53

. POLITICAL PARTIES AND PARTY SYSTEM

and are therefore united by common

business, labour, religious, ethnic or are
other groups advance or defend their programme. Even governments that
interests. The fact is that national formed by a coalition of parties are more
likely to foster unity and agreement
parties articulate the demands of consist of separate
various groups, forces them to than ones that
aggregate these interests by drawing individuals. Additionally, in the process
e
them together into a coherent whole. of seeking power, parties formulat
view
Parties also mobilise citizens to programmes of government with a
participate in politics. This function to attracting popular support.
and It may be mentioned here that the
is known as socialisation
is
mobilisation. These activiti es may be above description of political parties
general in nature. Importance of this
restricted to election periods. These
and
may also extend beyond elections and would also depend on the type
socia l, econ omic
parties may continue to consolidate and nature of government,
increase their support through various and cultural environment of the society
e
ways like organising rallies, meetings and prevailing political culture. Thes
trad itio ns
and discussions. It may be mentioned factors along with historical
here that in one party system this set what is known as the type of party
role is primarily concerned with system as also establishment and
propagation of the official ideology. In development of types of parties.
democratic regimes while parties
mobilise people for their own support, Party SYSTEMS AND TYPES
this also helps encouraging people to OF PARTIES
play an active role in democratic game,
thereby strengthening the democratic As mentioned above depending on
Systems themselves. the historical roots, type of government
or regime and socio-economic
Finally, as a logical consequence of
the task of capturing power political environment in any country, there
emerge different number and type of
parties have very important function of
forming government. In Parliamentary parties. There is no general theory or
democracies this role is so important principle to classify party systems or
that government is known by the name types of parties. In general there is a
of the Party i.e. Congress government, practice to classify party systems on the
NDA government ete. In parliamentary
basis of number of parties in a country
democracies where it is necessary for and on the relative strength of the parties.
the government to have support of The nature of a party is generally
majority of legislators, it is only parties determined by the ideological or
programmatic preferences and
that can give a degree of stability and basis
coherence. If a single party wins organisational structures. On the
majority in the election, members of the of number and relative strength of
government are drawn from that party parties, the party systems are generally
 54
DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

divided into (i) One party system; example in India the Congress part
y
(ii) Dominant party system; (iii) Two party enjoyed unbroken spell of power
for
system; and (iv) Multi party system. about 30 years i.e. from 1947 to 1977
.
After remaining in opposition for
less
One party system than three years it again emerged
as the
dominant party in 1980. It lost election
By one party system is meant those s
again in 1989. Therefore, it can be
systems in which a single party enjoys said
that dominant party system
a monopoly of power through the may not
be a continuous or permanent
exclusion of all other parties. This is one.
Another feature of dominant part
done either through constitution or by y
System is that there is comp
political means. In many countries, etition
between factions within dominant
particularly the communist countries, party
itself. Some times even the crit
the constitution itself allows existence icism
against government may
of only one party. In certain countries come from
internal factions. But in general
though there is no legal restriction on Opposition to government both from
formation of parties, the rulers in power factions and Opposition parties
do not allow parties other than their remain
weak and ineffective. Dominant
own party to function by means of party
then may behave as one party
coercion and suppression or using system.
This of course is not healthy
other legal and extra legal means. for the
growth of democracy. Japan,
There may also be only one party India,
South Africa and some other
because of conditions like anti-colonial countries
provide examples of periods
national movement or domination bya of
dominant party systems. In gene
very popular and charismatic leader. ral the
dominant systems are on the
decline.
Dominant Party System Two Party system
By dominant party system is meant a A two party system is one in whi
party system where more than one ch there
is plurality of parties but two part
party exist and freely compete but one ies of
broadly comparable size receive
party gets much higher support than major
electoral support. In short, two party
any other party. Dominant party thus system has following characterist
forms the government and remain in ics.
e Although a number of parties may
power for years without a fear of losing exist, only two parties enjoy
power. The opposition parties are weak sufficient electoral and legislative
and divided. A dominant party system strength to have a realistic prospect
as such is competitive in the sense that of winning government power.
a number of parties compete for power e The party getting the support of the
in elections, but is dominated by a majority is able to form the
single major party that consequently government alone and the other
enjoys prolonged periods in power. For party provides main opposition.
 55
POLITICAL PARTIES AND PARTY SYSTEM

® Power alternates between these two able to play an important role in the
parties; both are able to form
formation of the government, keeping
the single largest party out of
government at one time or the other.
government. Multi party systems
In this, opposition is strong as it is
called the government in the waiting. in parliamentary democracies are
At one time two party system was blamed for producing weak and
considered the most desirable for unstable government with confused
accountability. On the other hand
parliamentary democracies as it
supporters of multi party system say
provides both a stable government as representative and
well as a strong opposition. But of late that it is more
it is being felt that the system restricts accountable. In coalitions governments
have to work keeping in view the
the ideological choices. Also the two
interests of various groups and sections
equally matched parties in order to
each other down may start rather than the main support base of
show
behaving irresponsible by presenting one major party. The system also
creates internal checks and balances
too populist manifestos and formulate
within the government. Multi party
policies without consideration of
economic health of the country. system had been prevalent in Italy,
However, many observers still feel that Germany, France and Scandinavian
two party system is the best way of countries of the developed world. Some
developing countries like India have
reconciling responsiveness with order
government with also moved to this system after initial
and representative
effective government. The UK, the USA, years of dominant party system. In fact
Australia, etc. are the in most countries both dominant
Canada,
countries cited as examples of two party
system and two party system are on the
even in these decline and are being replaced by
System. However,
countries the classical two party system multiparty systems.
is not there. Many a times a third or a
fourth party becomes significant PARTY SYSTEM IN INDIA
forcing the formation of a coalition As in other representative democracies
government.
in India also political parties are an
established part of political process.
Multi Party System However, unlike in the Western
A multi party system is that in which democracies where parties came into
more than two parties compete for existence as a result of introduction of
power reducing the chances of single representative election system, India’s
party winning the majority. There is no party system originated in the late
definite number of major political nineteenth century as a response to the
parties in the field. In fact in such British colonial rule and challenge.
systems, some times minor parties are During this period the party system on
56 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

the one hand represented an assertion economic disparities. It was in this

of national solidarity for national background that framers of the
liberation and on the other a vision for Constitution adopted a parliamentary
new India. system of democracy and federalism in
India and hoped that a proper party
POLITICAL ParTiES BEFORE system would develop to run that
INDEPENDENCE political system.

The beginning of the Indian Party Party SYSTEM IN INDEPENDENT

System can be traced to the formation
INDIA
of the Indian National Congress as a
political platform in 1885. To begin The framers of the Constitution
‘with Congress was a platform to express adopted for India a Parliamentary
the grievances of emerging middle class. System of government. Political parties,
Soon, it became a nation wide obviously, were to be an essential
movement first to demand political instrument for working of this system.
reforms in the colonial administration However, in the Constitution of India no
and then a movement for national mention of parties or their functions
freedom. In that process Congress was made. Various provisions of the
became an all embracing party Constitution, of course, provided
accommodating various. social, opportunities for parties to be
communal and economic interests with established, develop and function as in
primacy for national freedom. Moreover any representative democracy. Only
as a consequence of British policy of legal provision that came up to regulate
divide and rule and partly concerned political parties in a limited way was
with apprehensions about the status of Election Commission’s powers to
communities and regions, there also register political parties for the purpose
came up communal and caste based of allotment and reservation of symbols.
parties like Hindu Mahasabha, Muslim Later a mention of parties came in the
League, Akali Dal, Dravid Kanjahagam, Tenth Schedule of the Constitution in
etc. In addition there also were formed the context of defections. Thus, party
parties with an ideological vision for system in India is undefined and
future India. Most important of these unregulated except for extremely
was the Communist Party. Thus, on limited purposes of registration by the
the eve of independence and before the Election Commission and under the
adoption of parliamentary democracy provisions of anti-defection law.
in India there already were political Nevertheless, right from the time of
parties of different shades comprising independence along with the already
of well defined and distinct socio- existing political parties there have been
cultural regions, variety of religions, emerging a number of parties of
cultural and linguistic groups and different sizes with different ideologies
POLITICAL PARTIES AND PARTY SYSTEM 57

and programmes, each with its own and regions and from various categories
organisational structure. In view of the of population. The reasons for Congress
peculiar historical background, domination included its existence since
complex socio-economic environment 1885, role played by it as a vanguard
and tasks of development the party of the national movement for freedom,
system that has emerged in India and its leaders like Mahatma Gandhi,
is developing does not neatly fit into Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Patel and
generally prescribed one party, two others, and its wide organisational
party and multi party system. Yet network spread all over India.
certain characteristics of these Gradually with the elimination of these
systems can be identified in different factors and with spread of other
periods. Various phases can be parties, particularly at State level, the
described as: (i) One Party Dominance Congress domination began to decline.
Phase; (ii) Trends Toward Two Party This decline became quite evident in
System; (iii) Hegemonic Domination; 1967 General Election, when both the
and (iv) Multi Party System and number of seats it won and votes it
Coalition Era. polled declined. The Congress also lost
power in eight states. But in 1971
OnE Party DomInANCE PHASE elections the party again emerged as the
dominant party. It was in 1977 that
As mentioned above right after after independence, for the first time
independence from the time of first Congress lost power in the Centre as
general election there were a large
also in many States. It was thus the end
number of political parties. However,
of first phase of party system that is the
up to 1977 Indian National Congress one party dominance.
was the dominant party. It was the
ruling party both at the Centre and TREND Towarps Two Party
almost in. all the States. In
Parliamentary elections though the SYSTEM
Congress hardly won 50 per cent votes 1977 elections provided a major step
but the gap between Congress votes and towards party institutionalisation and
that of any other single party was quite possibilities of emergence of a two party
enormous. For example, in the first system. In these elections there was a
general elections while Congress polled substantial reduction in the number of
45 per cent votes, the next largest party candidates despite the increase in
Praja Socialist Party secured 10.60 per number of seats (there were 2,439
cent votes. Up to 1971 elections no candidates for 542 seats compared to
single party other than the Congress 2,784 for 518 seats in 1971). There was
crossed this limit of around 10 per cent significant increase in the number of
votes. The Congress was also the only straight contests. The number of clear
party that received votes from all States straight contests was 101. But if one
58 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES |

does not count for 1 or 2 independents early party system of Nehru era but also”
seeking elections in a constituency, from that of the latter part of the pre-
besides the candidates of the rival emergency. First thing was that the
parties, the number of virtual straight dominant party now was identified with
contests were 279. Within this another the name of the leader (Indira) who had
noteworthy trend was the clear rejection become undisputed leader of the party.
of independent candidates. Though the The attitude of the ruling Congress
number of independent candidates was to the opposition parties also
highest in 1977, the number of those underwent a marked change. So long
who won was the lowest (7 out of 1,222). as the Congress was a dominant party
Finally, 75.8 per cent of the votes were and the only national force in the
cast in favour of only two parties namely country, the opposition was treated
the Janata and the Congress. with respect and it was able to emerge
As a result of this and victory of a as a force to reckon with at the state
non-Congress party at the Centre for and local levels. But after the successful
the first time many scholars and Janata challenge in 1977 and the split
observers opined that parliamentary in the Congress, the top leadership of
democracy in India had matured and the Congress had started feeling
a two party system was in the process. increasingly insecure and the party
The hope, however, was short lived. The became intolerant and exclusivist,
Janata Party which had come into unwilling to share power with
existence with the merger of four parties other parties.
rather than emerging a cohesive singly At the same time opposition parties
party, in its behaviour remained a also, after tasting power, having lost the
conglomeration of parties. Result was capacity to oppose Congress on moral
internal bickering and factionalism that grounds because of their behaviour as
not only became a major hindrance in a ruling party got engaged in politics of
its performance but also tarnished its confrontation. Some of them had also
image in public eyes. It ultimately led brought factors like caste in the
to an atmosphere that proved forefront and won significant support
conducive to its disintegration and on that basis in some states.
disillusionment of the voters. The party Thus, in 1980s the Congress(I)
could not remain together even for dominance in reality was not the
three years. dominance of one party all over India
and based on a type of politics of
THE HEGEMONIC DOMINANCE consensus. It was a hegemonic
dominance because of failure of
On the basis of 1980 elections, the national level non-Congress parties on
Indian party system was again back to the one hand and limited regional
one party dominant system. However, support bases of regional parties on the
it was now different not only from the other. In this hegemonic phase —
POLITICAL PARTIES AND PARTY SYSTEM 59

unlike the one party dominance phase, a polarisation process is on.

