DEV MALIK

Nikhil Applied Physics-II (BS-106)

CSE – IV CSE 4 ASSIGNMENT
352 20111502724
UNIT-I
1. What do you mean by particle in a box? Show that the energy of an electron in the box varied as
the square of the natural numbers.

The "particle in a box" is a fundamental quantum mechanical model that describes a particle moving
freely within a one-dimensional potential well with infinitely high walls. The potential is zero inside
the box and infinite outside.

For a particle in a 1D box of length L, the Schrödinger equation gives the wavefunction solutions:

Ψn(x) = √(2/L) sin(nπx/L)

where n = 1, 2, 3,...

The energy eigenvalues are:

En = (n2h2)/(8mL2)

This shows that the energy levels vary as the square of the quantum number n (natural numbers),
since En ∝ n2.

2. Prove quantum mechanically that particle will not exist in a box if its energy is zero.

For a particle in a box, the time-independent Schrödinger equation is:

-(ħ2/2m)(d2ψ/dx2) = Eψ

If E = 0, the equation reduces to:

d2ψ/dx2 = 0

The general solution is:

ψ(x) = Ax + B

Applying boundary conditions ψ(0) = 0 and ψ(L) = 0:

At x=0: B=0 ⇒ ψ(x)=Ax

At x=L: AL=0 ⇒ A=0

Thus, ψ(x)=0 everywhere, meaning there's zero probability of finding the particle in the box.
Therefore, a particle cannot exist in the box with zero energy.

3. Differentiate between |Ψ|2 and Ψ.

• Ψ (Wavefunction): Complex-valued function that contains all the information about a

quantum system. It's a solution to the Schrödinger equation.

• |Ψ|2 (Probability density): Real-valued function obtained by taking the absolute square of
the wavefunction. It gives the probability of finding the particle at a particular position.
Key difference: Ψ can be complex with both magnitude and phase, while |Ψ|2 is always real and non-
negative, representing a measurable probability density.

4. Explain how the wave nature of particles give rise to uncertainty principle.

The uncertainty principle arises from the wave-particle duality. For a wave:

1. A perfectly localized particle would require a single wavelength (infinite momentum), but
this would mean an infinite sum of waves (complete delocalization).

2. A pure sine wave has definite momentum (single wavelength) but is completely delocalized
in space.

3. To localize a wave, we need a wave packet (superposition of many waves), which introduces
uncertainty in both position and momentum.

Mathematically, for any wave packet:

Δx·Δp ≥ ħ/2

This shows that precise knowledge of both position and momentum is fundamentally impossible - a
direct consequence of the wave nature of particles.

5. For an electron in one-dimensional box of width 2 Å, calculate the separation between the
lowest two levels in eV.

Energy levels for particle in a box:

En = (n2h2)/(8mL2)

Given: L = 2 Å = 2×10-10 m
me = 9.11×10-31 kg
h = 6.626×10-34 Js
1 eV = 1.6×10-19 J

Energy difference between n=2 and n=1:

ΔE = E2 - E1 = (4-1)h2/(8mL2) = 3h2/(8mL2)

Calculating:

ΔE = 3×(6.626×10-34)2/(8×9.11×10-31×(2×10-10)2) = 4.52×10-18 J

ΔE = 4.52×10-18/1.6×10-19 = 28.2 eV

6. What do you mean by the dual nature of matter and wave? Describe an experiment to support
it.

Dual nature of matter: The concept that matter exhibits both particle-like and wave-like properties.

Davisson-Germer Experiment (1927):

1. Electrons were accelerated through a potential and directed at a nickel crystal.

2. The scattered electrons showed interference patterns similar to X-ray diffraction.

3. The intensity peaks followed Bragg's law (nλ = 2d sinθ), confirming wave nature.
 4. The measured wavelength matched de Broglie's hypothesis: λ = h/p.

This experiment provided direct evidence for the wave nature of particles, supporting matter-wave
duality.

