General navigation - 5
• Basic navigation principles
• Definitions
• Heading/track/bearing/radial
• IAS/RAS/EAS/TAS/GS
• Wind triangle
• Q codes
• Relative bearing
• Wind components
• Max drift
• NAM/NGM
• Radial interception
© Capt. Rahul Monga
Aim
It is very unusual nowadays to operate an aircraft using just
the simple navigational techniques that will be described in
this presentation.
However, they represent the basic principles on which all
navigation systems operate and should also be regarded as
useful 'fall-back' procedures for use when the more
sophisticated modern systems fail or become suspect.
© Capt. Rahul Monga
The ‘art' of navigation
All navigation is the art of being able to give good answers to
the following questions:
• Where am I now?
• How did I get here?
• What am I going to do about it?
© Capt. Rahul Monga
Definitions
• Indicated Air Speed (IAS): Speed indicated on the Air
Speed Indicator
• Rectified/Calibrated air speed (RAS/CAS): IAS corrected for
various instrument and installation errors.
• Equivalent Air Speed (EAS): RAS/CAS corrected for
compressibility
• True Air Speed (TAS): EAS corrected for density. Also, it is
the speed of an aircraft relative to the airmass in which it is
flying.
• Ground speed (GS) : Speed of an aircraft relative to the
earth.
© Capt. Rahul Monga
Definitions
• Heading: The direction in which the longitudinal axis of an
aircraft is pointed, usually expressed in degrees from North
(true, magnetic, compass or grid).
• Track. The projection on the earth’s surface of the path of an
aircraft, the direction of which path at any point is usually
expressed in degrees from North (true, magnetic or grid).
• Radial. A magnetic bearing extending from a
VOR/VORTAC/TACAN.
• Bearing. The horizontal direction to or from any point, usually
measured clockwise from true north, magnetic north, or some
other reference point through 360 degrees.
• Ground speed (GS) : Speed of an aircraft relative to the earth.
• Drift: Angle between heading and track
© Capt. Rahul Monga
Heading vs track
• The heading of an aircraft may be
different than its track due to the wind.
• This difference is called drift angle.
• For an airliner at cruising speed, it is
usually within 5 degrees.
• Depending on the specific
circumstances, however, the drift angle
can be bigger.
• For example, if the aircraft true airspeed
is 400 kts, and there is a crosswind of
100 kt, the drift angle will be 15 degrees.
© Capt. Rahul Monga
Bearing vs radial
• Bearing is the horizontal angle between
the direction of an object and another
object, or between it and that of true
north.
• Absolute bearing refers to the angle
between the north and an object.
• Relative bearing refers to the angle
between the aircraft’s longitudinal axis
and the location of another object.
• A radial is a variant of the bearing. It is
always related to the magnetic direction
from a radio aid.
© Capt. Rahul Monga
Heading vs radial
• The radial gives the relative
position of an aircraft to e.g. a
VOR.
• There is no mathematical relation
between the radial and the
heading (or track) of an aircraft,
Aircraft flying the same heading, being on different radials
i.e. one cannot be derived from
the other.
• For example, if an aircraft is on
the 360 outbound radial (to the
north of the VOR), it could be
flying on any heading (or track)
albeit for a short time. Aircraft flying different headings, being on the same radial
© Capt. Rahul Monga
TAS calculation
• IAS → (position/instrument error) → RAS/CAS →
• (compressibility) → EAS → (density) → TAS
• TAS from RAS
TAS = RAS +(RAS x 1.75% per 1000feet)
• TAS from Mach No
TAS = MN x LSS
Where (LSS= Local Speed of Sound) = 39√Temp °K
© Capt. Rahul Monga
The wind triangle
• The wind triangle is a graphical representation of the relationship between
aircraft motion and wind.
• It is used extensively in dead reckoning navigation.
Dead reckoning is the process of calculating one's current position by
using a previously determined position, or fix, and advancing that position
based upon known or estimated speeds over elapsed time and course.
• The wind triangle is a vector diagram, with three vectors.
Air Vector: Represents the motion of the aircraft through the airmass. It is
described by true airspeed and true heading.
Wind Vector: Represents the motion of the airmass over the ground. It is
described by wind speed and the inverse of wind direction.
❖ Note that by convention wind direction is given as the direction the
wind is from.
❖ In a vector diagram such as the wind triangle, wind direction must be
stated as the direction the wind is blowing to, or 180 degrees different
from the convention.
• Ground Vector: Represents the motion of the aircraft over the ground. It is
described by ground track and ground speed. The ground vector is the
resultant of algebraically adding the air vector and the wind vector.
© Capt. Rahul Monga
© Capt. Rahul Monga
The wind triangle
• The wind triangle describes the relationships among the quantities used in air
navigation.
• When two of the three vectors, or four of the six components, are known, the
remaining quantities can be derived.
• The three principal types of problems to solve are:
• Ground Vector:
True heading/true airspeed known from flight instruments
Wind direction and speed are known from either the meteorological
forecast or from determination in flight.
• Wind Vector:
True heading/true airspeed known from flight instruments
Ground track and ground speed known from either by measuring the
direction and distance between two established points of the aircraft or by
determining the drift angle and ground speed by reference to the ground.
• True Heading & Ground Speed:
To determine a true heading to fly and a ground speed with which to
compute an estimated time of arrival.
© Capt. Rahul Monga
Aeronautical code signals
• Aeronautical Code signals are radio signal codes.
