Road furniture
Traffic signs (1)
Traffic signs are defined as: any object or device (whether fixed
or portable) for conveying to traffic on roads, or any
specified description of traffic, warnings, information,
restrictions of any description specified by regulations.
Thus, traffic signs are composed of roadside signs, traffic signs,
carriageway markings, retroreflecting road studs, and other
such indications on or adjacent to the roadway.
Traffic signs
In order to obtain the greatest efficiency of usage from traffic
signs in general and roadside signs in particular, the following
principles of signing have to be considered:-
The signs must be designed for the foreseeable traffic conditions
and speeds on the roads on which they are to be used.
They should be conspicuous, so that they will attract the attention
of drivers at a sufficient distance and be easily recognizable as traffic
signs.
They should contain only essential information and their
significance should be clear at a glance.
Traffic signs
In order to obtain the greatest efficiency of usage from traffic
signs in general and roadside signs in particular, the following
principles of signing must be considered:-
They should be legible from sufficiently far away to be read without
diverting the gaze through too great an angle
They should be placed so that they are obscured as little as possible
by vehicles and other objects.
They should be designed and sited so that after reading the sign the
driver is left with sufficient time to take any necessary action with
safety.
The signs should be effective by night and day.
Types Traffic signs
Informatory signs
Advance direction signs
Place and route identification signs
Informatory signs serve the following purposes:-
Guide the road user along established routes,
Inform regarding intersecting highways
Direct to towns, villages and other important destinations.
Identify rivers, parks, historical sites.
Generally, help road user along his way.
Types Traffic signs
Informatory signs
Types Traffic signs
Warning signs
These give notice of a hazard that lays ahead and, in a way, request that
you approach cautiously. These are also called Class B signs (in Kenya).
These are distinguished by an equilateral triangle with a red border and a
white or yellow centre with black or dark blue symbol. They are used at
locations such as:
Approaches to intersections not previously indicated by advance direction signs.
Dangerous bends or hills.
Concealed or unguarded level crossings.
Near schools, pedestrian crossings, converging lanes
Other such locations where the motorist require warning of hazardous
conditions or adjacent to the carriageway.
Types Traffic signs
Warning signs
Types Traffic signs
Signs giving definite instructions/Mandatory
These include mandatory signs and prohibitory signs.
Most mandatory signs are circular with white- or light-
colored symbols on a blue background, except STOP and
YIELD signs which have district shapes and colours.
Mandatory signs give positive instructions when it is
necessary for the motorist to take some positive action.
The two most important are the stop and give-way signs.
Types Traffic signs
Signs giving definite instructions/Mandatory
The stop sign is used only at intersections where visibility is
bad that it is imperative for the motorist to stop,
The give-way sign is used only at intersections where control in
not exercised by traffic, signals, police or stop signs, but where
there is need for drivers on minor roads to proceed so as not to
cause inconvenience to traffic on major roads.
Types Traffic signs
Signs giving definite instructions
Prohibitory Signs
These signs generally give definite negative orders which
prohibit the motorist from making particular manoeuvres.
Typical examples of these are the “no right turn” and (no entry)
signs.
Road marking (2)
Carriageway delineators (markings) are used to
supplement regulations or warning of traffic signs or
signals.
They are also used to obtain results entirely on their own
merits that cannot be obtained with other devices.
However, carriageway delineator may be obscured when
traffic volume is heavy, may not be visible when
carriageway is wet and are not very durable when subject
to heavy traffic wear hence must be replaced frequently.
Road marking
Longitudinal delineation / markings
Generally, the various forms of longitudinal delineation have 3
major functions
Characterization of roads – Particular forms of delineation
are used to provide the driver with information about the
nature of the road which leads him to expectations
regarding ease of driving. for example , if centre-line on
carriageway is marked in yellow then it could indicate to the
driver that he is on a 2-way carriageway, whereas white
centerline (or lane-line) would indicate a one-way carriageway.
Road marking
Longitudinal delineation / markings
Route Guidance – carriageway delineation is used to
direct the motorist into one of say two alternative routes.
For example, if a particular form of marking is used on the
stone of a Y-function and continued through the appropriate
left or right leg, then the driver would know which one of them
is the continuation of the major road to follow.
Tracking reference - It has been shown that the centre and
edge of the carriageway are two of the principal locations used
by drivers in directional guidance and hence strong emphasis
by marking can greatly simplify the driving task.
Road marking
Types of delineators
Basically, there are two types of delineators used on the
carriageway. Markings and road studs.
For markings, paints and hot applied thermoplastics (spray-
plastics) are used. The reflectorizing of paint or thermoplastic is
achieved by the addition of tinny glass, spheres which are
premixed and dispensed (dusted) on the surface of the line
material as it is being laid.