7. Set up Schrodinger equation for a free quantum particle. Discuss the properties of wave
function.

Time-independent Schrödinger equation for free particle (V=0):

-(ħ2/2m)(d2ψ/dx2) = Eψ

Properties of wave function:

1. Continuous: ψ(x) must be continuous everywhere.

2. Single-valued: Only one value of ψ at each point.

3. Normalizable: ∫|ψ|2dx = 1 (finite total probability).

4. First derivative continuous: dψ/dx must be continuous except where potential is infinite.

5. Linearity: Superposition principle holds (if ψ1 and ψ2 are solutions, aψ1 + bψ2 is also a
solution).

8. Calculate the expectation value <p> of the momentum of a particle trapped inside a one-
dimensional box.

For a particle in a box (0 to L), the wavefunction is:

ψn(x) = √(2/L) sin(nπx/L)

Expectation value of momentum:

<p> = ∫0L ψ*(x) (-iħ d/dx) ψ(x) dx

Calculating:

dψ/dx = √(2/L)(nπ/L) cos(nπx/L)

<p> = -iħ(2/L)(nπ/L) ∫0L sin(nπx/L) cos(nπx/L) dx = 0

The integral evaluates to zero because sin·cos is an odd function over symmetric limits. Thus, <p> = 0,
as expected for a stationary state.

9. What is potential barrier and tunnel effect? Calculate the transmission probability for
rectangular barrier for the condition of E < V0, where E is the total energy of the particle.

Potential barrier: A region where potential energy is higher than the particle's total energy (V0 > E).

Tunnel effect: Quantum phenomenon where particles can pass through classically forbidden
barriers.

For a rectangular barrier (width a, height V0), transmission probability when E < V0:

T ≈ exp(-2κa)

where κ = √[2m(V0-E)]/ħ
More precisely:

T = [1 + (V02 sinh2(κa))/(4E(V0-E))]-1

For κa ≫ 1 (thick or high barrier), the first approximation holds.

10. A particle constrained to move along the x-axis is described by the wave function Ψ(x)=2x for
0<x<1 and Ψ(x)=0 elsewhere. Calculate the probability of finding the particle within the interval
(0,0.4).

First normalize the wavefunction:

∫01 |Ψ|2dx = ∫01 (2x)2dx = 4∫01 x2dx = 4[x3/3]01 = 4/3

Normalization constant A = √(3/4)

Normalized wavefunction: Ψnorm(x) = √3 x

Probability in (0,0.4):

P = ∫00.4 |Ψnorm|2dx = 3∫00.4 x2dx = 3[x3/3]00.4 = (0.4)3 = 0.064 or 6.4%

UNIT-II
1. Show that Wien's law is a special case of Planck's radiation law.

Planck's law for spectral radiance:

Bν(ν,T) = (2hν3/c2)[1/(ehν/kT - 1)]

Wien's approximation applies when hν ≫ kT (high frequency/short wavelength):

ehν/kT ≫ 1 ⇒ ehν/kT - 1 ≈ ehν/kT

Thus Planck's law reduces to Wien's law:

Bν(ν,T) ≈ (2hν3/c2)e-hν/kT

Wien's displacement law (λmaxT = b) can be derived by finding the peak of this distribution.

2. State Planck's formula for Black body radiation and derive it from BE statistics.

Planck's formula:

u(ν,T)dν = (8πhν3/c3)[1/(ehν/kT - 1)]dν

Derivation from BE statistics:

1. Phonons are bosons with energy ε = hν.

2. BE distribution: <n> = 1/(e(ε-μ)/kT - 1), with μ=0 for photons.

3. Number of states in phase space: g(ν)dν = (8πν2/c3)dν

4. Energy density is product of energy per photon, number of photons, and states:

u(ν,T)dν = hν × <n> × g(ν)dν = (8πhν3/c3)[1/(ehν/kT - 1)]dν

3. If the Sun has a surface temperature of 5700K, what is the wavelength of maximum intensity of
solar radiation?

Using Wien's displacement law:

λmax = b/T

where b = 2.898×10-3 m·K, T = 5700 K

λmax = 2.898×10-3/5700 = 5.08×10-7 m = 508 nm

This is in the green region of the visible spectrum.

4. Define Stefan's law.

Stefan's Law: The total energy radiated per unit surface area of a black body per unit time (radiant
exitance) is proportional to the fourth power of the black body's absolute temperature:

M = σT4

where σ = 5.67×10-8 W·m-2·K-4 (Stefan-Boltzmann constant).

5. An electron gas obeys the Maxwell-Boltzman statistics. Calculate average thermal energy (in eV)
of an electron in the system at 300 K.

For Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics, average thermal energy per particle:

<E> = (3/2)kT

At T = 300 K:

k = 1.38×10-23 J/K

<E> = (3/2)(1.38×10-23)(300) = 6.21×10-21 J

= 6.21×10-21/1.6×10-19 = 0.0388 eV

6. Distinguish between a Boson and Fermions.

Property Bosons Fermions

Spin Integer (0,1,2,...) Half-integer (1/2,3/2,...)

