets, monitor the train’s or airplane’s route, and
guide the plane to a safe landing. They are also used to research about hotels in an area, reserve rooms,
or to rent a car.
Simulation Supercomputers that can process enormous amount of data are widely used in simulation
tests. Simulation of automobile crashes or airplane emergency landings is done to identify potential
weaknesses in designs without risking human lives.
Astronomy Spacecraft’s are usually monitored using computers that not only keep a continuous record
of the voyage and of the speed, direction, fuel, and temperature, but also suggest corrective action if the
vehicle makes a mistake. The remote stations on the earth compare all these quantities with the desired
values, and in case these values need to be modified to enhance the performance of the spacecraft,
signals are immediately sent that set in motion the mechanics to rectify the situation.
Education A computer is a powerful teaching aid and can act as another teacher in the classroom.
Teachers use computers to develop instructional material. Teachers may use pictures, graphs, and
graphical presentations to easily illustrate an otherwise difficult concept. Moreover, teachers at all levels
can use computers to administer assignments and keep track of grades. Students can also give exams
online and get instant results.
1.7 BASIC ORGANIZATION OF A COMPUTER
A computer is an electronic device that performs five major operations:
• Accepting data or instructions (input)
Prof. Santosh K C, Asst. Prof. CSE dept. BIET, Davangere-04
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• Storing data
• Processing data
• Displaying results (output)
• Controlling and coordinating all operations inside a computer
In this section, we will discuss all these functions and see how one unit of a computer interacts with
another to perform these operations. Refer to Figure 1.9, which shows the interaction between the
different units of a computer system.

Figure 1.9: Block diagram of Computer

Input unit – Input unit is a unit that accepts any input device. The input device is used to input data into
the computer system. Function of input unit:
o It converts inputted data into binary codes.
o It sends data to main memory of computer.

Central Processing Unit (CUP) – CPU is called the brain of a computer. An electronic circuitry that
carries out the instruction given by a computer program. CPU can be sub classified into three parts.
i .Control unit (CU)
ii. Arithmetic & Logic unit (ALU)
iii. Memory Unit (MU)
i. Control unit (CU)- the control unit manages the various components of the computer. It
reads instructions from memory and interpretation and changes in a series of signals to
activate other parts of the computer. It controls and co-ordinate is input output memory and
all other units.
ii. Arithmetic & Logic unit (ALU) – The arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performs simple
arithmetic operation such as +,-, *, / and logical operation such as >, <, =<, <= etc.
iii. Memory Unit (MU)- Memory is used to store data and instructions before and after
processing. Memory is also called Primary memory or internal memory. It is used to store
data temporary or permanently.
Function of CPU-
 It controls all the parts and software and data flow of computer.
 It performs all operations.
 It accepts data from input device.
 It sends information to output device.

Prof. Santosh K C, Asst. Prof. CSE dept. BIET, Davangere-04

Principles of Programming using C- 22POP13

 Executing programs stored in memory

 It stores data either temporarily or permanent basis.
 It performs arithmetical and logical operations.

Output Unit- Output unit is a unit that constituents a number of output device. An output device is used
to show the result of processing.
Function of Output unit:
 It accepts data or information sends from main memory of computer
 It converts binary coded information into HLL or inputted languages.

1.8 &1.9 MOTHER BOARD AND MAJOR

COMPONENTS INSIDE THE COMPUTER:-
Hardware Components of a Computer
Hardware Components of a computer refers to the collection of physical parts of a computer
system that we can touch or feel. This includes the computer case, monitor, keyboard, and
mouse. It also includes all the parts inside the computer case, such as the hard disk drive,
motherboard, video card, and many others.
The hardware components of a computer or personal computer are categorized into 4 primary
categories: -
a. System Unit
b. Display Device
c. Input Devices
d. External Devices
a. System Unit

A System Unit is the main component of a personal computer, which houses the other devices
necessary for the computer to function. It is comprised of a chassis and the internal components
of a personal computer such as the system board (mother board), the microprocessor, memory
modules, disk drives, adapter cards, the power supply, a fan or other cooling device and ports
for connecting external components such as monitors, keyboards, mice, and other devices.

Prof. Santosh K C, Asst. Prof. CSE dept. BIET, Davangere-04

Principles of Programming using C- 22POP13

System Unit Components

b. Display Devices
A display device is a personal computer component and is an output device that enables user to
view the text and graphical data associated with a computer program. Display devices
commonly connect to the system unit via a cable, and they have controls to adjust the settings
for the device. They vary in size and shape, as well as the technology used.

Display Device

c. Input Devices

An input device is a personal computer component that enables users to enter data or
instructions into a computer. The most common input devices are keyboards and computer
mice. Input devices can connect to the system via a cable or a wireless connection.

