C h a p t e r 28

Direct-Current Circuits
Simple electric circuits may contain batteries, resistors, and capacitors in various
combinations.

For some circuits, analysis may consist of combining resistors. In more complex complicated
circuits, Kirchhoff’s Rules may be used for analysis.

Circuits may involve direct current or alternating current.

 Direct Current

When the current in a circuit has a constant direction, the current is called
direct current.

Because the potential difference between the terminals of a battery is constant,

the battery produces direct current.

The battery is known as a source of emf.

28-1 Electromotive Force
We will generally use a battery as a source of energy for circuits
in our discussion.

A battery is called either a source of electromotive force or,

more commonly, a source of emf.

The phrase electromotive force is an unfortunate historical

term, describing not a force, but rather a potential difference in volts.
 The emf (𝜀) of a battery is the maximum possible voltage the battery can provide between its
terminals.

You can think of a source of emf as a “charge pump.” When an electric potential difference exists

between two points, the source moves charges “uphill” from the lower potential to the higher.

The emf supplies energy, it does not apply a force.

The battery will normally be the source of energy in the circuit.

The positive terminal of the battery is at a higher potential than the negative terminal.

We consider the wires to have no resistance.

Internal Battery Resistance

Because a real battery is made of matter, there is resistance to the flow of charge
within the battery.

If the internal resistance is zero, the terminal voltage equals the emf.

This resistance is called internal resistance r.

For an idealized battery with zero internal resistance, the potential difference across the battery
(called its terminal voltage) equals its emf.

For a real battery, however, the terminal voltage is not equal to the emf for a battery in a circuit in
which there is a current.
We model the battery as shown in the diagram; it is represented by the
Battery
dashed rectangle containing an ideal, resistance-free emf (𝜀) in series with
an internal resistance r.

resistor of resistance R is connected across the terminals of the

battery.
𝜀 = ∆𝑉𝑅 + ∆𝑉𝑟

Now imagine moving through the battery from a to d and measuring the electric potential at various
locations.

Passing from the negative terminal to the positive terminal, the potential
increases by an amount 𝜀 .
The terminal voltage ∆𝑉 must equal the potential difference
across the external resistance 𝑅, often called the load resistance.

The load resistor might be

- A simple resistive circuit element,
- A resistance of some electrical device (such as a toaster, electric heater, or lightbulb)
 𝜀 = 𝐼𝑅 + Ir ×𝐼

𝐼𝜀 = 𝐼2 𝑅 + 𝐼2 r

𝐼𝜀 ≡ The total power output of the battery

𝐼2 𝑅 ≡ power delivered to the external resistor

𝐼2 r ≡ power delivered to the internal resistor

• The battery is a supply of constant emf.

• The battery does not supply a constant current since the current in the circuit
depends on the resistance connected to the battery.

• The battery does not supply a constant terminal voltage.

 A battery has an emf of 12.0 𝑉 and an internal resistance of 0.050 Ω. Its terminals are connected to
a load resistance of 3.00 Ω.

(A) Find the current in the circuit and the terminal voltage (∆𝑉 = ∆𝑉𝑅 ) of the battery.
𝜀 12
𝐼= = = 3.93 𝐴
𝑅 + 𝑟 3 + 0.05 ∆𝑉 = 𝜀 − Ir

∆𝑉 = 12 − 3.93 × 0.05 = 11.8 𝑉

To check this result, calculate the voltage across the load resistance R:

∆𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 = 3.93 × 3 = 11.8 𝑉
(B) Calculate the power delivered to the load resistor, the power delivered to the internal resistance of
the battery, and the power delivered by the battery.

The power delivered to the load resistor

𝐼 2 𝑅 = 3.93 2 × 3 = 46.3 𝑊
The power delivered to the internal resistance

𝐼 2 𝑟 = 3.93 2 × 0.05 = 0.772 𝑊

The power delivered by the battery

𝐼𝜀 = 3.93 × 12 = 47.1W

𝑂𝑅
𝑃𝐵𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑦 = 𝑃𝑅 +𝑃𝑟 = 47.073 = 47.1 𝑊
C) As a battery ages, its internal resistance increases. Suppose the internal resistance of this battery
rises to 2.00 Ω toward the end of its useful life. How does that alter the battery’s ability to deliver
energy?