Statistics Bose-Einstein Fermi-Dirac

Pauli Exclusion Not obeyed Obeyed

Wavefunction Symmetric Antisymmetric

Examples Photons, phonons Electrons, protons

Occupation Unlimited in same state Max 1 per quantum state

7. What is the relative population of the first two single particle energy levels of a system of
distinguishable particles if the energies of the levels is ε0=0 and ε1=kT?
For distinguishable particles with Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics:

Ni/Nj = e-(εi-εj)/kT

Given ε0=0, ε1=kT:

N1/N0 = e-(kT-0)/kT = e-1 ≈ 0.368

Thus, the ratio of populations is approximately 36.8%.

8. Discuss the Fermi-Dirac distribution with the help of the distribution function; explain the
concept of Fermi level and Fermi energy.

Fermi-Dirac distribution:

f(E) = 1/[e(E-EF)/kT + 1]

where EF is Fermi energy, k is Boltzmann constant, T is temperature.

Key features:

• At T=0K: f(E)=1 for E<EF, f(E)=0 for E>EF (sharp cutoff)

• At T>0K: Smooth transition around EF over ~±kT

Fermi energy (EF):

• At T=0K: Highest occupied energy state

• For metals: Typically 2-10 eV

Fermi level: Chemical potential at T=0K (μ=EF). At finite temperatures, Fermi level is where f(E)=0.5.

9. A Bose-Einstein gas has two particles in the ith state whose degeneracy is three. Find the
number of independent ways of selecting the particle in the state.

For bosons, the number of ways to distribute N particles in g states is given by "stars and bars"
theorem:

Number of ways = (N+g-1)!/(N!(g-1)!)

Here N=2, g=3:

Number of ways = (2+3-1)!/(2!2!) = 4!/(2!2!) = 6

The possible configurations are (where | separates states and • represents particles):

1. ••|| (both in first state)

2. |••| (both in second state)

3. ||•• (both in third state)

4. •|•| (one in first, one in second)

5. •||• (one in first, one in third)

6. |•|• (one in second, one in third)

10. Distinguish between quantum and classical statistics.

Feature Classical (Maxwell-Boltzmann) Quantum

Applicability Distinguishable particles Indistinguishable particles

Types Only one Bose-Einstein (bosons), Fermi-Dirac (fermions)

Particle nature Treats particles as distinguishable Accounts for indistinguishability

Occupation No restriction BE: Unlimited, FD: Pauli exclusion

Low-T behavior No special features BE: BEC, FD: Degeneracy pressure

Distribution f(E) = e-(E-μ)/kT BE: 1/(e(E-μ)/kT-1), FD: 1/(e(E-μ)/kT+1)

11. How many photons are present in 100 cm3 of radiation in thermal equilibrium at 1000 K?

Photon number density is given by:

n = (2.404/π2)(kT/ħc)3

At T=1000K:

kT = 1.38×10-23×1000 = 1.38×10-20 J

ħc = 1.05×10-34×3×108 = 3.15×10-26 J·m

Calculating:

n ≈ 2.404×(1.38×10-20/3.15×10-26)3/π2 ≈ 2.0×1015 photons/m3

For 100 cm3 = 10-4 m3:

N = 2.0×1015×10-4 = 2.0×1011 photons

12. Which type of statistics shall be applicable for a gas of (i) photons, (ii) electrons? Justify your
answer

(i) Photons: Bose-Einstein statistics because:

• Photons are bosons (spin=1)

• They don't obey Pauli exclusion principle

• Photon number is not conserved

(ii) Electrons: Fermi-Dirac statistics because:

• Electrons are fermions (spin=1/2)

• They obey Pauli exclusion principle

• Electrons are indistinguishable particles

13. Fermi energy for Gold is 5.54 eV. Calculate the Fermi temperature given Boltzmann constant
1.38×10-23 J/K.

Fermi temperature is defined as:

TF = EF/k

Given EF = 5.54 eV = 5.54×1.6×10-19 J = 8.86×10-19 J

k = 1.38×10-23 J/K

TF = 8.86×10-19/1.38×10-23 ≈ 64,200 K

UNIT-III
1. Lattice constant of a cubic lattice is 'a'. Calculate spacing between (011), (101), (112), (111) and
(100) planes.