in which the organisational structure Polarisation means consolidation of
of the party which sought to represent the appeal by political parties with
different interests and identities within sharply defined ideologies. The new
the society was important, the party had system, at least for the time being, has
become dependent on the personality thrown up a dynamism in which major
of the leader. parties or party like formations — the
Congress and its allies, the BJP and its
Muti Parry System AND allies — seem to be almost equally
COALITION ERA poised for competition. The Left and
regional parties may play a balancing
The Parliamentary elections held in role. In this multipolarity it also seems
December 1989 clearly initiated a multi that Indian politics has entered a
party system at the centre. The states coalition phase. Some observers see
component of the system, in aggregate it as dangerous for the future of
terms had already become a multi parliamentary democracy in India as it
partisan one by 1967 when nearly half causes instability. But in fact it is
of the states had come to be ruled by nothing unusual. In a country so vast,
non-Congress parties. 1989 elections, with so much of diversity, both the
according to observers, transformed multi party system and coalition
the scene at the centre in two governments are natural. Even in
unprecedented ways. First, it brought developed Western democracies with
into power a coalition government at the much less diversity like France,
centre for the first time, at least in a Italy, Germany and others there had
formal sense (for even the Janata Party been coalitions. In a way coalition
government in the late 1970s was governments tend to be more
substantially a coalition government). accountable due to continuous threat
Second, again for the first time the to their existence. Therefore, it is not the
party system at the centre truly party system or single party or coalition
acquired a multi party character for governments responsible for success or
more than two parties became of failure of democracy. It depends on
consequential relevance, in the ninth various other factors which we will
Lok Sabha. The outcome of the 1991, discuss in subsequent chapters.
1996, 1998 and 1999 polls have
further Strengthened this situation
Types oF Parties: NaTIONAL AND
and showed a clear trend of decline
of Congress hegemony and emergence STATE
of multi party system and a From the above it emerges that because
coalitionist phase. of its peculiar social structure, level of
But it does not meai that this multi political development and institutional
party character is there sure to stay or framework India has developed her own
 ;
60 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES:

type of multi party system. Various which are not recognised as state
parties, however, are not of equal size parties because of lack of strength but
or equal spread. On the basis of are otherwise registered with the
strength and areas of functioning the Commission are called unrecognised
Election Commission of India registers registered parties. An exclusive symbol
parties as national parties and state is reserved for a national party
parties and unrecognised parties. throughout India. In the case ofa state
According to the Election Symbols party a symbol is reserved for it in the
(Reservation and Allotment) order, State or States in which it is sO
1968, a political party shall be treated recognised. It is obvious that there is
as a recognised political party in a State no permanent list of recognised parties.
if, and only if either of the conditions It is revised after every general election
specified in clause (A) or the conditions by the Election Commission in the light
specified in clause (B) are fulfilled. These of the criterion laid down. Let us now
are: (A) that such party (i) has been have a look at one of the important roles
engaged in political activity for a of political parties in a democrati¢
continuous period of five years; .and system i.e. the role of opposition.
(ii) has at the general election to the |
House of people in that State or to the [Link] oF OPPOSITION PARTIES |
Legislative Assembly returned either
one member to the House of the People In the beginning of this chapter you
for every twenty-five members of that have read that the primary goal of a
House or any fraction of that number political party is to seek power, but it
elected from that State or at least one addition to that as a part of the task uF
member to the Legislative Assembly of seeking power in democracies, political
that State for every thirty members of parties also perform other functions. In
the Assembly or any fraction of that this process a party which does not
number; (B) That the total number of acquire power during election, apart
votes polled by all the contesting from performing the functions of
candidates setup by such party at the governance, continues to perform all
general election in the State to the other functions as a political party
House of the People or to the Legislative including the role of opposition. As
Assembly is not less than four per cent opposition the party or parties, are
of the total number of valid votes polled expected to present themselves as an
by all the contesting candidates at such alternative government both by
general election in the State. challenging the governments policies
A Party fulfilling the conditions and measures between elections and by
either of (A) or (B) is recognised as a state offering themselves as potential
party. A political party recognised as governing parties at the election. For
state party at least in four states is this purpose the opposition keeps the
recognised as a national party. Parties government in check, provides to the:
 61
POLITICAL PARTIES AND PARTY SYSTEM

people alternative policies and pro- the day is defeated on the floor of the
grammes, and keep them aware of the House or in general elections, That is
shortcomings in the performance of the why it is said that today’s opposition is
government: its failures, the deviations tomorrow's government and vice-versa.
from promises, misuse of power. In This system of government and
other words the opposition in addition opposition best functions in a two party
to provide alternatives, caters to the system where two parties are almost
need of providing checks and balances equal in strength and can replace each
to the ruling party by criticising it on other with a little change in vote
its excesses, lapses and acts of omission percentage. In multi party systems, in
and commission. To perform such a role many cases, the opposition parties are
it is important that opposition party/ more opposed to each other than to the
parties is/are strong, viable and party in power. It does not, however,
mean that in a multi party system
responsible both in quantity and
quality. By quantity is meant that the opposition has no role or is not relevant.
opposition should have enough In a way the role of keeping check on
support that a small change in voters ruling party in such a case becomes
preference can bring it to power. By more important, because the ruling
quality is meant that people should party who is not much worried of defeat
have faith in the capacity and credibility because of a divided opposition may
of the opposition. tend to become irresponsible or
In view of such an important role, corrupt. Also it is not always that a multi
party system is a one party dominant
in many parliamentary democracies,
opposition party is given an official system. Therefore, both the government
recognition. In Britain for instance, the and the opposition can be alliances or
group of parties thereby functioning as
opposition party has been officially
regular government and opposition. In
recognised. There is as such Her/His
any case, opposition is a very important
majesty’s government and Her/His
factor in a democracy and needs to be
majesty’s opposition. The leader of the
strong. At the same time in different
opposition is provided the same salary
situations and types of party systems
and privileges as that of a cabinet and role of opposition can
the nature
minister. His/her most special privilege be different. Nevertheless, whatever the
and responsibility, however, is that
situation is, both the ruling party and
related to the possibility of being called the opposition are expected to play their
at any time to constitute an alternative respective roles with responsibility,
government. Therefore, she/he has at honesty and with dignity.
all times to keep a shadow cabinet
ready so that at short notice the shadow OpposiTION IN INDIA
may be converted into a reality and can
take over the task of the government. In the early years of the Republic,
This can be either if the government of in spite of their weak and fragmented
 |
62 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

position in the Parliament, the party. It was only in 1977, during

opposition parties played a very Janata Party’s government, that by an
important role. The leaders of these act of Parliament, the leader of tht
parties actively participated in debates, opposition was given a statutory
raised important national issues and recognition and his salary and privileges
‘took the government to task for its were fixed as that of a cabinet minister.
failures. Those leaders were respected With the elimination of the national
and known for their integrity and level leadership and political power
commitment to the task of nation and becoming an instrument of vested
constitution building. Nehru not only interests and subsequent decline a
tolerated but encouraged them. He institutions, interaction between
believed that there are two or more sides government and opposition has been
to every question and called upon the on the decline. The 1975-77 emergency
opposition spokesman to present the and the 1977 election results had
other side of the picture whenever an aroused high hopes about evolution of
important issue arose. The question a healthy party system in India. In that
hour in particular was used very election for the first time the opposition
effectively to keep the government emerged as an alternative ruling party.
on its toes. Indira Gandhi accepted the defeat. It
As has been mentioned in the was expected of the opposition to
beginning, neither the Constitution nor provide an issue-oriented politics and
any law in India, spoke about political to define the issues along socially just
parties. Thus, political system in India and democratic lines. But, this did not
gave opportunities to political parties, happen.
to grow and participate in the system For a healthy democracy both the
without much conditions. In the early ruling party and the opposition are
years, there was a situation of one party important. Opposition also has to play
dominant. Though there was no legal a positive and constructive role. It is
provision for a recognised opposition important for both opposition and
party, there was a provision for government to remember that they
recognition as a parliamentary party, if have to change their roles. If people
a party had obtained 50 seats. It was start losing complete faith in political
only in 1969 that for the first time parties and consequently in democracy
Congress (O) was recognised as a itself then it will be too easy for any
parliamentary party apart from authoritarian ruler or group to take
Congress (R) and its leader Dr Ram charge of the system with the approval
Subhag Singh had the honour of being of the masses. That will not only be the
the first person to be recognised as the end of democracy but also of political
leader of the opposition. Interestingly, parties. Events in some neighbouring
this opposition came from within countries are before us. Let us therefore
Congress itself as a result of split in the be on our guard before it is too late.
POLITICAL PARTIES AND PARTY SYSTEM 63

EXERCISES

What is meant by Political Parties? What major functions parties perform?

Explain different party systems.
GWie co to

Examine the merits and demerits of One Party Dominance.

Explain the reasons for emergence of One Party dominance in India.
How political parties in India are recognised as National and State Parties.
Explain the emerging trends in party system in India.
DEED

Examine the nature and role of Opposition in India.

Write short notes on the following:
(i) Two Party System;
(ii) Hegemonic Dominance;
(iii) Political parties in India before independence;
(iv) Role of opposition in democracies.
 ;

|
|
CHAPTER 5

National and State Partie

:

N the last chapter we have read that with demands for political reform
in India there are seven national within British colonial rule. At that tim
parties and several state parties its leadership was quite moderate thé
and unrecognised registered and believed in constitutional and leg
unregistered parties. These parties means for its activities. Around 1907
have been formed on the basis of there emerged a militant wing in th
different political programmes. Some party that raised the demand fe
parties seek support from particular Swaraj and started using mor
social groups more than others either assertive methods of mobilisation an!
because of the nature of their protest. For a time the Congres
programmes or mobilisation. For the remained divided into moderate am
students of Political Science it is extremist wings. Soon it became an a
essential to have some knowledge about comprehensive movement for nationé
the ideologies or programmes of these liberation. By 1920 with the emergence
parties and their support basis. In this of Mahatma Gandhi it had become!
chapter we will read about these mass movement. As a nationéa
aspects of national parties and havea movement the Congress functioned a
general discussion on the nature and an umbrella organisation admitting i!
role of regional parties. its ranks peoples of all shades amt
opinions. Thus, ideologically, it hal
Inpian NATIONAL CONGRESS rightists, leftists and centrists trends i!
Indian National Congress is the oldest it. Because of this nature and role0
political party not only of India but in party, Gandhiji suggested that afte
the whole of the developing world of independence Congress should bi
Afro-Asian countries. It was founded dissolved. Others, however felt, tha
on 27 December, 1885 at Bombay. To after leading the struggle fo
begin with, it was an association of the independence, the Congress shoul
small westernised, university educated lead independent India in its tas!
middle class members. For the first two of nation building and establishmer
decades it was primarily concerned of democracy. |
|
NATIONAL AND STATE PARTIES 65

After independence Congress newly formed Janata Party. In the face

became the ruling party. There were of defeat in 1977 elections the Congress
many factors in its favour to grow asa (R) itself got divided into two parties in
dominant party. These were: (i) an all 1978. Now there was Congress (I) i.e.
India organisation with national goals Congress led by Indira Gandhi and
and established and respected Congress (S) led by Swaran singh, later
leadership; (ii) a centrist ideology of by Dev Raj Urs and there after by
secularism, socialism and democracy Sharad Pawar. The elections in 1980
that attracted various sections once again gave Indira Gandhi's
of population; (iii) a wide spread Congress the legitimacy of dominant
Support base that included various party. This position remained so up to
interests, classes, regions, groups and 1989, when once again leaders like
communities. With these benefits the V.P. Singh left the Congress to join
Congress became a dominant party. hands with the opposition parties.
Up to 1967 the Congress was able In 1994 there occurred another
to form government both in the Centre division in the Congress and leaders
and almost in all the States. Though like Arjun Singh and N.D. Tiwari left to
the Congress was a dominant and all form the Indira Congress. The Congress
embracing party, there were factions at that time was led by Rajiv Gandhi.
and groups within the party based on While these people later came back to
ideological and personality differences. the Congress another group led by
Under the dominating leadership of Sharad Pawar and P. A. Sangma left the
Jawaharlal Nehru these factions could party in 1999 to form another party
not come out openly. From 1962 called National Congress. Indian
onwards with the decline of powerful National Congress led by Sonia Gandhi
leadership and lack of popular still has a significant support base all
Support due to dissatisfaction over India, though it is no more a
from its performance, factionalism dominant party.
became quite open and important. In terms of ideology and
Factionalism and groupism finally led programme, Congress has projected
to the division of Congress in November itself as a secular, democratic, and
1969 into two parties Congress (R) led modernising party. For economic
by Indira Gandhi and Congress (O) led development it has expressed itself in
by Morarji Desai, K. Kamaraj, favour of land reforms, enlargement of
Nijalingappa. Indira Gandhi with her public sector and economic planning
background of Nehru family and within the frame work of mixed
presenting herself as a progressive economy. From 1955 onwards it
leader led her faction to massive victory declared its goal as attainment of a
in 1971-72 elections bringing Congress socialistic pattern of society. But the
(R) back as a dominant party. In 1977 party's social following and efforts to
Congress (O) got itself merged into win elections by accommodating all
66 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

interests made Congress to compromise development and reforms. Yet, it

on its ideology. Thus, it has remained remains committed to. values of
more a pragmatic party rather than secularism and democracy. It still is
ideologically committed. Since 1991, the party with largest social support
it has clearly moved towards liberal spread in almost all States and regions
economic system from its earlier of India. In that sense in terms of its
commitment to socialism and public orientation, areas of operation and
sector. Hence, Congress is the initiator support base Congress continues to be
of what is popularly known as the most significant national party.
Economic Reforms and Structural
Adjustments. The Congress also THE JANATA PARTY
supported efforts towards social
reforms. Like most other parties it After about 30 years of Congress
opposes discrimination based on caste, domination in March 1977 for the first
religion, region, sex, etc. It showed time a conglomeration of five parties, i.e.
sufficient sensitivity to the cause of Congress (O), Bhartiya Lok Dal, Jan
minorities particularly in its initial years Sangh, Socialist Party and Congress for
in independent India. The Congress Democracy along with some dissidents
Party’s foreign policy, specially under in Congress contesting jointly, defeated
the leadership of Nehru brought India the Congress in Lok Sabha elections.
considerable prominence as a founder Proclamation of national emergency in
and leader of Non-Aligned movement. 1975 and suppression of democratic
As already mentioned, before rights and arrest of various leaders of
independence, Congress was more a opposition political parties made it
movement than a party. After imperative to unite for their survival. |
independence it was transformed into Having won the elections in alliance
a party to contest elections. In view of and feeling the necessity for
its background and power, a number consolidation of non-Congress unity
of people and groups’ began to these parties decided to merge
join Congress without necessary themselves in a single party.
commitment to its programmes. This Consequently on 1 May , 1977 was born
made Congress more a pragmatic party the Janata Party with the merger of
than a programmatic one. These and Congress (O) Bhartiya Lok Dal, Jan
other such factors brought into Sangh, Socialist Party, Congress for
Congress wide spread factionalism, Democracy and the former Congressmen
sycophancy and centralisation of who had left the Congress at the time of
power. As a result, organisationally, proclamation of emergency.
Congress became a personalised, and Being a combination of various
centrally controlled party. It is no more parties, Janata party’s programme was
a party of consensus, with a clear cut bound to be mixed one and pragmatic
programme for socio-economic to satisfy all its constituents. At the
NATIONAL AND STATE PARTIES 67