Road studs supplement marking as they are of relatively
little value when used alone under normal daytime
conditions.
Road marking
Safety fences/ crash barriers (3)
Safety fences are normally erected at locations where vehicles may
accidentally leave the carriageway and be subjected to considerable
danger. When installed safety fences:-
Serve to deflect the erring vehicle away from the dangerous locations.
They have a desirable psychological effect in providing the nervous
motorist with a feeling of security when traversing dangerous highway
sections.
Ideally across barrier fence should present a continuous smooth face to an
impacting vehicle so that the vehicle is redirected without
overturning to a course that is nearly parallel to the barrier face and with
a lateral deceleration which is tolerable to the motorist.
Types of crash barriers
Rigid Concrete barriers.
Their usage is generally being phased-out on high-speed roads,
primarily because the rigidity of the concrete results in peak
deceleration rates which cause fatalities. Even minor scrapes can
result in extensive damage to the vehicle bodywork. They are
now being limited to low-speed highly trafficked roads.
Types of crash barriers
Flexible wire rope barriers
This barrier has the main advantage of its great flexibility in that a
cable can slowly decelerate a crushing vehicle and redirect it most
easily along a path parallel to the barrier. However, cable barriers can
not be used at locations with narrow safe clearances on high-speed
roads because of their potential for deflection under impact.
Types of crash barriers
Steel beam barriers.
These are made of corrugated steel beam and the most used in the
world. They are corrugated longitudinally to give greater lateral
strength with a thinner section.
Main advantage of these barriers is that they present a broad face
to traffic and are effective with a wide range of vehicles.
They are suitable for installation at most sites and will cater for nearly
all types of impact.
Types of crash barriers
Plastic crash barriers
Road curbs (4)
A curb is a raised or slightly level edge at the shoulder of a
road that restrains traffic to pass there. Curbs are used for
the following:
Drainage control.
Prevent edge delineation.
Aesthetics.
Delineation of pedestrian walkways.
Traffic islands (5)
Traffic islands are structures on the roads or pavements that
are used to separate or regulate conflicting traffic
movements into definite paths to facilitate the safe and
orderly movements of both vehicles and pedestrians.
When the islands are properly used in characterization the
following is achieved.
Increase in road capacity.
Improvement in safety
Provision of maximum convenience to all road users.
Driver's confidence is instilled.
Traffic islands
For the islands to be effective in characterization, the following should
be considered in their design.
Their headway through and out of the intersection area should
be easy to follow.
They should be raised above the pavement surface and should
be well marked to command attention of the driver.
They should be visible from far to allow response from the
driver and should not be located where sight distance is
restricted due to horizontal curvature.
Traffic islands (5)
Traffic islands are of three types
Directional islands
Divisional islands
Refuge islands
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Basic Intersection Elements
A highway intersection is required to control
conflicting and merging streams of traffic so
that delay is minimised.
This is achieved through choice of geometric
parameters that control and regulate the
vehicle paths through the intersection. These
determine priority so that all movements take
place with safety.
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Basic Intersection Elements
Some basic considerations to bear in mind when doing
intersection design:
Spacing
Location
Angle
Number of approaches
Turn bays
Islands
Medians and openings
Access points
Grades
Design for NMT
Sight distance
Basic Intersection Elements
Spacing
For safe and efficient vehicular traffic, intersections should not be
placed too close together.
Drivers accelerating away from one intersection are not
expecting to encounter traffic slowing for another
intersection, for example.
Also, a queue of vehicles from one intersection that blocks
another intersection, called spill-back, will cause congestion to
propagate and cause extra delay. Spacing between signalized
intersections is critical. To ensure optimum progression in
both directions on an arterial, signals should be spaced far
enough apart that vehicles travel from one signal to the next
in one-half the signal cycle length.
Basic Intersection Elements
Location
Intersections are safer in some locations than others.
One important guideline is that intersections should not be on
a horizontal curve if possible.
Horizontal curves could restrict sight distances to the
intersection and to traffic signals or signs near the intersection.
A horizontal curve requires some drivers turning at the
intersection to make complex reverse turn manoeuvres.
Also, horizontal curves are often superelevated, which
makes the profile of the intersecting street very difficult to
negotiate for turning or crossing motorists. Relative to the
vertical alignment of a road, intersections should not be near a
crest vertical curve, again due to restrictions on sight distance.
Basic Intersection Elements
Angle
The angle of intersection is important to operations.
As the angle between the two streets departs further from
90°, vehicle and pedestrian time in the area conflicting
with other traffic streams increase so delays and
collisions increase.