For cubic crystals, interplanar spacing is given by:

dhkl = a/√(h2+k2+l2)

Calculations:

• (100): d = a/√(1+0+0) = a

• (011): d = a/√(0+1+1) = a/√2

• (101): d = a/√(1+0+1) = a/√2

• (111): d = a/√(1+1+1) = a/√3

• (112): d = a/√(1+1+4) = a/√6

2. Why do we use X-ray to study crystal structure?

X-rays are used for crystal structure studies because:

1. Wavelength: X-ray wavelengths (0.1-10 Å) are comparable to atomic spacings in crystals,

allowing diffraction.

2. Penetration: X-rays penetrate sufficiently to probe bulk crystal structure.

3. Interaction: X-rays interact strongly with electron clouds, providing good contrast.

4. Non-destructive: X-rays don't typically damage samples.

5. Precision: X-ray diffraction provides accurate measurements of lattice parameters.

3. State Bragg's law? How is it applied?

Bragg's Law:

nλ = 2d sinθ

where n=order of diffraction, λ=wavelength, d=interplanar spacing, θ=glancing angle.

Applications:

1. Crystal structure determination: Measure diffraction angles to determine d-spacings.

2. Material identification: Compare diffraction patterns with known standards.

 3. Phase analysis: Identify different phases in a sample.

4. Texture analysis: Study preferred orientation of crystals.

5. Lattice parameter measurement: Precise determination of unit cell dimensions.

4. Deduce Miller indices for the plane having intercepts a, b and c at -2, ∞, -2. Also draw the plane.

Given intercepts: -2a, ∞b, -2c

Steps to find Miller indices:

1. Take reciprocals: -1/2, 0, -1/2

2. Multiply by LCM (2) to get integers: -1, 0, -1

3. Enclose in parentheses: (1̅01̅)

The plane (1̅01̅) intercepts the x-axis at -a, is parallel to y-axis (∞), and intercepts z-axis at -c.

Drawing: Imagine a cubic unit cell where the plane cuts through opposite corners on the x-z faces,
parallel to the y-axis.

5. X-rays of wavelength 2×10-11 m suffer first order reflection from (111) crystal plane at an angle of
45°. What is the inter atomic spacing of the crystal?

Using Bragg's law (n=1):

λ = 2d sinθ ⇒ d = λ/(2 sinθ)

Given λ=2×10-11 m, θ=45°:

d111 = 2×10-11/(2 sin45°) = 2×10-11/(2×0.707) ≈ 1.414×10-11 m

For cubic crystals, d111 = a/√3, so:

a = d111√3 = 1.414×10-11×1.732 ≈ 2.45×10-11 m

6. Draw sketch illustrating (011), (123), (111) and (001) planes in cubic unit cell.

Plane sketches:

• (001): Parallel to x-y plane, intercepts z-axis at c.

• (011): Parallel to x-axis, intercepts y and z axes at b and c.

• (111): Cuts through all three axes at a, b, c (equally inclined).

• (123): Intercepts x at a, y at b/2, z at c/3.

[Note: In MS Word, you can insert simple 3D cube diagrams showing these planes using the drawing
tools]

7. Find the Miller indices of a plane that makes an intercept of 3Å, 4Å and 5Å on the coordinate
axes of an orthorhombic crystal with [Link]=[Link]. Find the equation of the plane a: b: c.

Given axial ratios [Link] = [Link], let a=1, b=2, c=5 in arbitrary units.

Intercepts in Å: 3, 4, 5
Convert to crystal units:

x-intercept: 3Å/a = 3Å/1Å = 3

y-intercept: 4Å/b = 4Å/2Å = 2

z-intercept: 5Å/c = 5Å/5Å = 1

Reciprocals: 1/3, 1/2, 1/1

Multiply by 6: 2, 3, 6

Miller indices: (236)

Equation of plane: (x/3) + (y/4) + (z/5) = 1

In crystal units: (2x/3) + (3y/2) + 6z = 1

8. Using Bragg's equation, argue that greater is the angle of diffraction, greater is the accuracy in
determining the lattice parameter.

From Bragg's law:

nλ = 2d sinθ ⇒ d = nλ/(2 sinθ)

The error in d (Δd) is related to error in θ (Δθ) by:

Δd/d = cotθ Δθ

For higher θ:

1. cotθ decreases (since cotθ → 0 as θ → 90°)

2. Thus Δd/d decreases for a given Δθ

3. Higher θ measurements give more precise d values

Therefore, measurements at higher diffraction angles yield more accurate lattice parameters.

9. Differentiate the term amorphous and crystalline and amorphous solids. Write down seven
crystal system with their lattice parameters.