same time it was a fact that in 1977 fresh elections were held for the
elections support against Congress had Lok Sabha.
come largely from North India and more People of India, obviously felt
so from rural areas. Therefore, tilt of betrayed by the Janata Party and
Janata party’s programme was towards therefore, in 1980 mid term polls voted
farming classes. However, each against both the Janata Party and the
Constituent party was keen to Lok Dal. This brought Congress (J)
consolidate its own social base. Thus, back to power. Soon after the elections
in spite of merger various constituents there came another split. Most of the
in the Janata Party continued to work erstwhile Jan Sangh members along
as independent partners in a coalition. with some others left the Party to form
The differences between various Bhartiya Janata Party (BJP).
segments extended to a wide range of
political and economic issues. The JANATA DAL
Janata Party failed to evolve any
mechanism to regulate and harmonise Having lost two general elections in
the Conflicting interests of various 1980 and 1984, some leaders among
lobbies and groups. This ultimately led non-Congress parties once again began
to open division and in less than three efforts for opposition unity. As a result
years in July 1979 the party got divided Janta Dal was born on 11 October,
into two. Most of the members of 1988, with the merger of Janata Party.
erstwhile Bhartiya Lok Dal and Socialist Lok Dal and Jan Morcha. In 1989
Party came out of Janata Party on the elections Janata Dal became a part
issue of dual membership and formed of National Front which has a
a new party named as Lok Dal. coalition of seven parties. Earlier some
Issue of dual membership meant congressmen including V.P. Singh had
whether a member of Janata Party can left the Congress on the issue of
be a member of another political corruption. They also became a part of
organisation. This was raised the National Front. After November
particularly in the context of erstwhile 1989 election, the National Front with
Jan Sangh members continuing to be the outside support of BJP and CPM
members of Rashtriya Swayam Sewak formed the government.
Sangh (RSS) which they claimed was a Soon it became clear that both the
socio-cultural organisation and not a formation of Janata Dal and National
political one. In some, there were Front were negative considerations of
differences galore. As a consequent of defeating the Congress without any
the split the Janata Party government positive commitment to an ideology or
fell. With the support of Congress, Lok programme. Soon after coming to
Dal formed a new government. But this power there were factional pulls and
coalition also could not work for more pressures both in Janata Dal and
than six months and finally in 1980 National Front. In November 1990, a
68 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

sizeable chunk of members came Almost all splits in Janata Dal had —
out of Janata Dal and formed been primarily on personality basis —
Samajwadi Janata Party. In August rather than on any ideological
1992 Ajit Singh with his supporters left differences. Social base of various
Janata Dal to form Janata Dal (A). On splinter parties, that is Janata Dal,
21 June, 1994, another group of Rashtriya Janata Dal, Samajwadi
members came out of Janata Dal and Janata Party, etc. is the same as of other
formed Samta Party. Thus, by backward classes and Muslims. All
November 1995 Janata Dal stood much of them stand committed to a
reduced. It, however, continued to be socialist perspective, devolution and
a national party as also a ruling party decentralisation of power, rural
in two States — Bihar and Karnataka. reconstruction, secularism and justice
In 1996 elections, no party gained to lower and backward castes. None of ©
majority. Bhartiya Janata Party them, however, has been able to create
emerged as the single largest party but a functional structure or broaden its
could not get the support of others. support base. All factions of Janata Dal
Hence, it failed to remain in power rely on regional caste based support
beyond 13 days. This situation again and are dominated by single
gave opportunity to Janata Dal to individuals. Each of these Janata
lead a coalition government with factions has a significant support in
the support of the Congress. The some States and regions; like Bihar,
government thus formed was known as Orissa, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, etc.
United Front government led by All efforts to unite them are proving
H.D. Deve Gowda and I.K. Gujral failures due to personality clashes.
respectively. But, the United Front
Government, also could not survive BHARTIYA JANATA PARTY
beyond a year.
Bhartiya Janata Party was founded in
Even before the fall of United Front April 1980 as a result of second split in
government, once again in 1997 there Janata Party. As already mentioned it
occurred another split in Janata Dal was mostly the members of erstwhile
and Rashtriya Janata Dal was formed. Bhartiya Jan Sangh who constituted
The process did not end here. In 1998 it the Bhartiya Janata Party (BJP).
got split once again when Biju Janata Bhartiya Jan Sangh was founded
Dal was formed. Needless to say each on 21 October, 1951, under the
split has weakened the Janata Dal presidentship of Dr Shyama Prasad
considerably. As a whole various Mukerjee. The objective of founding the
splinters like Rashtriya Janata Dal and Jan Sangh was rebuilding of India
Samajwadi party have become regional as a modern, democratic society in
parties. The two factions that is Janata accordance with religious precepts and
Dal (S) and Janata Dal (U) have been able four fundamentals of “one country, one
to retain the status of national parties. nation, one culture and rule of law.”
ae
NATIONAL AND STATE PARTIES 69

From 1951 to 1977 Bhartiya Jan of an employment guarantee scheme

Sangh had been a national party but and pension for the aged, etc. In due
primarily concentrated in urban areas course Gandhian Socialism was
of North India. In 1974 the party stood transformed into liberalised Swadeshi.
in support of Jaya Parkash Narain Of course in election manifestos and
movement which was primarily an anti- public speeches BJP leaders, like
Congress, anti-corruption reform Congress, promised some thing to
movement. The party also actively every one. But BJP’s policies, as a senior
opposed the promulgation of internal partner in National Democratic
emergency in 1975. Ultimately joining Alliance government, clearly reflects
hands with other major non-Congress its commitment for liberalisation,
parties, Bhartiya Jan Sangh also privatisation and globalisation.
dissolved itself and became a part of In social field also the BJP promises
Janata Party formed in April-May justice to all sections. It has accepted
1977. As already mentioned within the principle of reservation on caste
Janata Party there started differences basis and 33 per cent reservation of
on various issues from the beginning. seats for woman in Parliament and State
Janata Party objected to the practice of Legislatures. The most important aspect
former Jan Sangh members continuing of BJP ideology, however, is cultural
to remain as members of the RSS. This nationalism . Some feel that in view of
led to some socialist members coming its electoral compulsions, BJP has shed
out of Janata Party to form Lok Dal; and its ideological homogeneity and
finally, after Janata Party’s defeat in sharpness. Nevertheless, BJP remains
1980, most of the erstwhile Jan Sangh committed to the idea of one nation and
left members the Janata Party to form | one culture. It criticises the politics of
Bhartiya Janata Party (BJP). The BJP minoritism allegedly followed by
thus, inherited two different legacies, Congress governments. It also does not
one that of the erstwhile Jan Sangh and hide its criticism of what it calls pseudo-
second of the Janata Party. secularism.
In view of the dual legacies and in In terms of electoral support the
changed circumstances, BJP tried to BJP, like its predecessor the Bhartiya
project itself different from Bhartiya Jan Jan Sangh, has a strong electoral
Sangh. So while it permitted dual support base in the Hindi-speaking
membership with RSS, the party regions, Gujarat and Maharashtra.
proclaimed that its ideology was Since 1989, it has been trying to extend
Gandhian Socialism. In concrete terms its base in South India also. It has been
BJP programme was vague. It laid particularly successful in Karnataka.
equal stress on the development of In terms of social base, BJP’s traditional
agriculture and industry, reduction of votes have been coming from upper
taxes, recognition of citizens castes, the small and medium trader=
fundamental right to work, introduction and shopkeepers in urban and ru
70 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

areas and a section of the Indian THE COMMUNIST PARTIES

middle class. Lately BJP has also made
a dent in other backward castes. The two National Parties representing
Since its formation in 1980, the BJP a clear leftist ideology are Communist
has been increasing its vote percentage. Party of India (CPI) and Communist
In December 1984, Parliamentary Party of India Marxist [CPI(M)]. Their
elections party could win only two seats origin, as with other communist parties
securing 7.72 per cent votes. In 1989, is based on the tenets of Marxism; with
Lok Sabha polls, BJP share of vote rose the aim of establishing socialism. In
to 11.59 per cent and 88 seats. 1964, because of ideological differences —
According to observers BJP’s sudden the CPI got divided and the group that
rise, particularly in number of seats was came out formed the Communist Party
because of three reasons: (i) general of India (Marxist).
anti-Congress wave particularly in The Communist Party of India (CPI)
North India; (ii) rise of communal was founded in 1925 by those who got
politics in the country; and (iii) seat attracted towards Marxism and were
adjustments with other parties. In 1991 already engaged in revolutionary
Lok Sabha elections, BJP’s strength in activities. Of course at that time they
Lok Sabha increased to 122 with a vote were facing repression from the British
percentage of 20.9. Having won 161 colonial administration. They also had
seats in 1996 Lok Sabha elections BJP close links with the Communist Party
emerged as the single largest party. of Great Britain and international
Thereafter in 1998, it won 180 seats revolutionary movement.
with 25.5 per cent votes and in 1999, In the late twenties and_.early thirties
182 seats with 23 per cent votes. In the main arena of Communist activity
1999 elections it contested as an was provided by the Trade unions, in
alliance partner in the National which definite success was scored. The
Democratic Alliance (NDA). second sphere where the CPI could
The BJP as such has emerged.a extend its mass following was provided
significant national party almost by the worker and peasant parties. As
comparable to Indian National the labour movement gained ground so
Congress. But its support base as yet the activity of these parties also
is limited to certain areas rather than intensified. During the 1930s the
spread all over India. Also there is party adopted a tactic of the United
ambiguity within the party on its Front from above in cooperation
ideological stand particularly on with the nationalist movement. The
religious and cultural aspects. In terms Communists joined the Congress and
of economic programmes, like soon secured leadership in its socialist
Congress, it has become a centrist and organisation — the Congress Socialist
a pragmatic party. Party. They were, however, expelled
NATIONAL AND STATE PARTIES 71

from the Congress in 1939, on the issue the very first general elections the CPI
of double membership. The final break began contesting elections in the multi
with the Congress came with the Nazi party system. It got encouraged from
invasion of the Soviet Union. At that time the fact that compared to other
the CPI supported the British in Second opposition parties it received better
World War as a war against Fascism and support’in the then situation of one
Nazism whereas Congress was preparing party dominant system. A historic
to launch the Quit India Movement. landmark was reached in 1957 when
After independence there emerged in the second general elections the
two factions within CPI on the basis of Communist party won an absolute
the assessment of the political system majority in Kerala and formed the
of independent India. One group felt government. This made clear the
that independence of India was not real. chances of assuming power by peaceful
It was a transfer of power in the means. But the central government in
framework of modified imperialistic 1959 dismissed the Communist Kerala
system. Therefore, there was need for government in spite of party enjoying
struggle under the leadership of CPI majority support. This gave chance to
and alliance with workers and radical elements to suggest that in the
peasants. It was called a tactic of the given system socialist reforms were not
united front from below. This was the so easy. By this time there also had
line given by the Soviet Union, the then started emerging conflict between India
leader of the International Communist and Communist China which finally
Movement. The other group was of the resulted in India-China War in 1962.
view that the transfer of power was real. The two factions in the CPI had different
Therefore, Nehru government needed to interpretations about this war. While
be supported as a part of alliance with the pro-Soviet group was clearly
nationalist forces. Soon the Soviet opposed to China the other group
position changed and the CPI was though not necessarily pro-China
advised to abandon the adventurist blamed both China and India for the
tactics and instead work for the creation conflict. Combination of all these factors
of a broad anti-feudal, and anti- finally led to the split in party in
imperialist front along with the 1964 when the more radical group
nationalist bourgeoisie. This gave the came out of CPI and formed CPI(M)
direction, to what is called, movement claiming itself to be the real Communist
towards “Constitutional Communism.” Party of India.
By Constituticnal Communism is
meant to gain power by communists Tue CPI
through elections rather than through
their traditional approach of snatching After the 1964 split, the CPI had no
power through revolution. Thus, from difficulty in following the Soviet line. The
 U2 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

main thrust of this line was that the CPI cancellation of loans taken by small
accepted to deal with what it regarded peasants, radical land reforms, including
as progressive nationalist section in fair wages to agricultural workers.
the Congress, the major vehicle of In foreign policy CPI favours ~
bourgeois nationalism. continuation of policy of non-alignment —
It was in this context that the CPI and anti-imperialism and improvement ~
started assessing the Nehru of friendship with neighbouring
government and later supported Indira countries. The growing escalation of US
Gandhi and her supporters. It imperialism is viewed as a decisive
remained an ally of the Congress till impetus towards strengthening the
1977. Since then CPI started developing policy of non-alignment.
an anti-Congress line. On the issue of
communalism the CPI has become
CPI(M)
more critical of BJP. Since 1989, the The CPI(M)’s position was that the CPI
CPI has been contesting elections as an was a revisionist party which had —
ally of anti-Congress and anti-BJP left deviated from Leninism and has ©
and democratic front. But in its efforts renounced Marxism.
to achieve the goal of national The CPI(M) wanted to establish a |
democracy the CPI had gone to the people’s democracy. To attain this end —
extent of joining the coalition it worked to develop People’s
government at Centre in 1996. Democratic Front. This Front was to
In its programmes party favours be led by the working class. The chief ©
communal harmony, secularism, allies of the working class would be ©
prevention of misuse of religious places
agricultural labourers and the poor
peasants in the countryside. The middle
for disruptive activities. The CPI
peasants would be firm allies and even —
expresses its commitment to work for
the rich peasants can be allies up toa
evolving a new and equitable international
point. The urban and other sections of
economic order, curbing monopoly
the petty bourgeoisie could also be
houses and trans-national giants,
regarded as allies. The enemies of this
control over foreign trade; protection of anti-feudal, anti-imperialist revolution
small scale industries, cottage industries are the monopolists, the big
and artisans, strengthening the public bourgeoisie, and the imperialists.
distribution system, government take- The CPI(M), at the same time did not
over of wholesale trade in food grains; reject the Parliamentary path. It was
need based minimum wage to factory in view of this that in 1982 the CPI(M)
workers and others in the unorganised decided to work for a Broad “anti-
sector; introducing social security authoritarian” front including even the
measures and preventing lock-out of Bhartiya Janata Party. However, it
factories; effective workers participation reiterated at the same time that it will
in management of units in the public spend its energies to build “left and
sector, crop insurance scheme; and democratic unity.”
NATIONAL AND STATE PARTIES 73