𝜀 12
𝐼= = = 2.4 𝐴
𝑅+𝑟 3+2

∆𝑉 = 12 − 2.4 × 2 = 7.2 𝑉

𝑃𝑅 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 = 2.4 2 × 3 = 17.3 𝑊

𝑃𝑟 = 𝐼 2 𝑟 = 2.4 2 × 2 = 11.52 𝑊

𝑃𝐵𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑦 = 𝑃𝑅 +𝑃𝑟 = 28.3 𝑊

Resistor In Series
When two or more resistors are connected together as are the light bulbs in Figure 28.3a, they are
said to be in a series combination.
the same amount of charge passes through both resistors (the currents are the same in both resistors)

𝑄
𝐼 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 𝐶=
∆𝑉
∆𝑉
𝑅=
The potential difference applied across the series combination of resistors divides 𝐼
between the resistors

∆𝑉 = ∆𝑉1 + ∆𝑉2

𝐼𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
The equivalent resistance of three or more resistors connected
in series is

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + ⋯

the equivalent resistance of a series combination

of resistors is always greater than any individual resistance.
Resistor In Parallel
Now consider two resistors in a parallel combination as shown in Figure 28.5.
both resistors are connected directly across the terminals of
the battery. Therefore, the potential differences across the
resistors are the same:

∆𝑉 = ∆𝑉1 = ∆𝑉2

𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2

∆𝑉 ∆𝑉1 ∆𝑉2
= +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2

1 1 1
= +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2
For two resistors connected in parallel :

𝑅1𝑅2
𝑅𝑒𝑞 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

The equivalent resistance of three or more resistors connected

in parallel is

1 1 1 1
= + + +⋯
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
Four resistors are connected as shown in Figure 28.10a.

(A) Find the equivalent resistance between points a and c.

6 × 3 18
𝑅(6,3) = = =2Ω
6+3 9

𝑅(8,4) = 8 + 4 = 12 Ω

𝑅(12,2) = 12 + 2 = 14 Ω
(B) What is the current in each resistor if a potential difference of 𝟒𝟐 𝑽 is maintained between
a and c?

42 𝑉
∆𝑉 42
𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡 = = = 3𝐴 = 𝐼12 + 𝐼2
𝑅𝑒𝑞 14

3𝐴 3𝐴
𝐼12 = 𝐼8 = 𝐼4 = 3𝐴 6𝑉

6𝑉

∆𝑉2 = 𝐼𝑅 = 2 × 3 = 6𝑉 = ∆𝑉6 = ∆𝑉3

6 3𝐴 3𝐴
𝐼6 = = 1𝐴
6
3𝐴
6 6𝑉
𝐼3 = = 2𝐴
3
Three resistors are connected in parallel as shown in
Figure 28.11a. A potential difference of 18.0 V is maintained
between points a and b.

(A) Calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit.

1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

1 1 1 1 6 + 3 + 2 11
= + + = =
𝑅𝑒𝑞 3 6 9 18 18

18
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = = 1.64 Ω
11
(B) Find the current in each resistor.

∆𝑉1 18
𝐼1 = = = 6𝐴
𝑅1 3

∆𝑉2 18
𝐼2 = = =3𝐴
𝑅2 6

∆𝑉3 18
𝐼3 = = =2𝐴
𝑅3 9
(C) Calculate the power delivered to each resistor and the total
power delivered to the combination of resistors.

𝑃𝑅1 = 𝐼1 2 𝑅1 = 6 2 × 3 = 108 𝑊

𝑃𝑅2 = 𝐼2 2 𝑅2 = 3 2 × 6 = 54 𝑊

𝑃𝑅3 = 𝐼3 2 𝑅3 = 2 2 × 9 = 36 𝑊

These results show that the smallest resistor receives the most power. Summing the three quantities
gives a total power of 198 W.

𝑃𝑇𝑜𝑡. = 𝑃𝑅1 + 𝑃𝑅2 + 𝑃𝑅3 = 198 W

∆𝑉 2 18 2
𝑃𝑇𝑜𝑡. = = = 198 𝑊
𝑅𝑒𝑞 1.64
There are ways in which resistors can be connected so that the circuits formed
cannot be reduced to a single equivalent resistor.

Two rules, called Kirchhoff’s rules, can be used instead.

- Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule

The sum of the currents at any junction must equal zero.

Currents directed into the junction are entered into the equation as +I and
those leaving as−I.

