EVOLUTION
A FEW HELPFUL SUMMARIES ADAPTED FROM CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL
BIOLOGY: C. J. Clegg & A2 LEVEL BIOLOGY: P. Bradfield, J. Dodds, J. Dodds & N. Taylor
CHARLES DARWIN’S THEORY (STATEMENTS AND DEDUCTIONS):
STATEMENTS/DEDUCTIONS
S1 Organisms produce a far greater number of progeny than ever give rise
to mature individuals.
S2 The number of individuals in a species remains more or less constant.
D1 Therefore, there must be a high mortality rate.
S3 The individuals in a species are not all identical but show variations in
their characteristics.
D2 Therefore, some variants will have more success than others in the
competition for survival. So, the parents for the next generation will be
selected from those members of the species better adapted to the
conditions of the environment.
S4 Hereditary resemblance between parents and offspring is a fact.
D3 Therefore, subsequent generations will maintain and improve on the
degree of adaptation of their parents by gradual change.
MAIN POINTS OF NATURAL SELECTION:
o There are too many offspring for the available resources
o A struggle for existence follows
o There is variation within a population with a genetic basis
o The best suited survive to breed and pass on the useful alleles; this is survival of
the fittest
o Those less suited die and their alleles decrease
o A change in allele frequency takes place due to selection
o The surviving organisms are better suited to the conditions than previous
generations
Thus – natural selection leads to an increase in the number of organisms with favourable
alleles and a decrease in the number with less favourable alleles. Thus, there is a change
in the allele frequency in the gene pool of the next generation.
THREE MAIN TYPES OF NATURAL SELECTION:
1. DIRECTIONAL
Favours one extreme in a range of phenotypes; organisms with phenotypes at 1 end of
range have a selective advantage. The mean shifts towards the phenotype with the
advantage thus allele frequencies at this end increase with a decrease at the other end.
The modal class moves one way.
e.g. long neck in giraffes (allows them to reach leaves in times of scarcity); ability to run
fast (outrun predators); long tail in peacocks (attracts females for mating); antibiotic
resistance (enables bacterial survival in presence of antibiotics)
2. STABILISING
Favours the mean in a range of phenotypes. When environment is stable/unchanging,
mean is selected for as it is best suited for current conditions (extremes selected
against). Allele frequency at mean increases; decreases at extremities.
e.g. average birth weight in human babies (increases survival rate); sickle cell trait (in
malarial regions the heterozygote has an advantage); leg length in rabbits (too short
would hinder speed; too long would impair mobility)
3. DISRUPTIVE
Favours the extremes in a range of phenotypes so those with intermediate phenotypes
are selected against and more than one distinct phenotype is selected for. This leads to
more than one modal class.
e.g. large and very small male Pacific salmon (able to fertilise females’ eggs); finches
with short and long beaks (can exploit different food sources); snails with yellow and
brown shells (can camouflage in habitat)
SPECIATION:
A gradual process that takes place over a long time; always requiring isolation.
Speciation can be summarised thus:
o Originally there is 1 population of an original species
o Part of the population becomes reproductively isolated from the rest
o Different mutations occur in the 2 groups
o Different features are selected for in each population, i.e. they adapt to the local
conditions
o The 2 groups become increasingly genetically different
o Eventually, successful reproduction is no longer possible between the two groups
o A new species has formed – this is speciation
Demes are small isolated populations.
Isolating Mechanisms are of 2 types:
1. Spatial separation is involved – ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION
2. Demes are in the same location – SYMPATRIC SPECIATION
ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION SYMPATRIC SPECIATION
Due to physical separation of the gene Due to an isolating mechanism within a
pool by geographic isolation, when motile gene pool, preventing production of viable
or mobile species are dispersed to isolated offspring between members of related
habitats, preventing organisms of related demes in the same locality due to
demes or their gametes from meeting. behavioural/ecological isolation.
REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION must occur to allow speciation. Gene flow must be prevented.
Barriers that prevent interbreeding between closely related species may be pre-zygotic
(before fertilisation is attempted) or post-zygotic (after fertilisation has occurred).
PRE-ZYGOTIC REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION POST-ZYGOTIC REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION
Prevention of mating due to: • Hybrids formed are not viable and
• Habitat differences that prevent die prematurely
meeting • Hybrids formed are infertile e.g.
• Behavioural differences e.g. chromosomes cannot pair in meiosis
different mating rituals thus no haploid gametes produced
• Temporal differences e.g. being • Hybrids formed have low fertility so
fertile at different times/seasons as survivors fall, eventually they will
• Mechanical differences e.g. become extinct
incompatible genitalia
• Gametic differences e.g. failure of
gametes to recognise each other,
preventing fertilisation