Since 1992 there are certain The two communist parties have
visible changes in Party’s strategic now moved together to build and
programmatic emphasis, but there is develop a “left unity”. Both the parties
no major change in the stand of the note a perceptible change in the
party on the basic ideological questions. international situation and threats of
While the anti-Congress edge of the neo-colonialism. Since 1984, both the
CPI(M) policy has not been diluted, it parties have been contesting elections
has sharpened its attack on the BJP. as part of Left Front, as also United
The party election manifestos on Front. The CPI(M) dominates that front
economic issues emphasise the need for and CPI occupies the number two
India to become self-dependent position. Their main emphasis at
economically and to escape from the present is that what India needs
clutches of the World Bank and the
urgently is national secular democratic
International Monetary Fund (IMF).
unity. The new US economic offensive
According to CPI(M) not only India is
and the forces threatening national
losing control over its economy because
integration are the main targets of their
of these but also India’s domestic and
attack.
foreign policies are moulded by As far as State Assemblies are
them. It is critical of liberalisation
of economy, increasing inequalities concerned the two Communist parties
have done well in West Bengal, Kerala
and unemployment. It favours and Tripura. In all these three States,
implementation of land reforms,
minimum wages, creation of jobs; and
the two parties either singularily or
to achieve all it. Suggests, demolition jointly or in alliance with other parties
of capitalist path of development. have been able to form government. In
It
advocates nationalisation of textile and 1957 for the first time in the world a
Communist party formed government
jute industries and government take
over of big factories, protection of after winning elections in a multi party
democratic system when CPI won
unorganised workers, adequate wages
for farm labourers and the right to work. an absolute majority in Kerala. In
In view of some policies of CPI(M) West Bengal, the Left Front led by
as Tuling party, particularly in CPI(M) is in power continuously for
West Bengal, the critics have called more than two decades.
the economic stand of the party As far as social base and
aS Paradoxical and hypocritical. membership is concerned there is
Paradoxical because the party has hardly any difference between the two
introduced economic liberalisation in Communist parties. They depend on
West Bengal in contravention of its the support of working class, the middle
political philosophy; hypocritical class and agricultural labour and small
because it has attempted to justify this peasants. Both are essentially middle
policy while retaining in theory its class parties, unable to draw much new
standard ideology. members from the younger generation.
74 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

The CPI(M) proximity to power, assumption was that people belong

particularly in West Bengal has made ing to Scheduled Castes, Scheduled
it more acceptable to peasants. Its Tribes, Backward Castes ant
following is intensive and concentrated minorities form 85 per cent a
and therefore, translates more into countries population and constitute
voting strength. The CPI’s following is the “Bahujan”; but a minority of uppe
diffused and scattered. Spatially, the castes rule the country.
CPI(M) has a small following in the Hindi The BSP ideology, therefore, is
heartland where the CPI is better placed. clear and sharp to mobilise dalits and
Concentrated electoral strength has oppressed assuming that a volcanit
made CPI(M) popular in West Bengal, outburst of the oppressed class could
Tripura and Kerala. not be stopped for long and was
bound to happen one day. The Party’
BAHUJAN SAMAJ PARTY prime objective is to build a cadre
devoted to educating dalits about
Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) is the their rights.
youngest among the national parties. In the beginning, the party was all
Founded on 14 April, 1984, the party isolationist one declaring to have no
is an expression of the dalit resurgence. alliance with any other party. Its aim
It has been emerging slowly in certain was to initiate some socio-cultural
parts of the country both as a result movement among the dalits. Later on
of opportunities provided by a its strategy has undergone some
democratic system and failure of other changes and it had allied and shared
national parties to provide social justice power in Uttar Pradesh with BJP in
to the dalits. | 1995, 1997 and 2002, and had a
The BSP had its origin in All India pre-election alliance with Congress in
Backward (SCs, STs, OBCs) and 1996. The party had also entered into
Minorities Communities Employees an alliance with the Samajwadi
Federation founded in 1978 by Janata Party. Observers explain BSPs
Kanshi Ram a scientist in the change of strategy on the basis of
Explosive Research Development realisation that it was not capable of
Laboratory. After knitting his net garnering sufficient support from the
work among the government backward castes, which have no love
employees across the length and lost for the dalits. In fact the backward
breadth of the country, particularly dalit antagonism in rural India does
in the Northern States he launched not allow the party to broaden its
yet another organisation DS-4 base. The class interests of backward
(the Dalit Shoshit Samaj Sangharash sections, especially after land reforms
Samiti) in 1981. Finally, on 14 April, and green revolution, tend to clash
1984, BSP was launched. The with the dalits, many of whom
 75
NATIONAL AND STATE PARTIES

continue to be landless in rural India. state parties. Some of these are

The antagonism between the upper recognised state parties on the basis
caste and the dalits is no longer as of their strength prescribed by the
sharp as it is between the backwards Election Commission. At the same time
and the dalits, in view of the changed there are many unrecognised state
land ownership patterns in the last parties because of lack of necessary
two or three decades. voters support. Generally, speaking
In less than a decade, BSP, at regional parties are those which
least in Hindi-speaking States had generally and exclusively operate
become a political force to the extent within a limited geographical area of a
that it can influence the electoral State, or which represent narrow social
fortunes of the major political parties interests. But in India we have several
like the Congress, BUP and Janata Dal. types of regional parties. Broadly
Thereafter, BSP has been making speaking these can be divided into four
continuing gains particularly in Uttar categories.
Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, Punjab First category is of those parties
and Madhya Pradesh. The party, which are classical, regional ethnicity
however, faces various and serious or cultural based. These parties are by
hurdles in its efforts. While the claim choice regional interested to acquire
ofa Bahujan Samaj points to a desire power in one or two States in the name
to unite under dalit leadership a of that cultural, linguistic or ethnic
wider section of society, but its core groups. Examples of these are All India
appeal remains to dalits who Anna Dravida Munetra Kazhagam
comprise just over sixteen per cent of (AIADMK) and Dravida Munetra
India’s voters. Further, the success Kazhagam (DMK), Shiv Sena, Asom
of BSP in North India has not been Gana Parishad, National Conference,
equalled in other parts of the country. Indian Union Muslim League,
In South India, in particular, there are Jharkhand Mukti Morcha, Manipur
other dalit formations that have People’s Party, Shiromani Akali Dal,
created their own space. The BSP’s Sikkim Democratic Front, Telugu
dream of ruling the country, therefore, Desam, etc.
may remain utopia, except in the case Second category is of those
of a coalition. But it had made it clear parties which have been formed by
that in near future, at least, dalit power split in national parties. Most such
will surely play a role in Indian politics. parties were formed after 1967 by the
leaders coming out of Congress. Later
some such parties have also come
STATE ParTIES
into existence from splits in Janata
As already mentioned in addition to and other parties. Examples of such
national parties there are regional or parties are Biju Janata Dal, Janata
76 DEMOCRACY |
IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

Party, Kerala Congress, Rashtriya example of such parties are Akhil

Janata Dal, Samajwadi Janata Party, Bharat Hindu Mahasabha, Akhil
Trinamool Congress etc. Bhartiya Jan Sangh, All India Muslim
The third category is of those Forum, Ambedkar Samaj Party,
parties which on the basis of ideology Anna Telugu Desam Party, Bahujan
and programme have a secular Kranti Dal, Bahujan Samaj Party
national perspective and also try to (Ambedkar). Gandhivadi Rashtriya
operate at all India level, but lack a Congress, Shiromani Akali Dal
national base. As such on the basis of (Mann), Tamil Desiyak Kutch, MGR
voter support these are recognised Anna DMK, Kannada Chalavali Vatal
only as state parties. Such parties Paksha, etc.
include All India Forward Block, During last three decades some
Indian National Lok Dal, Nationalist of the States, regional parties have
Congress Party, Republican Party of become quite important. In fact in
India, Revolutionary Socialist Party, several States in India, the largest
Samajwadi Party, etc. non-Congress political parties aré
Fourth category is of those parties specific to a single State and have little
which in fact can be called or no strength outside their home
personalised parties. Such parties state. The most important such
are formed by individual leaders, parties are the AIADMK and the DMK
many of them coming out of national in Tamil Nadu, the Telugu Desam in
or state parties on the basis of their Andhra Pradesh, the Akali Dal in
personal support or charisma in Punjab, the National Conference in
specific areas. These parties generally, Jammu and Kashmir, and the Asom
do not survive long. They either get Gana Parishad in Assam. In fact, in
finished with the personality of the all these States, the non-Congress
leader or get merged with some state parties have won majorities at
national or regional party for some one time or the other in legislative
share in power. Some such parties are assembly elections held between 1977
Himachal Vikas Congress, Haryana and 1999 and formed governments
Vikas party, Lok Shakti etc. thereafter. These single state parties
In addition to state or regional are distinguished by their adoption of
parties there are also unrecognised a regional nationalist perspective, by
registered parties which are registered their political desire for greater
with the Election Commission, but regional autonomy of States in the
due to the lack of sufficient electoral Indian Union, for their focus on issues
support are not recognised for the specific to their States or for their base
purposes of reservation of election “thin a religious minority.
symbols. Such parties also can be One result of the growing influence
categorised into above four. Some of regional parties has been that at
 NATIONAL AND STATE PARTIES DT

times no single national party gets parties do not provide such flexibility.
majority in the Lok Sabha. In all the This provides another reason for
general elections to Lok Sabha from proliferation of regional parties. Asa
1989 to 1999 this has been the whole regional parties are significant
situation. This has led not only to participants in parliamentary and
formation of coalition governments federal democratic system of India.
but also regional parties influencing Most of them have no separatist or
the process of governmental formation secessionist agenda. As already
and participating in it. This has both mentioned not all regional parties are
positive and negative effects. In cultural or regional based parties.
positive terms regional parties provide Some are definitely class and ideology
a check on centralisation of power, based. But in terms of support base
strengthening of federalism, fulfillment and role in politics it is the parties
of regional and cultural aspirations of representing specific regional or socio-
various sections of population thereby cultural interests that have emerged
helping in national integration, a important. The more successful
share in power to marginalised and regional parties have been AIADMK
deprived groups. In negative terms and DMK in Tamil Nadu, Shiromani
they cause instability of government, Akali Dal in Punjab, Telugu Desam
lack of unity and coherence for a in Andhra Pradesh, National
national government, encouragement Conference in Jammu and Kashmir,
to regional and sectorial forces, added Biju Janata Dal in Orissa, Kerala
role of caste and religion in politics. Congress and Muslim League in
Both these positive and negative Kerala. All these parties have formed
effects of regional parties are a natural governments in their respective States
Process in a democratic system. Ina several times either by themselves or
country of vast diversities, regional in coalition with others. Some of them
imbalances, concentration of have stronger roots among masses,
linguistic and ethnic groups in certain compared to some national parties. It
regions, along with failure of planning is because of this that with the decline
to create a national economy and of one party dominance, in several
| balanced development growth, States actual and potential opposition
development of regional parties is and alternative to Congress has been
natural. In some countries with provided by regional parties. They
federal systems, national parties also now share power at the Central
themselves allow their state or government as partners of one or the
regional wings autonomy enough to other alliance or front. This processes
represent regional aspirations. In seems to be the pattern at least for the
India centrally controlled national near future.
78 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENG

EXERCISES

Give the names and symbols of any three National Parties in India.
Cie Gis

Briefly state the policies and programmes of Indian National Congress.