Mathematically,

෍ 𝐼=0
𝐽𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
More about the Junction Rule

𝐼1 − 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 = 0

Required by Conservation of Charge Diagram (b) shows a

mechanical analog

𝐼1 = 𝐼2 +𝐼3
Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule

The sum of the potential differences across all elements

around any closed circuit loop must be zero.

A statement of Conservation of Energy (∆𝑈 = 0)

Mathematically,

෍ ∆𝑉 = 0
𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝
 More about the Loop Rule
a b
Traveling around the loop from a to b

In (a), the resistor is traversed in the

direction of the current, the potential
across the resistor is−𝐼𝑅

In (b), the resistor is traversed in the

direction opposite of the current, the
potential across the resistor is +𝐼𝑅
In (c), the source of emf is traversed in the direction of the
emf (from – to +), and the change in the potential
difference is +𝜀

In (d), the source of emf is traversed in the direction opposite

of the emf (from + to−), and the change in the potential
difference is−𝜀
 ෍ ∆𝑉 = 0
𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝
CW CCW
𝜀1 − 𝐼𝑅1 − 𝜀2 − 𝐼𝑅2 = 0

6 − 8𝐼 − 12 − 10𝐼 = 0 −6 + 8𝐼 + 12 + 10𝐼 = 0

−18𝐼 − 6 = 0 𝐼 = −0.33 𝐴

−18𝐼 = 6

The negative sign for I indicates that the direction of the current is
𝐼 = −0.33 𝐴 opposite the assumed direction.
 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 = 0 … … … … (1) CW

෍ ∆𝑉 = 0
𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 (1) CW

−14 + 6𝐼1 − 10 − 4𝐼2 = 0 … … … … … (2)

෍ ∆𝑉 = 0
𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 (2)

10 − 6𝐼1 − 2𝐼3 = 0 … … … … … (3)

 10 − 6𝐼1 − 2𝐼3 = 0 … … … … … (3) −14 + 6𝐼1 − 10 − 4𝐼2 = 0

10 − 6𝐼1 = 2𝐼3
−24 + 6𝐼1 = 4𝐼2
10 6
− 𝐼 = 𝐼3 −24 6
2 2 1 + 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 … … … … … (2)
4 4
5-3 𝐼1 =𝐼3 … … … … … 3𝑎
−6 + 1.5 𝐼1 = 𝐼2

𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 = 0 … … … … (1)

𝐼1 + −6 + 1.5 𝐼1 − (5−3 𝐼1 ) = 0 Because our values for𝐼2 and𝐼3 are negative, the directions of
these currents are opposite those indicated in
Figure 28.15.

𝐼1 = 2 𝐴 𝐼2 = −3 𝐴 𝐼3 = −1 𝐴
 P: 28-22
𝐼1
In Figure P28.22, show how to add just enough ammeters 𝐼3
to measure every different current. Show how
𝐼2
to add just enough voltmeters to measure the potential
difference across each resistor and across each
battery.
෍ 𝐼=0
𝐽𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐼3 − 𝐼1 −𝐼2 = 0
𝐼3 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 … … … … (1)
CCW
෍ ∆𝑉 = 0
෍ ∆𝑉 = 0 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 (2)
𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 (1)
−8𝐼1 + 4 + 1𝐼2 + 5𝐼2 = 0 … … … … … (3)
12 − 1𝐼3 − 3𝐼3 − 5𝐼2 −1𝐼2 −4 = 0 … … … … … (2)
12 − 4𝐼3 − 6𝐼2 − 4 = 0 … … … … … (2) 8𝐼1 + 4 + 6𝐼2 = 0 … … … … … (3)

12 − 6𝐼2 − 4 = 4𝐼3 … … … … … (2)

-8𝐼1 = −4 − 6𝐼2 … … … … … (3)

𝐼1 = +0.5 + 0.75𝐼2 … … … … … (3)

3 − 1.5𝐼2 − 1 = 𝐼3 … … … … … (2)
 𝐼1 = 0.5 + 0.75𝐼2 … … … … … (3)

𝐼3 = 2 − 1.5𝐼2 … … … … (2)

𝐼3 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 … … … … (1)

2 − 1.5𝐼2 = 0.5 + 0.75𝐼2 + 𝐼2

𝐼1 = 0.5 + 0.75 0.462 = 0.846 𝐴

1.5 = 1.5𝐼2 + 0.75𝐼2 + 𝐼2

𝑰𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟒𝟔 𝑨

𝐼3 = 2 − 1.5( 0.462) = 1.31 𝐴

𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟔𝟐 𝑨

𝑰𝟑 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟏 𝑨
 P: 28-24
For the circuit shown in Figure P28.24, calculate (a) the
current in the 2.00-Ω resistor and (b) the potential difference 𝐼1
between points a and b.
𝐼2
𝐼3
𝐼1 − 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 = 0 … … … … (1)