Difference:

Property Crystalline Amorphous

Atomic arrangement Long-range order Short-range order only

Melting point Sharp Gradual softening

X-ray diffraction Sharp peaks Broad halos

Examples Diamond, quartz Glass, plastics

Seven crystal systems:

1. Cubic: a=b=c, α=β=γ=90°

 2. Tetragonal: a=b≠c, α=β=γ=90°

3. Orthorhombic: a≠b≠c, α=β=γ=90°

4. Hexagonal: a=b≠c, α=β=90°, γ=120°

5. Rhombohedral (Trigonal): a=b=c, α=β=γ≠90°

6. Monoclinic: a≠b≠c, α=γ=90°≠β

7. Triclinic: a≠b≠c, α≠β≠γ≠90°

10. Show that the number of Frenkel defects in equilibrium at a given temperature is proportional
to (NNI)1/2 where N be number of atoms and NI be the interstitial atoms.

For Frenkel defects (vacancy + interstitial pair):

Defect formation energy EF, equilibrium number nF given by:

nF = (NNI)1/2 e-EF/2kT

Derivation:

1. Number of ways to create n vacancies: N!/((N-n)!n!) ≈ Nn/n!

2. Number of ways to place n interstitials: NI!/((NI-n)!n!) ≈ NIn/n!

3. Total configurations: W ≈ (NNI)n/(n!)2

4. Minimize free energy G = nEF - kT lnW

5. At equilibrium: ∂G/∂n = 0 ⇒ nF ∝ (NNI)1/2

11. If X-rays of wavelength 0.5Å are diffracted at an angle of 5° in the first order, what is the
spacing between the adjacent planes of the crystal? At what angle will second maximum occur?

First order (n=1):

d = λ/(2 sinθ) = 0.5Å/(2 sin5°) = 0.5Å/(2×0.0872) ≈ 2.87Å

Second order (n=2):

sinθ2 = 2λ/(2d) = λ/d = 0.5/2.87 ≈ 0.174

θ2 = sin-1(0.174) ≈ 10.02°

12. Write short notes on:

i. Point defects: Zero-dimensional defects in crystals including vacancies (missing atoms), interstitials
(extra atoms in voids), and substitutions (foreign atoms replacing host atoms). They affect electrical,
mechanical, and optical properties.

ii. Frenkel defects: A vacancy-interstitial pair where an atom moves from its lattice site to an
interstitial position, preserving overall stoichiometry. Common in ionic crystals with small cations
(e.g., Ag+ in AgBr).

iii. Schottky defects: Paired cation-anion vacancies in ionic crystals that maintain charge neutrality
(e.g., Na+ and Cl- vacancies in NaCl). Dominates in crystals with similar-sized ions.
 UNIT-IV
1. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.

Property Intrinsic Extrinsic

Definition Pure semiconductor Doped semiconductor

Charge carriers e- and h+ equal Majority and minority carriers

Conductivity Low Higher

Temperature dependence Strong (exponential) Less sensitive

Fermi level Mid-gap Near donor/acceptor levels

Examples Pure Si, Ge Si:P (n-type), Si:B (p-type)

2. Explain Kronig-Penney model for the motion of electron in a periodic potential.

The Kronig-Penney model is a simplified quantum mechanical model of electrons in a periodic

potential representing a crystal lattice.

Key features:

1. Approximates the periodic potential as a series of rectangular barriers (delta functions in

simplified version).

2. Solutions to Schrödinger equation must satisfy Bloch theorem: ψ(x+a) = eikaψ(x).

3. Leads to the characteristic equation:

cos(ka) = cos(αa) + (β/α)sin(αa)

where α=√(2mE)/ħ, β=mV0b/ħ2 (b=barrier width, V0=barrier height).

4. Results in allowed energy bands separated by forbidden gaps.

5. Demonstrates origin of band structure in solids.

3. Differentiate conductor, insulator and semiconductor using energy-band diagram.

Property Conductor Insulator Semiconductor

Band gap Overlapping bands Large (>5eV) Small (0.1-2eV)

Valence band Partially filled Full Full (at 0K)

Conduction at 0K Yes No No

Conduction at RT High Negligible Moderate

Fermi level In conduction band Mid-gap Near conduction (n-type) or valence (p-type)

4. Discuss significance of E-K curve.

The E-k curve (dispersion relation) plots electron energy E versus wavevector k in reciprocal space.