Explain the policies and programmes of Bhartiya Janata Party.
Bring out the significance of Bahujan Samaj Party in Indian politics.
Write Short notes on the following:
(i) Role of State/Regional Parties;
(ii) Janata Dal;
(iii) CPI and CPI(M)
CHAPTER 6 j

Formation of Public Opinion

N the last two chapters you have read opinion. A public is a collectivity of
about two types of organised groups people with a common interest.
that is political parties and interest Collectivity denotes a complete absence
groups that are engaged in controlling of organisation. The only link among
and influencing decision making power those in a collectivity is their common
of the government either by capturing interest. They are not a group. The
the governmental machinery or by common interests may be attributed to
putting pressure from outside. But the public by an outsider. For example,
ultimately in any system governmental a government may feel public is
policies are made, at least in theory, for interested in stability. It is not necessary
the public as a whole. Particularly ina that they constitute entire people or
democracy the very survival of any even a majority at a particular time. The
government finally rests on the approval public thus is not a fixed body of
or rejection by the people at elections. individuals. Of course it is a collectivity
Therefore, governments are always of people. A public, in that sense can
keen to know the feelings of public as a also be an artificial creation. Opinion is
whole and try to respond to them in one a verbally expressed attitude, that is an
way or the other. In other words, expression which reflects individual’s or
governments are less interested in collectives’ attitudes towards a matter
personal opinions of one or some, what of interest or importance. By
they are interested is in public opinion putting together, we can say ‘public
about them. Therefore, in any opinion is the verbally expressed
political system, more so in democracy, attitude of a collectivity of people with
public opinion plays a very significant a common interest’.
role in its process, decision making, The term public opinion is
accountability and working. commonly used to denote the aggregate
of the views men hold regarding matters
PuBLic Opinion : DEFINITION that affect or interest the community.
Thus understood, it is a congeries of
The term public opinion, as is clear, is all sorts of discrepant notions, beliefs,
a compound of two words — public and fancies, prejudices, aspirations. It is
 {

80 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENG

confused, incoherent, amorphous, Political parties also play ap

varying from day to day and week to important role in the formation of publit
week. But in the midst of this opinion. Parties organise meetings
diversity and confusion, every question protests, strikes etc. on various issues
as it rises into importance is They mobilise support in favour of of
subjected to a process of consolidation against a policy, thereby throwing up
and clarification until it takes a debates on the issues. Speeches of party
definite shape. leaders inside and outside Parliament
and State Legislatures also influence
FORMATION OF PUBLIC OPINION public opinion. They bring out leaflets
and pamphlets to inform the public
As already mentioned, public opinion is Since, political parties are interested in
not something made for all times to capturing political power, they focus
come. It is formulated on matters of attention on all the major problems faced
concern or importance. However, there by citizens, the society and the State. In
is no automatic process or an organised particular opposition parties remain
way of its formation. In a society very active in creating public opinion
whenever an issue emerges conscious against the government. For the party
and articulated sections of the society in power, it is easy to use governmental
start expressing their views and machinery to create public opinion in
reactions on the subject. In the process, its favour. But compulsions of taking
there may emerge various views. Some unpopular decisions and difficulties in
of these get discarded, some modified fulfilling the promises made during
and some receive larger attention. Finally, elections, the government mostly has to
one view or other emerges, which is face adverse public opinion. |
generally considered as public opinion. In addition to and along with
Individual’s opinion is also political parties most active in creating
formulated on the basis of information public opinion are interest groups. As
or discussion one gets in one’s the very concern of interest group is to
immediate environment like family, influence policy making, they try to
neighbourhood, school, college, peer mould public opinion to protect their
groups, interest groups, clubs and own interests as societal or national
associations. This is what is known in interests, thereby giving government to
Political Science the process of formulate policies in the name of public
socialisation. An individual’s upbringing interest. Interest groups, therefore use
and interactions in various institutes media, organise seminars and meetings
helps articulating her/his short term to make articulated sections speak the
and long term attitudes and orientations. language they want.
These may take the shape of In the present day situation,
opinions or beliefs depending on the opinions in many cases are also formed
intensity and matter. on the basis of information from the
FORMATION OF PUBLIC OPINION 81

mass media. Today, the individual is issues rather than on detailed policy
flooded with information from internet, items. In the fast developing and
radio, televisions, newspapers and changing times the government has to
magazines. This information shapes deal with unexpected events and crisis
and reshapes public opinion. that develop between elections. Also
Here, it may be made clear that both party in power does not remain
the articulation of views by experts or concerned only with the past election it
concerned intelligent sections of is very much concerned with the future
population or crystallised by the election also and for that it has to build
information and analysis provided by its image. In view of all these it is very
the media are not necessarily interest difficult for a government to ignore the
or value free. In fact critics point out public opinion. Infact some observers
selectivity in choice of information, data
suggest that public opinion is one of
or analysis according to biases, the three essential elements for
prejudices, beliefs, values and the successful working of demo-
ideologies. That is why it is said that
cratic system, the other two being
public opinion is subject to possibilities
universal adult franchise and
of manipulation also. Many times,
representative institutions. Universal
under the influence of media or experts,
adult franchise lays the foundation of
pubic favours or disfavours a policy
without realising that it may be against democratic participation, representative
institutions provide for democratic
public interest in general. Nevertheless,
since public opinion is not permanent, recruitment and public opinion
there are possibilities of changes in that, ensures democratic communication.
particularly in democratic countries, Since, public opinion is considered
because of availability of information as an expression of the citizens in
from different sources and freedom of general, it is very difficult for the
expression of views by all. It is in view government to reject it outright. At the
of this that governments remain same time, it is also a fact that most of
concerned about public opinion. the times public opinion is a reflection
of populism and emotional outbursts
GOVERNMENT AND PusBLic OPINION rather than rational thinking or
analysis. Therefore, it remains very
In general, government’s function on
received in difficult to succumb to public opinion
the basis of mandate
all the times. For example, except in
election. This means that a government
cases of extreme emergencies like war,
is only justified in introducing policies
for which it has an electoral mandate. how will public opinion favour taxation;
As you have read in chapters on but governments have to impose taxes.
elections and parties, while parties do Similarly, in view of long term national
publish election manifestoes, election interests and to fulfil international
campaigns tend to be fought on general commitments and for efficiency in
82 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES ©

governance, governments often have to among citizens in general for their

take unpopular decisions. rights including right to information,
Importance of public opinion even government's ability to mould public
in these types of situation is that opinion has become quite restricted. —
government under pressure tries to Also having been become partner in the ~
remain responsible and does its best to process of globalisation, governments
convince the public about the necessity are also under pressure to give free
of such policies or decisions. In the age access to foreign media which is not
of globalisation, it is not only domestic easily manipulatable. As such
public opinion that governments are governments are under severe
worried about, but also of international pressures of public opinion both
public opinion. International public internal and external and have to take
opinion articulated through Non- note of the same in formulating their
Governmental Organisations and policies and making decisions.
trans-national movements like for
promotion and protection of human AGENCIES OF PUBLIC OPINION
rights, environment, against nuclear
We have read that for governments it is
proliferation, discrimination based on
very important to take note of public
race or descent, prevention of child
opinion. In fact parties in opposition are
labour, promotion of gender justice,
also concerned about it. Both the party
etc. make governments answerable in
in power and in opposition therefore are
international community and put their
keen to mould public opinion in their
credibility on stake. Therefore,
favour. At the same time they also try
governments remain conscious of such
to know in some authentic way what
international public opinion also. We
public thinks on a particular issue or
have in India examples of government
what are its expectations. While it may
explaining its conduct on issues of
be said that public opinion can be
human rights violations, communal
known by sensing the public mood or
violence and caste oppression to
from the conversations at various levels,
international NGOs like Amnesty
these not necessarily reflect the
International, Human Rights Watch
crystallised views at large. For it the
and others.
government and parties have to rely on
Some times the governments use
various agencies. Important among
their powers to manipulate public
these are the following:
opinion. In India, when government had
monopolistic control over radio and
Press and Electronic Media
television, it was often used to create a
favourable public opinion. However, in Most easy and acceptable means to have
the present age of revolution in a feel of public opinion is press and
communication, arrival of cable TV media. We have already said that pres
networks, internet and rising awareness and media play an important role in th
FORMATION OF PUBLIC OPINION 83

formation of public opinion. Media their leaders during party meetings.

reports social and political activities This may be termed as linkage between
including their strengths and parties and voters. While this method
weaknesses. Views of leaders, is supposed to be very important and
concerned citizens and activists are useful in India it has become
published in news items and articles. retrogative. Most political parties have
Editorials are written on issues, events become centrally controlled and
of concern and also on governmental personality oriented. In this situation,
policies. People write letters to editors workers instead of passing true public
expressing their views and opinions on opinion to leadership may give them
issues and policies. Electronic media false picture of their popularity,
shows in motion, movements, activities, charisma and support.
debates and interviews bringing to light
prevailing opinion and views. Media has Opinion Polls
also been criticised for selective Opinion polls provide a significant and
reporting or choosing data and events popular method to gather public
that confirms to their own biases, opinion. These were earlier used by
prejudices, beliefs, values and interests business houses to assess consumer
to influence the government in the
choices about their products. These are
name of public opinion. For example, a now being used to gather information
TV channel may interview more people about public attitude and opinion on
speaking in favour of a view which may variety of political matters including
be its own favourite than of those who their opinion on issues of local or
are opposed to it. It is also said that in national importance, their preference
countries like India media is largely for political parties and leaders in
controlled by big business houses and elections to be held; their views on
industrialists. At present with increasing governmental policies or specific
competition with in the media, there are events. These opinion polls are
more possibilities of various views getting generally conducted by professional
exposure and space, thereby creating agencies selecting representative
awareness amongst the people both samples of population. Researchers
urban and rural. and academics also conduct such
surveys to study electoral behaviour,
Party Platform political attitudes and political culture.
Another method used by political Opinion polls help political parties
parties is to get feed backs from their formulate their electoral strategies,
cadres and workers. Every political adjust their programmes and make
party has a number of party workers necessary alliances during elections.
spread over in various strata of society. These may provide government with
They provide feedback from voters to feedback of peoples level of satisfaction
84 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGE

or dissatisfaction from its policies as also (ii) the public is informed, rather we
convey their expectations and aspirations. informed;
While in general, opinion polls have (iii) the public deliberates and reacheé
been a useful instrument to find public rational conclusions;
opinion, they have always not been (iv) the rationally formulated opinions
correct. In countries like India there are tend to be held uniformallj
various problems in conducting throughout the society;
objective and correct surveys. These (v) the public, having reached @
include large size of population, conclusion, would make its wil
illiteracy, lack of awareness and known at the polls and elsewhere;
apprehensions among people about the (vi) the public will or at least genera
purpose of surveys and therefore, the will be enacted into law;
tendency not to give correct information. (vii) the continued surveillance ant
Also some critics point out that opinion constant criticism would ensult
polls are being used more to create the maintenance of an enlightened
public opinion then to gather and public opinion, and consequently.
report it. Political parties in particular a public policy based upon thé
quite often criticise opinion polls of principles of social morality
deliberately favouring one or other and justice.
political party. In spite of all criticisms In a country like India where
the opinion polls and surveys are majority of the population is living in
becoming very popular and are being rural area, with widespread illiteracy
used by all, including governments, and poverty, society remaining
political parties, media and researchers fragmented on caste and community
as a useful method to understand and basis and under the influence o!
analyse public opinion. traditional elite, the above men-
tioned factors become a difficult
LIMITATIONS OF PuBLIC OPINION proposition. Public opinion some-
times becomes more a means to
Even though public opinion is a very legitimise interests of ruling class
effective means of communication than a reflection of genuine public
between government and citizens, it is aspirations. With the spread of
also a tool for continuous check on education, opening of media, linkages
government, yet it has a limited use. being established between rural and
The use and role of public opinion rests urban areas and political awareness
on certain assumptions. These can be reaching marginalised sections of the
described as: society, public opinion is likely to
(i) the public is interested in the play more significant role in Indian
affairs of the government; democratic process.
FORMATION OF PUBLIC OPINION 85

EXERCISES

Define Public Opinion. What is its significance in a democracy?

Explain the various agencies of Public Opinion.
How does electronic media influences the formation of Public Opinion?
Oi ae OB

Examine the significance of Opinion Polls.