෍ ∆𝑉 = 0
𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 (1)

12 − 2𝐼3 − 4𝐼1 = 0 … … … … … (2) 𝐼1 = 3 − 0.5𝐼3 … … … … (2)

෍ ∆𝑉 = 0
𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 (2)

8 − 6𝐼2 + 2𝐼3 = 0 … … … … … (3) 8 2

𝐼2 = + 𝐼 … … … … (3)
6 6 3
 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 … … … … (1)

𝐼1 = 3 − 0.5𝐼3 … … … … (2)

8 2
𝐼2 = + 𝐼3 … … … … (3)
6 6

8 2
3 − 0.5𝐼3 = + 𝐼 + 𝐼3 … … … … (1)
6 6 3
b) 𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎 = −0.909 × 2 = −1.82 𝑉
𝐼3 = 0.909 𝐴 OR
𝐼1 = 2.546 𝐴
𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎 = 8 − 1.636 × 6 = −1.82 V
𝐼2 = 1.636 𝐴
OR

𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎 = −12 + 2.5 × 4 = −1.816=−1.82 V

We have analyzed direct-current circuits in which the current is constant.

In DC circuits containing capacitors, the current is always in the same direction but
may vary in magnitude at different times.

A circuit containing a series combination of a resistor and a capacitor is called an RC

circuit.
Charging a Capacitor

Figure 28.16 shows a simple series RC circuit. Let’s assume the

capacitor in this circuit
is initially uncharged.

There is no current while the switch is open

If the switch is thrown to position a at t = 0

charge begins to flow, setting up a current in the circuit, and

the capacitor begins to charge.3

Notice that during charging, charges do not jump across the

capacitor plates because the gap between the plates represents
an open circuit.
charge is transferred between each plate and its connecting wires due to the electric field

established in the wires by the battery until the capacitor is fully charged.

As the plates are being charged, the potential difference across the capacitor increases.

The value of the maximum charge on the plates depends on the voltage of the battery. Once the

maximum charge is reached, the current in the circuit is zero because the potential

difference across the capacitor matches that supplied by the battery.

To analyze this circuit quantitatively, let’s apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule to the circuit
after the switch is thrown to position a. Traversing the loop in Figure 28.16b
clockwise gives

෍ ∆𝑉 = 0
𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝

𝑞 𝑞 CW
𝐶= → ∆𝑉 =
Δ𝑉 𝐶
𝑞
ℰ − − 𝑖𝑅 = 0
𝑐
𝑞
Where is the potential difference across the capacitor and
𝑐 𝑖(t) 𝑞(t)

𝑖𝑅 is the potential difference across the resistor.

Note that lowercase 𝑞 and 𝑖 are
The capacitor is traversed in the direction from the positive instantaneous values that
plate to the negative plate, which represents a decrease in potential depend on time
At t=0 (When the current is maximum)

We can use Equation 28.11 to find the initial current 𝐼𝑖 in the circuit and the
maximum charge Q max on the capacitor.
𝑞
ℰ − − 𝑖𝑅 = 0
𝑐
At the instant the switch is thrown to position a (𝑡 = 0), the charge on the capacitor is zero.
Equation 28.11 shows that the initial current 𝐼𝑖 in the circuit is a maximum and is given by

ℰ − 𝐼𝑖 𝑅 = 0

ℰ
𝐼𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = current at 𝑡 = 0 The potential difference from the battery terminals appears
𝑅 𝑞=𝑜 entirely across the resistor.
When the charge is maximum
Later, when the capacitor is charged to its maximum value 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 , charges cease to flow,
the current in the circuit is zero,
Substituting 𝑖 = 0 gives the maximum charge on the capacitor:

𝑞
ℰ − − 𝑖𝑅 = 0 𝑖= 0
𝑐
𝑄 𝑞 = 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥
ℰ− =0
𝑐

𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥
ℰ− =0
𝑐
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥
ℰ=
𝐶
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶ℰ (maximum charge)
At time = t
𝑞
ℰ − − 𝑖𝑅 = 0
𝑐
𝑞 ℰ 𝑞
ℰ − = 𝑖𝑅 𝑖= −
𝑐 𝑅 𝑅𝑐