Significance:

1. Band structure: Reveals allowed energy bands and forbidden gaps.

2. Effective mass: Given by curvature (m* = ħ2/(d2E/dk2)).

3. Carrier dynamics: Determines how electrons respond to electric fields.

4. Optical properties: Direct/indirect band gaps affect light absorption/emission.

5. Transport properties: Explains differences in mobility between materials.

6. Density of states: Can be derived from E-k relation.

5. Write short notes on:

a. Zener diode: Heavily doped p-n junction that conducts in reverse bias via quantum tunneling
(Zener breakdown) at precise voltage. Used for voltage regulation and protection.

b. PN junction diode: Semiconductor device formed by joining p-type and n-type materials. Allows
current in one direction (forward bias) while blocking it in reverse. Fundamental building block of
electronics.

c. Photodiode: PN junction that converts light to electrical current. Operated in reverse bias to detect
light intensity. Used in optical communication, light sensors.

d. LED: Light Emitting Diode emits light when electrons recombine with holes in forward bias. Color
depends on band gap. Energy efficient light sources.

e. Fermi Energy: Energy level at 0K where occupation probability is 50%. In metals, it's the highest
occupied state; in semiconductors, it's in the gap.

f. PN-Junction diode: [Same as b] The interface between p and n regions creates depletion zone and
built-in potential, enabling rectification.

6. Show that the Fermi energy lies midway between the conduction band and valence band for
intrinsic semiconductor.

For intrinsic semiconductor, n = p (equal electron and hole concentrations).

Carrier concentrations:

n = Nc e-(Ec-EF)/kT

p = Nv e-(EF-Ev)/kT

Setting n = p:
Nc e-(Ec-EF)/kT = Nv e-(EF-Ev)/kT

Taking ln and solving for EF:

EF = (Ec+Ev)/2 + (kT/2)ln(Nv/Nc)

At moderate temperatures and if Nv≈Nc:

EF ≈ (Ec+Ev)/2

Thus Fermi level is approximately midway between conduction and valence bands.

7. What are Bloch functions? Explain the origin of allowed and forbidden energy bands for
electrons in solids. What is the number of orbitals in an energy bands?

Bloch functions: Solutions to Schrödinger equation in periodic potential of the form:

ψnk(r) = unk(r)eik·r

where unk(r) has periodicity of lattice, k is wavevector, n is band index.

Origin of bands:

1. In atoms: Discrete energy levels

2. In solids: Atomic orbitals overlap forming bands

3. Bragg reflection at Brillouin zone boundaries creates energy gaps

4. Allowed bands correspond to ranges of k where solutions exist

Number of orbitals: Each energy band contains 2N states (N unit cells × 2 spin states). For s-bands
from N atoms: N orbitals → 2N states.

8. For an intrinsic semiconductor having a band gap Eg = 0.7 eV, Calculate the density of holes and
electrons at room temperature (=27 °C).

Given: Eg=0.7eV, T=300K

Intrinsic carrier concentration:

ni = √(NcNv) e-Eg/2kT

Assume for typical semiconductor:

Nc≈2.8×1019 cm-3, Nv≈1.04×1019 cm-3

kT=0.0259eV at 300K

Calculating:

ni = √(2.8×1.04)×1019 e-0.7/(2×0.0259) ≈ 1.71×1019×e-13.51

≈ 1.71×1019×1.36×10-6 ≈ 2.33×1013 cm-3

For intrinsic semiconductor: n = p = ni ≈ 2.33×1013 cm-3

9. What do you understand by effective mass of an electron? Explain its significance.

Effective mass (m*): Parameter that relates electron acceleration to applied force in a crystal,
accounting for periodic potential effects.

m* = ħ2/(d2E/dk2)

Significance:

1. Simplifies analysis by treating electrons as free particles with modified mass

2. Determines carrier mobility (μ = eτ/m*)

3. Affects density of states and thermal properties

4. Can be negative near band tops (hole behavior)

5. Different in different crystal directions (anisotropy)

10. What are Brillouin zones? How are they related to the energy levels of an electron in a metal?

Brillouin zones: Primitive cells in reciprocal space bounded by planes that are perpendicular
bisectors of reciprocal lattice vectors.

Relation to electron energy levels:

1. First Brillouin zone contains all unique k-vectors

2. Energy bands E(k) are periodic in k-space with period 2π/a

3. Band gaps occur at zone boundaries due to Bragg reflection

4. Fermi surface lies within the Brillouin zone

5. Higher zones are folded back into first zone (reduced zone scheme)

Thus, Brillouin zones provide the natural framework for describing electron states in periodic
potentials.