Write short notes on the following:
(i) Government and Public Opinion;
(ii) Limitations of Public Opinion.
CHAPTER “

Interest Groups|
and Pressure Groups

N the last chapter you have read that .MEANING AND DEFINITION
[Link] modern day political process is the
political parties which are engaged in Interest groups can be defined as
the contest for political decision-making voluntary organisations formed te
power. They seek this power to defend a particular interest in a society
formulate and implement the policies or to promote a cause, or political
in accordance with their ideologies or position, without participating in actual
programmes, primarily to protect the contest for power. In general, use of
interest groups is made with regard to”
interests of groups they represent. Even
groups which are organised to promote,
when they are not in power, political
advance or defend some common
parties keep on making efforts to
interest of an occupational group like
influence the policy making in
lawyers, traders, teachers, farmers,
accordance with their preference.
doctors, etc. There has also emerged
Nevertheless, ultimate aim of political
such terms — as lobbies and lobbyists.
parties remains to acquire power. In
This in fact refers to the practice,
addition to political parties there are
especially in the USA, to influence and
other groups or associations those try pressurise the policy makers. This
to influence the decision making or practice called lobbying, again is a
policy formulation by the government method used by interest groups. Thus,
in accordance with their specific in general, organisations of specific
interests. These groups themselves do interests to influence policy making are
not enter into elections for acquiring primarily interest groups. Because of
power but are engaged only in putting tactics used by them they are also
pressure on the government in called pressure groups. However, in
particular, and political process in terms of their purpose, nature, tactics —
general, remaining outside the and role both the pressure groups and —
government. Such groups are called interests groups are often used
pressure or interest groups. interchangeably. |

|
.
 87
INTEREST GROUPS AND PRESSURE GROUPS

From the above definition of interest and concerns. In India, we have a

groups and pressure groups certain number of interest and pressure groups
characteristics of such groups become of various kinds which are playing an
clear. The first thing to note down is that important role in our democracy.
these groups are organised groups,
thus, they can be distinguished from INTEREST GROUPS
acts of participation by individuals.
And accordingly, each group works for Interest and pressure groups in India
collective interests of its members. are not a new political phenomena. They
Secondly, pressure groups, while have been in existence from colonial
organised on the basis of common period. In fact the Indian National
interests are primarily concerned with Congress in its origin itself was a
influencing the decision making by pressure group making a number of
putting pressure from outside. Thus, specific demands on the British
where political parties aspire to become administration such as increase in
the government, groups seek just to number of Indians recruited to the
influence it. They do not aspire to form administrative services, more quota for
governments, but to change its Indian students in England, etc. In due
direction and policy in a particular course there also emerged trade
manner. The interest and pressure unions, farmers associations, business
groups, do not fight elections. They may associations, youth organisations and
however, help some parties protecting groups of castes and religions
their interests. These groups differ from demanding protection of their specific
political parties in that they seek to exert interests. They were also used to
influence from outside, rather than to mobilise support for the national
win or exercise government power. movement. Today, they are a growing
Further, these pressure groups have a force in Indian politics. Of course, the
limited issue focus, in that they are issues with which groups are concerned
usually concerned with a specific cause and many of the tactics that they use
or the interests of a particular group. in pursuit of their aims, have been
In general, while political parties are the changing, but the broad principles of
formal, open and recognised part of the pressure group politics are the same.
Political system, the interest and Since independence, when government
pressure groups are informal, closed activity has spread into the spheres of
unrecognised part. Interest groups are social welfare, industry, and economic
also distinguished from _ social planning, the State has been inevitably
movements by their greater degree of drawn into closer direct contact with
formal organisation. Today, in almost more people, and more groups of
all countries, particularly in liberal people, thus, giving a greater impetus
democracies, a large number of interest to the activities of organised groups.
groups reflect a wide range of issues Political system also provides
88 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

considerable freedom to different increased significantly. The chief

segments of society to make demands characteristic of social or identity groups —
on the systems. There are also cases is that they are embedded in the social ©
when a pressure group that emerges fabric. In a sense their membership is
tends to produce a counter pressure based on birth rather than professional
group thereby increasing their number. or class basis. These groups can further —
The communication revolution leading be divided into two. One which are
to the growth of mass media and primarily concerned with community —
efficiency and respectability of public service and the other which use
relations also means that pressure communal or social mobilisational in
groups have greater facilities for political and economic competition. In
influencing public opinion. So more the first type we can mention DAV
and more interests tend to form Educational Institutions, Rama Krishna ~
organised groups. Thus, the variety of Mission, Chief Khalsa Dewan, Singh
groups in India today is immense. Sabhas, Muslim Educational Trusts like
These groups can be placed into four Vakkam Maulavi Foundation, Al-Ameen
broad categories i.e. Social or Identity Education Trust, Anglo-Indian
Based Groups, Associational or Christian Association, Jain Seva Sangh
Professional Groups, Institutional and many more of these type which are
Groups, and Ad hoc Groups. engaged in the educational, social and ©
economic upliftment of their
SOcIAL oR IDENTITY BasEp GRoupPS communities. For that purpose they
seek financial, technical and other types
During colonial period to counter the of help from government and put
onslaught of English education and pressure for that without prejudice to
Western value system, to demand proper other communities or encouraging
Share in the new professional and communal or social conflicts. In recent
government jobs, and to protect social years a large number of caste and sub-
and cultural interests in the emerging caste associations have also come up.
politics of numbers in the young Though most of such associations are
democratic institutions, there came up loosely organised, they are becoming
a number of groups based on very important basis of interest
community interests (religion, caste, articulation. Some of the groups
language, ethnicity, region, etc.). In some originally formed as ethnic or caste
cases British administration itself associations have also got transformed
encouraged formation of such groups into political parties. Anti-Brahamin
to counter some of the demands movement in Tamil Nadu in due course
of national movement. After of time became Dravida Kazhagam(DK)
independence, in the context of and later Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
democratic process and competition for (DMK). The Scheduled Caste Federation
scarce resources, such groups have later expanded into the Republican
 INTEREST GROUPS AND PRESSURE GROUPS 89

Party of India. You have already read interests. The largest and more
that the origin of present day Bahujan important of these are trade and
Samaj Party (BSP) was from All India business groups, trade unions and
Backward and Minorities Communities farmers and peasant organisations.
Employees Federation.
Other type of identity groups are Business GROUPS
those which are engaged in assertion
of special status, superiority or Business and industry in any society
preference for their communities vis-a-vis is the most articulated and active
other communities. Jamat-I-Islami section in terms of protection of interests
among the Muslims, Rashtriya and influencing policy. In India they
Sawayamasevak Sangh (RSS) and started organising themselves during
Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) among colonial period itself. At that time while
Hindus, All India Sikh Students they were in favour of keeping
Federation among Sikhs, etc. are such themselves aloof from confrontation
groups. These groups are engaged not politics of the Congress led national
only in the welfare of their communities movement, nevertheless, they in many
but also in transfer of political ways supported the constructive
process according to their value activity of the Congress and cause of
systems. There are also various freedom. In independent India,
Language Associations promoting the business and industry had to work in
development of languages. _ the context of development policies and
planning. They had both opportunities
ASSOCIATIONAL OR PROFESSIONAL to grow and apprehensions of
restrictions because of licence and
GROUPS
control regimes envisaged in the then
Associational or Professional groups adopted mixed economy strategy.
are the ones that are formed by Therefore, they felt a strong need to
people who come together to organise to put pressure on the
pursue shared professional interests. government in their favour. As a result
They are sometimes also called various types of business and
protective or functional groups. Trade commercial associations, emerged at
_uous: business associations, trade regional and national level. Important
associations, professional bodies, etc., among them are Chambers of
are prime examples of this type of Commerce and Industries and their
‘groups. Their unique character is federations like Confederation of Indian
derived from the fact that they represent Industries (CII) and Federation of
a section of society like workers, Indian Chambers of Commerce and
| employers, consumers, etc. It can also Industry (FICCI). The FICCI today is the
_be said that these groups are based on main spokesman of Indian capitalism
modern
| economic and vocational and big industry in particular.
90 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGE

Through these bodies, the big opponents of colonial oppression. N

business have sustained access to the only trade unions were established!
executive and bureaucracy for lobbying factories and regions, but efforts we
while the policy is being made made to organise them at national lev
and implemented. Ownership and also. In 1920 All India Trade Unit
operational control of the means of Congress (AITUC) was establisht
production give them tremendous lever under Congress influence. In 1929 th
to influence the governmental policies. fell in the hands of the Communists.
With their strong organisation and After independence, policy of rap
enormous money power they have industrialisation, establishment al
gained an important share in preparing growth of a very large public sectt
and implementing decisions on matters employing millions of persons, social
of financial and industrial policies. As a rhetoric of the government and decisi¢
result, despite the official ideology of the by Communist parties to participate!
state for a socialist pattern of society, the election, all provided conditiol
big business groups through its conducive for the growth of Tral
insistent pressure has been able to Union movement. Various politit
make itself a legitimate and powerful parties also started sponsoring the
sector. With liberalisation, privatisation own trade union federations or centre
and globalisation, role of business has like Indian National Trade Unit
increased further. They can now better Congress (INTUC), All India Traé
handle unfavourable policies by Union Congress (AITUC), Hind Mazdo
cultivating personal contacts, paying Sabha (HMS), Centre of Indian Traé
bribes, using press and electronic media Unions (CITU), etc.
and employing professional lobbyists. The trade union movement in Ind
over the last five decade or so h?
TRADE UNIONS definitely come to occupy its own plat
in Indian social process. Consequent!!
The labour, almost all over the world the working class has been able to exe!
has emerged as an important organised significant pressure at the polit
class. A significant role in this regard formulation level and their strength!
has been played by the emergence of well recognised by the political parti?
Marxist and socialist ideologies and and the government. Although poor!
parties. While in some countries financed and under outside leadershif
development of workers organisation they can be extremely vocal in the
has taken long time in India, the trade demands and militant in t4eir methods
union movement has developed with an Also because of the concentration¢
astonishing speed. During Colonial industries in certain regions, they cal
period both the Communist Party and provide significant vote-strengths f0
the Congress helped organisation of the parties. The organised workin
workers in a significant way as natural class, therefore, has been able to obtail
INTEREST GROUPS AND PRESSURE GROUPS 91

quite a few successes in bettering their can divide Kisan Groups into two
economic and social conditions. The the farmers associations and
trade unions by their activities have peasant groups.
also helped in creating social and
political awareness among workers. FARMERS ASSOCIATIONS
Trade unions are still the best
organised groups in the society. However, Farmers agitations have been in the news
the process of globalisation is posing a for the past several years. Since the late
serious challenge for the working class. 1970s, farmers have been organising
Trade unions therefore, have to themselves in associations and gaining
rejuvenate themselves in their new role prominence by focusing attention on
in emerging new economic system. higher prices for agricultural products,
lowering electricity rates, easier terms of
FARMERS AND PEASANT GROUPS | credit for agricultural investment,
subsidies for fertilisers, etc. Important
It is well known that majority of India’s among these are the Bhartiya Kisan
population lives in villages and Indian Union in Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and
economy remains basically an Punjab, the Shetkari Sangathan in
agricultural economy. At the time of Maharashtra, and the Karnataka Rajya
independence, it was essential to Ryota Sangh. At the centre of these is
improve the agricultural production on the discontentment of rich and middle
the one hand and introduce land level farmers.
reforms on the other. Various policies The roots of these farmers’
and programmes starting with the movements can be traced to the
abolition of Zamindari system, limited expansion of the Green Revolution in
land reforms, green revolution, agricultural strategies and the
mobilisation of different sections of assertion of political power by rich
tural population in electoral polities peasants through mass mobilisation of
have aroused awareness and the peasantry under their leadership.
Consciousness among rural people as These movements, in general, reflect
also created new groups with different new levels of politicisation among the
interests. These in turn have resulted middle level farmers, clamouring for
in the emergence of organised groups greater concessions and share in
and movements for protection and political parties. For quite some time,
consolidation of interests. Many these movements projected a non-
observers call these groups under a political image of theirs by staying away
common terminology of “Kisan Groups” from political parties and constitute a
or Agricultural movements. In fact, pressure group from outside. However,
there are no common kisan interests. of late they have realised that direct
These are different for different exercise of power may be more effective
categories. In a broader sense, we than indirect influence. So they have also

l Mgt oe a
ds e
92 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

started participating in or allying with peasants is increasing. They have

parties. The success of these movements started realising the power of their vote
have prompted political parties to give and united action. But the battle for
greater attention to agricultural issues in these groups is hard and long
their political programme. Particularly in view of recent economit
reforms, arrival of multinational
PEASANTS MOVEMENT companies and the process of
globalisation, the peasants and rural,
A large part of India’s population people have hard tasks ahead. Much
engaged in agriculture consists of small will depend how political parties steer
farmers, share croppers and labourers. Indian democracy.
After independence, it was assumed
that because of their number, in Cause GROUPS
democracy the rural poor will have
political salience and will increasingly The main purpose of this groups is to
be able to place demands on the advance a general social objective like
political and economic systems of the preservation of environment, protection
Republic. However, this did not happen. of human rights and civil liberties,
The nature of the State, colonial abolition of capital punishment,
bureaucracy and lack of confidence by introduction of electoral reforms,
political parties in fact distorted the prevention of violence against women,
aims and objectives of the etc. These groups are also known as
developmental strategies in favour of public interest groups to emphasise
rich, upper classes and urban areas. that they promote collective social
Various political parties and interest, rather than selective group
association have been mobilising these interest. These groups may or may not
peasants by educating them of their be well organised. Their success
exploitation and assuring their depends more on public and media
amelioration. Thus, there started support than by lobbying. You must
emerging organisation of agricultural have heard about groups opposing
labourers and small farmers. They have construction of big dams,. removal of
come up as Kisan Sabhas and various Jhuggis, opposing child labour, bonded
agricultural unions. The basic purpose labour, anti-dowry etc. Such groups
of these is to strive to improve the are becoming quite popular.
economic condition of all those who earn
their livelihood by toiling in agricultural INSTITUTIONAL GROUPS
fields and related work. The peasant Institutional groups are those groups
movement, however, is not very well which are within the government and
organised. It remains fragmented. attempt to exert influence or pressure
Nevertheless, consciousness and through the machinery of government
awareness among the rural poor and itself. Bureaucracies and the military
INTEREST GROUPS AND PRESSURE GROUPS 93