In addition, the paved area—and therefore construction and
maintenance cost—will increase. Tradition is that these effects
increase dramatically with angles less than 60° or greater than
120°.
Several options exist for treating existing or proposed
intersections with unfavourable angles. One or both
streets could be realigned with horizontal curves to create
a more favourable angle. Another option is to use islands
to guide drivers and pedestrians better through the
intersection and reduce the paved area.
Basic Intersection Elements
Number of Approaches
All else being equal, an intersection with fewer approaches will be
safer and more efficient than an intersection with more
approaches.
The reason for this is the number of conflict points in the intersection—
points where one traffic stream crosses, merges with, or diverges from,
another traffic stream.
A standard three-legged (T) intersection has 9 vehicle conflict points, a
standard intersection between a two-way street and a one-way street
has 13 vehicle conflict points, and a standard four-approach
intersection has 32 vehicle conflict points.
Basic Intersection Elements
Turn Bays
Turn bays provide room for left-turning or right-turning
vehicles to decelerate before their turns and/or to queue
while waiting to turn. The drawbacks to using turn
bays include higher right-of-way costs and longer
crossing distances for pedestrians.
Basic Intersection Elements
Islands
Providing islands to separate traffic streams, also called
channelization, has a number of benefits and a few drawbacks.
Separation of conflicts
Control of angle of conflict
Reduction in excessive pavement areas
Regulation of traffic and indication of proper use of intersection
Arrangements to favour a predominant turning movement
Protection of pedestrians
Protection and storage of turning and crossing vehicles
Location of traffic control devices
Aesthetics
Basic Intersection Elements
Medians and Openings
Medians at intersections generally provide many of the same benefits
as islands, including separating opposing traffic directions
(making head-on conflicts rarer), providing crossing pedestrians
and vehicles refuge, providing a place for traffic control devices
and light fixtures, and reducing pavement area.
Since medians restrict left turns, median opening spacing can be a
traffic access control mechanism. The median width at an
intersection is a major decision for a designer. Wider medians
typically mean higher right-of-way costs, encourage vehicles turning
left from the cross street to ‘‘lock up’’ with each other, increase
wrong-way movement potential, and mean higher minimum green
times and lost times at signals, so engineers usually try not to design
them wider than needed.
Basic Intersection Elements
Medians and Openings
Basic Intersection Elements
Access Points
To increase traffic safety and efficiency, driveways
and minor streets should be separated from major
intersections as far as possible.
Some of the safety threats from driveways near major
intersections include drivers accelerating away from an
intersection being surprised by a driver ahead slowing to
turn into a driveway, and a ‘‘double-threat’’ when a driver
in one lane stops to let someone in or out of a driveway
while a driver in an adjacent lane does not stop.
Basic Intersection Elements
Grades
Steep grades hamper traffic operations at intersections.
Steep downgrades on an intersection approach increase
stopping distances and make turning more difficult. Steep
upgrades on an intersection approach make idling difficult for
vehicles with manual transmissions and make acceleration
slower for all vehicles, which in turn increases necessary gap
sizes and sight distances for crossing and turning movements.
Generally, grades under 2 percent do not cause many
operational problems, grades from 2 to 4 percent begin to
introduce noticeable problems, and grades over 4 percent
should be avoided where practical.
Basic Intersection Elements
Designing for Pedestrians and Bicycles
In recent years intersection designers have been taking the
needs of non-motorized road users, particularly
pedestrians and bicyclists, into account more and more.
In some dense urban areas, pedestrians and bicyclists are the
dominant users, while even in suburban fringe areas a
surprisingly high number of pedestrians and bicyclists need to
be considered as they attempt to cross safely. Principles
designers should adopt regarding pedestrians at
intersections include:
Provide as short a crossing as possible. Keep curb radii as
short as possible and provide curb ‘‘bulb-outs’’ (sidewalk
extensions into parking lanes) if possible.
Basic Intersection Elements
Designing for Pedestrians and Bicycles
Principles designers should adopt regarding pedestrians at
intersections include:
For wider crossings, consider medians and/or islands to
provide pedestrian refuge.
Provide a crossing path that is as direct as possible, since
many pedestrians will attempt to walk on the shortest path
anyway.
Consider using a different or rougher pavement surface for
the crosswalk to help alert and slow drivers.
Provide appropriate curb ramps for wheelchairs, strollers,
skaters, and other
Basic Intersection Elements
Intersection Sight Distances
Intersection designers should ensure that
approaching drivers can see all applicable
traffic control devices and conflicting traffic
soon enough to take appropriate actions.
Sight may be blocked by the alignment of the road
the driver is on, the alignment of the intersecting
road, objects or terrain in the ‘‘sight triangle’’ near
the corner, or objects or terrain in the median.
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