𝑑𝑞 ℰ 𝑞 ℰ𝐶 − 𝑞
= − 𝑑𝑞 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝑐

𝑞 𝑡 = 𝐶ℰ 1 − 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶 = 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶 ) At 𝑡 = 0 𝑞 𝑡=0 =0

𝜀
ℰ −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶 𝐴𝑡 𝑡 = 0 𝑖 𝑡 = 0 = 𝐼𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑅
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑒 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶
𝑅
 The charge is zero at 𝑡 = 0

The charge is maximum (𝐶ℰ) when 𝑡 → ∞

𝑞 𝑡 = 𝐶ℰ(1 − 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶 )

ℰ −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶
The current has its maximum value 𝐼𝑖 = ℇΤ𝑅 at 𝑡 = 0 and decays exponentially 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑒
𝑅
to zero as 𝑡 → ∞

The quantity 𝑅𝐶, which appears in the exponents of equations is called the time constant t of
the circuit:

𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 (sec)

The time constant represents the time required for the charge to increase from
zero to 63.2% of its maximum.
The time constant represents the time interval during which the current decreases
to 1/e of its initial value; that is, after a time interval 𝜏, the current decreases to:

ℰ −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑒 −1 𝐼𝑖 = 0.368𝐼𝑖 𝑡 = 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑒
𝑅

In a time interval 𝜏, the charge increases from zero to

𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶
𝑞(𝑡) = 𝐶𝜀 1 − 𝑒 −1 = 0.632𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 .
𝑞 𝑡 = 𝐶ℰ(1 − 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶 )
(a) (b)
 Discharging a Capacitor

Imagine that the capacitor in the figure is completely charged. An initial potential
difference 𝑄 𝑖 /𝐶 exists across the capacitor, and there is zero potential difference
across the resistor because 𝑖 = 0.

If the switch is now thrown to position b at

t=0

the capacitor begins to discharge through the resistor.

we eliminate the emf ℇ from Equation

When we substitute 𝑖 = 𝑑𝑞/𝑑𝑡 into this expression, it

becomes
When we substitute 𝑖 = 𝑑𝑞/𝑑𝑡 into this expression, it
becomes

𝑄
𝜀=
𝐶

ℰ −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶
𝑖 𝑡 =− 𝑒
𝑅
where 𝑄𝑖 /𝑅𝐶 = 𝐼𝑖 is the initial current. The negative sign indicates that as the
capacitor discharges, the current direction is opposite its direction when the
capacitor was being charged.
𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 = 8 × 105 × 5 × 10−6 = 4.0𝑠

𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶𝜀 = 5 × 10−6 × 12 = 60 × 10−6 𝐶 = 60 𝜇𝐶

𝜀 12
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 15𝜇𝐴
𝑅 8 × 105

𝑞 𝑡 = 𝐶ℰ 1 − 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶 = 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶 )

𝑞 𝑡 = 60 × 10−6 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑡Τ4 )
ℰ −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑒 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶
𝑅 ℰ −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑒
𝑖 𝑡 = 15 × 10−6 𝑒 −𝑡Τ4 𝑅
 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 = 8 × 105 × 5 × 10−6 = 4.0𝑠

𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶𝜀 = 5 × 10−6 × 12 = 60 × 10−6 𝐶 = 60 𝜇𝐶

𝜀 12
𝐼𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 15𝜇𝐴
𝑅 8 × 105

𝑞 𝑡 = 60 1 − 𝑒 −𝑡Τ4 (𝜇𝐶)

𝑞 𝑡 = 𝐶ℰ 1 − 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶 = 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 1 − 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶

𝑖 𝑡 = 15 𝑒 −𝑡Τ4 (𝜇𝐴) ℰ −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶

𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑒 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶
𝑅
 𝑄𝑖
= 𝑄𝑖 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶 𝑞 𝑡 = 𝑄𝑖 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶
4

ℰ −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶
𝑖 𝑡 =− 𝑒
1 𝑅
= 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶
4

−𝑡
𝑙𝑛1 − ln 4 =
𝑅𝐶
−𝑡
− ln 4 =
𝑅𝐶

𝑡 = 𝑅𝐶 ln 4 = 1.39𝑅𝐶 = 1.39𝜏
 𝑄𝑖 2
𝑈𝑖 =
(𝑞(𝑡))2 𝑄𝑖 2 −2𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶 2𝐶
𝑈 𝑡 = = 𝑒
2𝐶 2𝐶
𝑞 𝑡 = 𝑄𝑖 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶
1 𝑄𝑖 2 𝑄𝑖 2 −2𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶
= 𝑒
4 2𝐶 2𝐶
1
= 𝑒 −2𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶
4
−2𝑡
− ln 4 =
𝑅𝐶