are the clearest examples of institutional one channel of influence. At the same
groups. Within groups we hear of IAS, time, methods vary from country to
IPS, IFS lobbies, etc. Similarly within country according to the nature of
military often there are reports of political system and type of society.
pressure from Army, Air force and Navy, Similarly, the nature of the group and
etc. for some preferences on certain the resources at its disposal are crucial
matters. Such groups are particularly determinants of its political strategy.
important in non-democratic regimes The resources include public support
where autonomous groups are for the group’s goals, the size of its
generally suppressed. But they remain
membership, its financial strength and
active in democratic regimes also as a
organisational capacities, personal or
part of competition between elites. In
institutional links with governmental
India also they are quite active though
their activities are not much public. bodies and personnel and political
They try to influence the policies with parties, etc.
regard to allocation of resources in the The various groups in India operate
areas of their preferences, for within the federal and parliamentary
importance to be given to their role, etc. nature of the polity. The interest groups
They indirectly also help other groups also approach the authorities
by supporting their cause. informally at the legislative as well as
party level. The methods they use for
Ap HOc GRouPsS the purpose include sending of
memoranda, personal deputations,
Finally, there are groups which come
organising social gathering with those
into existence to pressurise the
government for a specific objective at a in position of authority, lobbying with
time. Therefore, they remain active or the MPs and MLAs. Interest group
even organised only till that objective is pressure is sometimes exerted through
achieved. Examples of these include political parties. Relationship between
groups organised to get a railway political parties and trade unions is a
service in a city, getting a book or an typical example of this. Similarly, some
activity banned, opening of a school, youth groups are also openly
college or hospital, etc. Such groups associated with parties like National
can be very active for a short period. Students Union of India (NSUI) with
Some of these may survive and extend Congress and Akhil Bhartiya Vidyarthi
their activities as cause groups. Parishad (ABVP) with Bhartiya
Janata Party.
How Groups Act In order to gain governmental
The methods by which pressure groups attention and redress, some groups
seek to influence the process of often resort to mass demonstrations,
government are many. A group hartals, strikes and civil disobedience.
generally, does not confine to a single This is particularly true of the interest
strategy or try to influence through just groups of the students, teachers,

i am og i ee ies
94 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

government servants and various trade groups capacity to elicit peoples

unions. Of late even small and medium support, its access to decision making
peasants have organised themselves bodies, availability of resources, etc.
into kisan rallies, rasta roko and other
types of stirs. This gets public attention ROLE OF PRESSURE GROUPS
and does make the government respond
to such actions. From the above discussion it emerges
A very important mechanism for that there are various organised
pressure groups is the use of media — groups that make use of pressure fot
both press and electronic. In the present getting their claims accepted by the
day world, media has become a very decision makers. Though they have
significant means for creating and been slow to develop, these groups it
articulating public opinion. People get India are a form of linkage and means
much influenced by the news and views of communication between the masses
expressed in newspapers or television. and the elite. They provide scope fort
Many a times, people start feeling as if expanding participation. While the
the issue is of their own interest, though interest groups make demands upon
it may be against. The best example of society for the benefit of its members,
this is the influence advertisements are they also increase the political
having on our consumption pattern and consciousness and participation ol
felt needs. If advertisements can their membership. Interest groups call
influence people so much the opinions also be reservoirs of political
of experts considered to be objective leadership. Most importantly interes!
and neutral are likely to change groups are a vehicle for social
people’s thinking much more. Pressure integration. Bringing individuals for
groups therefore, try to influence the the expression of common interests,
experts, news makers and producers they may bridge the gap not only
to give more coverage to their activities between the mass and the elite but
and more importantly to present their between the various traditional
case as if it is in public interest in divisions within the society as a whole.
general. Moneyed people have started As a whole pressure groups occupy
their own newspapers; they are putting a significant position in the Indian
enormous money in private radio and political system. They play an
TV channels. All these are playing an important role in the functional
important role in influencing performance of various political
decision making. structures. With economic liberalisation
The influence that an interest or and globalisation, the role of pressure
pressure group can exercise depends groups has further increased. Recent
on several factors. An important factor experience shows how the big business
is groups own organisational strength and big farmers are exerting their
and discipline. Among other factors are influence both on government and
INTEREST GROUPS AND PRESSURE GROUPS 95

political parties. However, all the groups remain an instrument in

pressure groups are not able toexercise the socially and economically
their influence. Such weak pressure powerful hands.

EXERCISES

1. What do you understand by a Pressure Group? Describe the main characteristics

of Pressure Groups.
2. Explain the meaning of social or identity based groups giving examples of some
Such groups in India.
3. Describe the development and role of Trade unions in India.
4. What do you understand by Farmers and Peasants Groups? Describe their role
in India.
5. How do Pressure Groups work to achieve their goals?
6. Write short notes on the following:
(i) Distinction between Political Parties and Pressure Groups;
(ii) Emergence of Pressure Groups in India;
(iii) Business Groups;
(iv) Institutional Groups;
(v) Role of Pressure Groups.
 Ny ,
RE danoneteiet ax reern mi. ab pdiaunmavewolh rt its
i thlibot rani. {van {tin tuon vc varie beled grey a) CPLALY
pee : PTO SS OC. Eee Ww ; core

aa opty
ns , .

% * ~~ « j

: ( $482.2 Fhe a .

« ;

jis eds i @ er) Prien fy Lead 4

sitet att A aM aiaelo Ceara eit golieee
Ra Roca CPe . perrha ponery Te &
ees L744 nee iy Mee. Sey hy mpinrvig Leet vA Wy Leite de cheer wu sthplga
‘4 ihacel Mi atom mia 3
Pia. ale a “Aten rt) merry “Pe iT Rio’ Pi Ht 4 fof ‘eit! ori atl a

a AEM Ralf) eh year? Vang aty baie oie) bei Website do Deealetoie vied ub she
rh Nas .' LAL DAT MF
m Tefoots Weel’ ovallak dhabvow eyo) wweert tote J
a aye , Libra. Beko , Witiwudieal ach? a, enter areas:
‘“ie phe of 6 epee yered sD tree ro! se eeiitotl neared tet ediaiel: : (2) 1
is nuh sh apbaie) ¢ ey pete otequay) ego} lo, sor oy rigsd 1) {h) 4
hy L Ne ' naye anoriahl AWh) | a
hina cane? Be OT MB Lee. !
ys hic eA Lh Pe . = J b 4
Se) Sted tp phan - Ay}
‘ty
crnaae

eae ght

Pah) SA iey
Rael (ity e WMG T2ak, fs GT ire Saleen
Re DME tehoeyep eR teiTy are hima tis! Hees Jibath
ratte ay Wye bs 1% Shay ea i
imesetioua se try! a faite 4
porflaastttisie<i
(

set hate Wiek, w/o 2h

 Unir il

DEVELOPMENT AND DEMOCRACY

 ernie titel Te ee <I posta rv mene ipe re A at Ul lig ESN etn ade (Re pee fill ae RNS Nese me Lew
Se eiedes as febvey EN a eat) a he terns Seu oe “ . * > yl on * Tar 6 abl A808 ny oo ian

ve

t
CHAPTER ©
SS SESE SRR. BESET noenuesrrrege cers EE AR CSR SURE TEE IOS Uh 2 SR SCRA TTR Ee

‘Sotto: Economic Development

and Planning in India

ew are well aware, that during lenders. Whatever land the cultivators
about 200 years of British colonial and small farmers had also in many cases
rule, India suffered much set back in passed into the hands of money lenders.
economic, social and industrial Though in the initial years, under
development. The traditional Indian pressure from social reformers, British
agriculture based economy including administration introduced certain
cottage industry and handicraft was social reforms but it was not part of their
destroyed in favour of British machine agenda. In fact soon they stopped
made goods. Whatever little industry interfering in Indian social affairs and
was allowed to come up was primarily not only allowed some of the aberrations
to serve the British interests. This too to continue but in some cases
was largely dominated by British encouraged their accentuation. British
capital or by a small section of Indian interest in development of education in
monopolies. In fact whatever economic India was limited to producing a class
development was taking place in the of English language knowing clerks
spheres of trade, industry and banking (Babus) for their administration. Thus,
it was concentrated in a few hands, education in India at all levels was
which led to the establishment of totally neglected. The poorer sections,
monoplies and trusts. In agriculture, marginalised groups and women
British introduced Zamindari system had negligible access to education.
and commercialisation. Thus, the land As a policy of divide and rule, they
also came to be concentrated in a few encouraged fragmentation of Indian
hands reducing a large number of society on religious, caste and
cultivators as share croppers or tribal basis. Thus, at the time of
landless labourers. The new land independence, India inherited a social
revenue system, excessive land structure that had remained almost
revenue, low productivity, etc. forced stagnant, an economy which had been
the farmers to take recourse to shattered. This was at a time of
borrowing of money from money tremendous scientific and technological
 100 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

advancement across the world. People terms of per capita income, India was
of India, therefore were looking for among the poorest countries of the
rapid socio-economic development and world. Not only this, the distribution of
transformation. In this chapter, we will income tended to be too unequal
discuss what this development meant, meaning thereby a large section of
what were the goals and expectations population was very poor.
from it and what strategy and India in various respects was _
mechanism was adopted to achieve this. economically dependent on the
But it is important for us to have a advanced countries. Its exports
glimpse of the state of Indian economy consisted chiefly of primary products -
and society at the time of independence. and went mainly to markets in the-
advanced countries, especially Britain,
Socio-Economic PROFILE oF INDIA whereas the imports consisted chiefly of -
goods that were obtained from the
ON THE EVE OF INDEPENDENCE
advanced countries. It also showed a
At the time of independence, India had marked deficit in the balance of trade.
a population of about 30.5 crore, Furthermore, there remained a
of which more than 82 per cent lived substantial degree of foreign ownership _
in villages. Understandably, the Indian or control of domestic resources. Finally,
economy was agriculture based the country was characterised by 4
economy. More than 72 per cent pronounced economic dualism. A
of India’s work force was dependent modern, foreign oriented, largely
on agriculture. Mining, factory capitalist sector could be found in a few
establishments and various types of major urban centres and around
cottage, village and small enterprises important sources of raw material, while
engaged about 11 per cent of work the rest of the country remained
force. The organised industry employed dominated by a more traditional, wholly
only about 2 per cent, a figure lower indigenous, largely pre-capitalist sector.
than the number of administrative Within the ambit of an overall
workers. This type of economic backwardness, Indian economy was
structure obviously meant very low characterised by widespread regional |
productivity and high incidence of imbalances. As the colonial rulers did
poverty. The national income of India not bother about the balanced
in 1950-51 was estimated to be Rs economic development, inter-state and
8,853 crore which meant annual inter-district disparities were quite
average per capita income of Rs 265. sharp. There were differences in the
Comparable per capita income in levels of per capita income and
Britain, United States, Japan, France consumption, literacy, medical
and Australia were Rs 3,598, Rs 8, 840, and health facilities, population
Rs 870, Rs 3, 280 and Rs 4,340 growth, infrastructure development,
respectively. It clearly shows that in employment opportunities and so on.

Be iting ea ae aA emt Real a Cayge! T eabd eik e Wart RANOR S a

SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING IN INDIA 101

Independent India thus, inherited number, only Indonesia and Pakistan

a backward economy in which had more Muslim inhabitants than
prevailed extreme poverty and India. The Muslims and other small
deprivation, characterised by stagnant communities such as the Sikhs, the
agriculture, an uneven and weak Jains, the Parsees, the Buddhists, the
industrial sector, low capital resources Christians, etc. constituted more than
and regional imbalances. one fifth of the total population of India.
Widespread illiteracy was yet
SocIAL STRUCTURE another factor which prevented the
people from coming out of their
The major social heritage of India was traditional loyalties and developing a
its ethnic and cultural diversity and modern and secular outlook. Along
hierarchical social order. No doubt the with other factors, lack of education
British undertook some social reform hampered social mobility and
measures periodically, but on the whole dissolution of prevailing prejudices and
their policy was not to interfere in India’s cultural barriers. In such a situation,
social life. In fact they were interested in development of national outlook and
keeping Indian society divided. Not only ethos was extremely difficult.
this policy of division set the stage for As already mentioned society
partition of India at the time of was divided on caste basis. There
independence, but it also meant that were nearly 4 crore people who
independent India itself was to be were considered untouchables and
comprised of a great number of different were later described as Scheduled
regions and have relatively little sense of Castes. About one crore belonged to
a national identity. It was particularly Scheduled Tribes category. In terms
so because within this plurality social of access to productive resources,
interactions of race, religion, caste, land, employment, social services, etc.
community, language and region were these groups were in a disadvantaged
based on archaic considerations. position. In addition, they faced social
As for the languages, there were discrimination and suppression.
about one thousand languages At the time of independence the
including the dialects. Even Hindi, the socio-economic condition of India
most widely used of India’s languages presented a very grim picture. British
was spoken by not more than about colonial exploitation had not only
thirty per cent of the Indians. A vast hampered and held back development
majority of Indians followed one or the but had also crippled social and
other variety of Hindi; there was alsoa economic situation in many ways. With
substantial number of Muslims, who the arrival of independence people were
accounted for more than ten per cent looking for change in all this. All this
of the population even after the meant that India had to achieve a rapid
partition of the country. In terms of rate of development.
102 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

GOALS OF DEVELOPMENT improvement it makes in the quality of

life of people— both material and
From the above, it becomes clear that spiritual, creation of a harmonious
at the time of independence people of equality based society and self-reliant
India in general, were looking towards proud nation. Quality of life depends on
an era of change. The poverty and many things — health, hygiene,
backwardness of India was not because nutrition, life-expectancy, education,
of lack of resources or potential for housing and general living conditions.
development, it was because of In general, development means a society
deliberate colonial policies whose based on the ideas of self-reliance,
primary aim was to use India’s resource equality, equity and justice. To achieve,
for their own development. At the such a society the goals of development
same, it was a period when techno- for India at independence were:
logical revolution, developments in (i) Rapid rate of growth to increase
communication and science had made national income;
rapid progress possible. Added to all
(ii) Reduction of income inequalities
this was the commitment of our
among different sections, classes
leadership. During National Freedom
and regions;
Struggle, they not only providing a
strong critique of colonial policies but (iii) Removal of concentration of
also provided alternative policies for wealth and resources in fewer
economic growth and_ social hands and use them for the wider
transformation. As such it was not only benefit of society;
political freedom that the people of (iv) Removal of poverty;
India were looking forward to, it was (v) Increase in employment;
also for the establishment of a new order Provision of basic minimum needs
(vi)
of society. Development as such, was for a dignified human living
the expectation of the people, need of including health, education and
the time and the commitment of our
housing;
leadership.
It needs to be clarified that many a (vii) Conservation of ecology and —
times by development it is understood
protection of environment;
growth in per capita income or (viii) Making of national economy a self
production. Higher growth rates and reliant and independent of foreign
production, of course are important but control and aid;
this growth at the same time has to be (ix) Remove the traditional constraints
seen in relation to fulfilment of wants on various oppressed sections of
and needs of wider sections of people society like Scheduled Castes,
in a dignified manner. Thus, Scheduled Tribes, Backward
development has to be judged by the classes and women etc.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING IN INDIA 103