Keyboard

Prof. Santosh K C, Asst. Prof. CSE dept. BIET, Davangere-04

Principles of Programming using C- 22POP13

Mouse

d. External Devices
Any peripherals devices that are not housed inside the system unit are inherently external
devices. A personal computer’s functionality can be enhanced by connecting different types of
external devices to the system unit, often called peripherals devices. These devices typically
provide alternative input or output methods or additional data storage. External devices are
connected to the system unit via a cable or wireless connection. Some of them have their own
power source and some draw power from the system. There are several categories of external
devices.

External Devices Functionality

Microphone Provides audio input

Digital camera Provides graphical input

Scanner Provides graphical input

Speaker Provides audio output

Printer Provides printed output

Prof. Santosh K C, Asst. Prof. CSE dept. BIET, Davangere-04

Principles of Programming using C- 22POP13

Provides communication with other

Network device
computers, such as access to the Internet.

External device Provides additional data storage

System Unit Components

1. The System Board
2. Central Processing Unit
3. Memory
4. Power Supplies
5. Cooling Systems etc.

I. The System Board

The system board is the personal computer component that acts as the backbone for the
entire computer system as it serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a computer
together. It connects the CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card, sound card, and
other ports and expansion cards directly or via cables. System Board is also known as
motherboard. It consists of a large, flat circuit board with chips and other electrical components
on it.
Some popular manufacturers of the motherboard are: -
 Intel
 Asus
 Gigabyte
 Biostar
 Msi

Prof. Santosh K C, Asst. Prof. CSE dept. BIET, Davangere-04

Principles of Programming using C- 22POP13

System Board or Motherboard

II. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The Central Processing Unit (CPU), sometimes called microprocessor or just processor, is
the real brain of the computer and is where most of the calculations take place.

Some popular manufacturers / designers of the CPU are: -

 Intel
 AMD
 Qualcomm
 Media Tek
 NVIDIA
Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features: -
 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.
 CPU performs all types of data processing operations
 It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
 It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

CPU itself has following three components: -

 Memory or Storage Unit
 Control Unit
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

Prof. Santosh K C, Asst. Prof. CSE dept. BIET, Davangere-04

Principles of Programming using C- 22POP13

 Memory or Storage Unit: This unit stores data, instructions & results for processing and
stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output device. It
is also responsible for the transmission of all inputs and outputs.
 Control Unit (CU) : This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but
does not carry out any actual data processing operations.
 Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): All calculations are performed in the Arithmetic
Logic Unit (ALU) of the computer. It also does comparison and takes decision. The
ALU can perform basic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
etc and does logic operations viz, >, <, =, ‘etc. Whenever calculations are required, the
control unit transfers the data from storage unit to ALU once the computations are done,
the results are transferred to the memory unit by the control unit and then it is send to the
output unit for displaying results.
III. Power Supply

Power Supply known as switch-mode power supply (SMPS) is an electronic circuit that
converts power using switching devices that are turned on and off at high frequencies, and
storage components such as inductors or capacitors to supply power when the switching
device is in its non-conduction state.
Switching power supplies have high efficiency and are widely used in a variety of electronic
equipment, including computers and other sensitive equipment requiring stable and efficient
power supply.

Prof. Santosh K C, Asst. Prof. CSE dept. BIET, Davangere-04

Principles of Programming using C- 22POP13

SMPS
IV. Cooling System

Cooling may be required for CPU, Video Card, Mother Board, Hard Drive, etc. Without
proper cooling, the computer hardware may suffers from overheating. This overheating causes
slowdowns, system error messages, and crashing. Also, the life expectancy of the PC's
components is likely to diminish. The following are commonly used techniques for cooling the
PC or Server components:

 Heat Sinks
 CPU/Case Fans
 Thermal Compound
 Liquid Cooling Systems

Heat Sinks: The purpose of a heatsink is to conduct the heat away from the processor or any
other component (such as chipset) to which it is attached. Thermal transfer takes place at the
surface of a heatsink. Therefore, heat sinks should have a large surface area. A commonly used
technique to increase the surface area is by using fins. A typical processor heat sink is shown
in the figure below:

Intel Dual Core Xeon LGA 771

heat sink

Fan: The Fan is primarily used to force cooler air in to the system or remove hot air out of the
system. A fan keeps the surrounding cooler by displacing air around the heat sink and other
partsof the computer. A typical CPU fan is shown below.
Prof. Santosh K C, Asst. Prof. CSE dept. BIET, Davangere-04
Principles of Programming using C- 22POP13

CPU Fan Heat sink with Fan

Computer case and its parts

I/O connectors

Prof. Santosh K C, Asst. Prof. CSE dept. BIET, Davangere-04