1
𝑡 = 𝑅𝐶 ln 4 = 0.693𝑅𝐶 = 0.693𝜏
2
P:28-37
An uncharged capacitor and a resistor are connected in series to a source of emf. If 𝜀 = 9.00 𝑉, 𝐶 = 20.0 𝜇𝐹,
and 𝑅 = 100 Ω find:

(a) the time constant of the circuit.

(b) the maximum charge on the capacitor.

(c) the charge on the capacitor at a time equal to one time constant after the battery is connected. 𝑡 = 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶

𝑎) 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 = 100 × 20 × 10−6 = 2 × 10−3 𝑠

𝑏) 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶𝜀 = 20 × 10−6 × 9 = 1.8 × 10−4 𝐶 = 60 𝜇𝐶

𝑐) 𝑞 𝑡 = 1.8 × 10−4 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶Τ𝑅𝐶 )

𝑞 𝑡 = 1.8 × 10−4 1 − 𝑒 −1 = 1.14 × 10−4 𝐶

 C h a p t e r 28

Direct-Current Circuits

Direct Current

When the current in a circuit has a constant direction, the current is called
direct current.

Electromotive Force 𝜺

The phrase electromotive force is describing a potential difference in volts not a force.
∆𝑉 = 𝜀 − Ir

𝜀 = ∆𝑉 + Ir

𝜀 = 𝐼𝑅 + Ir

𝜀
𝐼=
𝑅+𝑟

∆𝑉
𝑟=0→𝐼= ∆𝑉 = 𝜀
𝑅
 𝐼𝜀 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 + 𝐼 2 r

𝐼𝜀 ≡ The total power output of the battery is

𝐼 2 𝑅 ≡ power is delivered to the external resistor

𝐼 2 r ≡ power is delivered to the internal resistor

Resistor In Series

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

Resistor In Parallel

1 1 1
= +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2

For two resistors connected in parallel :

𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅𝑒𝑞 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
P:28-13

7 × 10 70
𝑅(7,10) = = = 4.12 Ω
7 + 10 17

𝑅(4,4.12,9) = 4 + 4.12 + 9 = 17.12 Ω = 17.1 Ω

(b) Calculate the current in each resistor if a potential difference of 34.0 𝑉 is
applied between points a and b.

∆𝑉 34
𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡 = = = 1.99 𝐴
𝑅𝑒𝑞 17.1

𝐼4.14 = 𝐼4 = 𝐼9 = 1.99 𝐴
1.99 𝐴 1.99 𝐴 1.99 𝐴
∆𝑉4.12 = 4.12 × 1.99 = 8.18𝑉 = ∆𝑉7 = ∆𝑉10 8.18𝑉

8.18
𝐼7 = = 1.17𝐴
7
8.18𝑉

8.18
𝐼10 = = 0.818𝐴 8.18𝑉
10
 Kirchhoff’s Rule

෍ 𝐼=0
𝐽𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 = 0

Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule

෍ ∆𝑉 = 0
𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝
𝜀1 − 𝐼𝑅1 − 𝜀2 − 𝐼𝑅2 = 0
 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 = 0 … … … … (1) CW

෍ ∆𝑉 = 0
𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 (1) CW

−14 + 6𝐼1 − 10 − 4𝐼2 = 0 … … … … … (2)

෍ ∆𝑉 = 0
𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 (2)

10 − 6𝐼1 − 2𝐼3 = 0 … … … … … (3)

 RC circuit

Charging a Capacitor

𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶ℰ

ℰ
𝐼𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑅

The time constant 𝜏 of the circuit is 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶

 Charging and Discharging a Capacitor

cCcCharge CcCcCurrent

Charging a Capacitor 𝑞 𝑡 = 𝐶ℰ 1 − 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶 ℰ −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶

𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑒
𝑅
= 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶 )
= 𝐼𝑖 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶 (Decreases)
(Increases)

Discharging a Capacitor ℰ
𝑖 𝑡 = − 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶
𝑅
𝑞 𝑡 = 𝑄𝑖 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶
𝑄
= − 𝐶𝑅 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶
(Decreases) (Decreases)