From the above it becomes clear economy model of development and

that central concern for development planning as a strategy. Mixed economy
was to achieve “growth with social in a way was a new method used by
justice.” The Preamble of the Indian Indian planners. Prevailing models
Constitution and part on Directive were capitalist and socialist models.
Principles of State Policy had already The capitalist model means private
described these goals as the ideals of ownership of means of production and
new State. Later these were also defined economic processes to be determined
as terms like Socialist pattern of society. by market forces. Socialist model
In December 1954, the Lok Sabha means public or state ownership of
affirmed that “the objective of our means of production and economic
economic policy should be a socialistic activities to be guided by State in
pattern of society.” In January 1955, accordance with social needs. Both
Jawahar Lal Nehru personally moved these models have positive and negative
a resolution at the Avadi session of points of their own. Indian planners
Congress which committed the party to wanted to take good points from both
the principle that “planning should take the systems. Therefore, emerged the
place with a view to the establishment model of mixed economy which means
of a socialistic pattern of society where prevalence of public, private and joint
the principal means of production are sectors side by side with in one system.
under social ownership or control.” In
1976 by putting the word “Socialist” Mixep Economy
in the Preamble of the Constitution,
socialism was made a constitutional In the mixed economy system, State
goal. Though, the term socialist was owned means of production were to be
never defined but in general used to promote social welfare. Private
understanding it implied redistribution owned means of production were to
of wealth. Thus, the common serve private interests but within the
understanding was that poverty and norms laid down by the State. The
inequality were to be fought by underlying purpose of mixed economy
increased production and the was to attain rapid economic
redistribution of wealth. Issue, development and ensure that no
however, was how to achieve these exploitative and restrictive tendencies
goals. For that we adopted the strategy emerge in the economy. This was clearly
of planning. mentioned in the cabinet resolution of
15 March, 1950 which established the
PLANNING FOR DEVELOPMENT Planning Commission in India. The
principles were mentioned as: (i) that
To attain the above mentioned goals of the citizens men and women, equally
development India adopted a mixed have the right to an adequate means of
104 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

livelihood; (ii) that the ownership and PLANNING IN INDIA

control of the material resources of the
country are so distributed as best to Planning means formulation of a_
subserve the common good; and strategy for the future. In other words,
(iii) that the operation of the economic it is programming for action for a
system does not result in the particular period for achieving certain
concentration of wealth and means of specific goals. In economic terms it_
production to the common detriment. implies the assessment of one’s
As a whole it can be said that India resources at present and their
allocation among different uses to meet

eve rr
adopted a mixed economy model with
a major role for the State for protection some specific targets in the future. In ~
very simple terms planning is a process
of the weaker sections of the
of devising a course of action — what is
society, control of distribution of
to be done, when to be done and how
essential commodities, promotion of
infrastructural facilities, prevention of
to be done?
In India-significance of planning was
private monopolies, creation of
recognised even before Independence.
egalitarian and just society, reduction
Indian leaders were very much
of inequality of income and reduction
influenced by the planning experiment ©
of imbalances between regions. The
started in Soviet Union since 1928.
methods and instruments to implement
Various individuals and groups
this process of development in mixed
economy model were:
brought to the fore the importance of —
planning and made concrete proposals |
(i) Political democracy;
for that. In 1938 Indian National
(ii) Planning and governmental Congress established a National
regulation and control of economy; Planning Committee under the
(iii) Significant place and role for chairmanship of Jawaharlal Nehru.
public sector; Even the government established a
(iv) Licensing, subsidies, progressive Planning and Development Board in
taxing, assistance to private sector, 1944. As alternatives, various groups
labour welfare, price control, land formulated and presented plans for the
reforms, etc. consideration of nation. These included
In general, it was to be a planned the Bombay Plan formulated by a
economic development to be group of industrialists, Gandhian Plan
implemented through the institution of drafted by one of Mahtama Gandhi's
Planning Commission. Let us have a disciples Shriman Narayana, People’s
look what is meant by planning so that Plan produced by M.N. Roy, etc.
we will be better able to understand the After independence, to achieve the
nature, role, success and failures of goals of development as discussed
planning and Planning Commission. above, planning was considered the
|
 SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING IN INDIA 105

most effective way. For this was should be carried out and propose the
established a Planning Commission on allocation of resources for due
15 March, 1950. completion of each stage.
(iv) Indication of Requisites:
PLANNING ComMISSION Another function of the Commission
is to indicate the factors which
Planning Commission was established are tending to retard economic
aS a multi member body with Prime development, and determine the
Minister as its chairman and a full time conditions which, in view of the current
Vice-Chairman. The Vice-Chairman is social and political situation, should
given the status of a Cabinet Minister. be established for the successful
There is no fixed number of members. execution of the plan.
In general, Planning Commission
(v) Determination of Machinery for
consists of eight to ten members. These Execution: The Commission has to
members are given the status equal to
determine the nature of the machinery
that of minister of State. In addition,
which will be necessary for securing
Planning Commission also has an
successful implementation of each
elaborate organisational structure
stage of the plan in all its aspects.
consisting of advisors, and support
(vi) Plan Appraisal: An important
staff. The order establishing the
function of the Commission is to
Planning Commission has defined its
appraise, from time to time, the
specific functions as follows:
progress achieved in the execution of
(i) Assessment of Resources: The each of the Plan and recommend the
Commission makes an assessment of adjustment of the policy and measures
all material, capital and human that such appraisal may show to be
resources of the country including necessary.
technical personnel, and investigate the
(vii) To Render Advice: Finally the
possibilities of augmenting such of
Planning Commission has been asked
those resources as are found to be
to make such interim or ancillary
deficient in relation to the nation’s
recommendations as appear to be
requirements.
appropriate either for facilitating
(ii) Plan Formulation: The Commi- the discharge of duties assigned
ssion is expected to formulate plans for to it; or in consideration or the
the most effective and balanced prevailing economic conditions,
utilisation of the country’s resources.
current policies, measures and
(tt) Defining Stages of Imple- development programmes or on
mentation: The Planning Commission examination of such specific problems
| has to define, on determination of as may be referred to it by Central and
priorities, the stages in which the plan
State governments.
106 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

THE FIveE- YEAR PLANS From the above it emerges that

during the years 1966-69, 1979-80,
In view of the prescribed goals of and 1990-92 there were no Five-Year
development the Planning Commission Plans. Though, it is said that there were
in India began with formulating Five- annual plans but the fact is that there
Year Plans. The plans are formulated were only stop-gap arrangements.
on the basis of guidelines provided by These are the years that represent
the National Development Council. A changes of government, instability 0
draft of the final plan is considered by lack of clarity about developmental
the Union Cabinet and then submitted goals and strategies. Therefore, either
for the approval of the National the five year plans were not formulated
Development Council. After the or were subject to review and changes
approval of NDC and the cabinet it is by the succeeding governments. Many.
presented before Parliament. After the observers call these years as years of
plan is formulated, it is divided into plan holidays. |
annual plans for convenient During the Ninth Five-Year Plan,
implementation and allocation of within the broader objective of
resources. The plan is implemented by raising the standard of living of the
the State and Union governments. people and to open out to them
Planning Commission itself is not opportunities for a richer and more
involved in implementation. It however, varied life, there have been continuities
monitors and evaluates the progress of and shifts in goals, priorities, strategies
implementation. The First Five-Year and perceptions. Successive plans
Plan formulated by the commission consistently placed emphasis
commenced on 1 April, 1951. Since on the attainment of the objectives
then Ninth Five-Year Plans and six of self-reliance, social justice,
annual plans have been formulated industrialisation, modernisation ant
and completed: economic growth. But all plans did not
(i) First Five-Year Plan (1951-56) ; place equal emphasis on the same
objectives. However, till the time ol
(ii) Second Five -Year Plan (1956-61);
Seventh Five-Year Plan (1985-90),
(iii) Third Five-Year Plan (1961-66) ;
(iv) Annual Plans (1966-69) ;
planners had been caught in the
dilemma and choice between rapid
(v) Fourth Five-Year Plan (1969-74);
economic growth and distributive
(vi) Fifth Five-Year Plan (1974-79) ;
justice. Also in the situation of 9
(vii) Annual Plan (1979-80) ; democratic order of gaining votes ané
(viii) Sixth Five-Year Plan (1980-85) ; support of various sections of the
(ix) Seventh Five-Year Plan (1985-90) ; society there was absence of political wil
(x) Annual Plans (1990-92); to attack vested interests wher
(xi) Eighth Five-Year Plan (1992-97); required. In addition, the bureaucrac)
(xii) Ninth Five-Year Plan (1997-2002); not only was not oriented and traine(

st MN c.g esi ale ARR M ea, h S Sal-aaS

 SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING IN INDIA 107

for development administration, but the service of politicians, private

itself belonged to the propertied class sector and civil servants.
and those sections of the society which Thus, by the middle of 1980s India,
was not in favour of change. Asa result, like many other developing countries
the primary concern of development in was ina serious economic situation.
India became economic growth. Even At this very time, the Western developed
the public sector became an instrument world once again was working to
to serve the interests of middle class establish its control over the world
and upper-middle class consumers. economy by integrating the whole
State, under pressure from vested and world into a global capitalist economic
powerful interests kept on providing order. Collapse of Soviet Union and
subsidies for richer sections of the other East European socialist countries
society instead of collecting taxes from helped in paving the way for this.
them for social transformation. Unable Developed world thus, started making
to mobilise resources the State became use of international economic
dependent on aid and loans both from institutions like International Monetary
within the and outside the country. Fund and World Bank to pressurise the
Consequences of all these were: under-debt, and slowly developing
(i) A large fiscal deficit because of countries for changing their economies
government expenditure outpacing in line with the process of what came to
income and revenues. be known as globalisation.
(ii) A huge foreign debt, with a high
debt-service ratio bringing country New Economic Pouicy anp
under debt-trap causing serious
repayment problems’ GLOBALISATION
and
undermining the country’s credit Having failed to achieve the goals either
rating. of a rapid rate of growth or satisfactory
(iii) An inefficient economy in which on redistributive justice the government
| the one hand processes of controls from the beginning of 1980s started
and licenses which had been tilting towards giving preference to
introduced to guide economic growth. It was felt that state controls,
development into desired public sector and restrictions
on
directions had become means of private sector introduced in the name
corruption and hindrance in the of planned development and social
growth; and on the other hand the justice have prove a hindrance in the
| public sector, established to create path of growth. Thus, there began the
infrastructure, labour welfare process of liberalisation of economy.
and provision of essential goods By middle of 1980s the strategy
| for masses, had become huge for development had become two-fold.
| loss making inefficient and First was to de-emphasise the
bureaucratic controlled units in role of the government in economic
108 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

development by ruthlessly slashing the market and consumers have a wide

public sector outlays and opening up range of choice. Country’s balance of
situation seems to have
the economy for private enterprise. payment
Second was to tighten the control of stabilised. Benefits of technological
the planners over what was left of the developments and _ information
government rule, particularly in areas technology revolution are reaching
of taxation and credit related policies. India fast. Critics, however, point that
The changes in the policy packages these gains are very limited and benefit
New Economic policy started only a small section of the society.
towards
from early 1980s remained limited and Related to this is criticism of
unsystematic. It was from 1991 consumerism. The multinational
onwards that a clear well defined new companies to sell their goods, with vast
resources in their hands are using”
economic and development policy was
set in. All governments since then have media and advertisements to create
been carrying the economic reform demands for goods and productd
process forward. The new economic which are non-essential. Another”
policy is based on the ideals of consequence of this is change in value |
liberalisation, privatisation and systems. Everything Western, including”
globalisation. values, are considered superior.
In this context there came removal It is also pointed out that economit
of industrial licensing on most reform have neglected the agriculture
products, disinvestments of govern- sector as also generation of employment
ment holding in public sector, which are very essential in a counuy
reduction in the number of products like India. On the other hand it has
to reduce the revenue deficit.
reserved for small sectors, liberal- failed
Similarly, foreign borrowing 1§
isation and reduction of tariffs on
imports, and removal of restrictions increasing and will show its impact im
and encouragement to foreign private due course of time. There is a
redistribution of income in favour of the
capital. All this mean freedom to
private sector to produce whatever it better of classes and deterioration i
wants, decline in the status and role of living standards of masses. Asset
public sector, arrival of foreign goods owners stand to gain, wage and salaried
workers to lose. The process ol
and investment in Indian markets and
withdrawal of state or reduction in development and planning itsell
its role in various social service sectors therefore has become different. |
including housing, health and education.
The new economic policy has both New Economic POLicy AND
positive and negative points. No doubt PLANNING
it has given impetus to production and
growth by giving initiative to private New Economic Policy means change if
sector. There is competition in the the perspective of role of State in