• They are part of a larger set of Q Codes allocated by the
ITU-R.
• The Q-code is a standardized collection of three-letter
codes all of which start with the letter "Q".
• It is an operating signal initially developed for commercial
radiotelegraph communication and later adopted by other
radio services.
• "Q" has no official meaning,
© Capt. Rahul Monga
Aeronautical code signals - altimetry
CODE MEANING SAMPLE USE
QFE Atmospheric pressure at a specified datum such as Runway in use 22 Left, QFE
airfield runway threshold. When set, the altimeter 990 millibars
reads the height above the specified datum.
QFF Atmospheric pressure at a place, reduced to MSL
using the actual temperature at the time of
observation as the mean temperature.
QNH Atmospheric pressure at mean sea level (may be Request Mumbai QNH
either a local, measured pressure or a regional
forecast pressure). When set on the altimeter it
reads altitude.
QNE Indicated altitude at the landing runway threshold
when 1013.25 hPa or 29.92 inHg (atmospheric
pressure at sea level in the ISA) is set as altimeter
setting.
© Capt. Rahul Monga
Aeronautical code signals – radio navigation
CODE MEANING SAMPLE USE
QDM Magnetic bearing TO a station (callsign) request QDM
(callsign)
QDR Magnetic bearing FROM a station (callsign) request QDR
(callsign)
QUJ True bearing/track TO a station
QTE True bearing/track FROM a station (callsign) request QTE
(callsign)
QGH Controlled Descent through Clouds (Air Force
use)
QDM and QDR are reciprocal
QUJ and QTE are reciprocal
Homing: The heading to steer in nil wind TO reach station. This can be either QDM and OUJ catering
for wind
© Capt. Rahul Monga
Relative bearing
• The angular difference between the aircraft nose and the
direction to the station, measured clockwise from the nose
of the aircraft.
• Homing = Relative Bearing + Heading
• QDM = RB + Hdg(M)
• QUJ = RB + Hdg(T)
© Capt. Rahul Monga
Relative bearing typical question
Given that the compass heading is 270°, the deviation is 2°
W, the variation is 30°E and the relative bearing of a beacon
is 316°, determine the QDR.
© Capt. Rahul Monga
Relative bearing typical question
• Given that the compass heading is 270°, the
deviation is 2°W,the variation is 30°E and the relative
bearing of a beacon is 316°, determine the QDR.
• Solution
C D M
270° 2°W 268°
QDM = RB + Hdg(M)
QDM = 316° + 268° = 584
If the sum is more than 360 then subtract 360 from 224
it to find the bearing. ° 268
584° - 360° = 224° 316 °
QDR is reciprocal of QDM °
QDR = 224° - 180° = 044°
© Capt. Rahul Monga
Relative bearing questions
An NDB is on a relative bearing of 316o from an aircraft.
• Compass heading 270
• At aircraft deviation 2W, Variation 30E
• At station Variation 28E
• Calculate the true bearing of the NDB from the aircraft:
252
254
072
074
© Capt. Rahul Monga
Relative bearing questions
An NDB is on a relative bearing of 316o from an aircraft.
• Compass heading 270
• At aircraft deviation 2W, Variation 30E
• At station Variation 28E
• Calculate the true bearing of the NDB from the aircraft:
© Capt. Rahul Monga
Relative bearing questions
An NDB is on a relative bearing of 316o from an aircraft.
• Compass heading 270
• At aircraft deviation 2W, Variation 30E
• At station Variation 28E
• Calculate the true bearing of the NDB from the aircraft:
252
254
072
074
© Capt. Rahul Monga
Solving wind triangle
• Graphically
• Mathematically
• Computer
© Capt. Rahul Monga
Solving wind triangle – graphical solution
• Say track required is 225°(T), TAS
200kt and w/v is 280°/40 kt. Find
heading and ground speed
• Think you are flying the aircraft in this
situation situation.
• The wind will be coming at you from a Hdg/TA 9
S
direction of 55° to your right (280 -225) 234°
°
and so will cause left (port) drift and a /200
Trk/GS
GS less than the TAS. 55 225°
w/v 280°
• Try drawing it the situation using a /40 ° /174
scale of 1 cm = 10 kt.
• The correct answers are: Hdg 234°(T),
GS 174 kt Drift 9°Port
© Capt. Rahul Monga
Solving wind triangle mathematical solution
• Say track required is 225°(T), TAS 200kt and w/v is 280°/40
kt. Find heading and ground speed
• Sin Law: a/sinA = b/sinB = c/SinC
• Cosine Law: c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos(C) a
Hdg/TA
C
S
234°
/200
B
B Trk/GS
C 55° A 225°
w/v 280°
/174
/40
© Capt. Rahul Monga
Solving wind triangle computer solution
• Say track required is 225°(T), TAS 200kt and w/v is 280°/40
kt. Find heading and ground speed
• [Link] a
Hdg/TAS
C
234°/200
B
B 55° Trk/GS
C A
225°/174
w/v 280°
/40
© Capt. Rahul Monga
Wind components along runway
• Calculated prior to take off and landing
• Headwind or Tailwind Component:
Wind Speed x Cos (Wind Direction - Rwy
Direction)
or
Wind Speed x Cos (Wind Direction -
Heading)
• Crosswind Component:
Wind Speed x Sin (Wind Direction - Rwy
Direction)
or
Wind Speed x Sin (Wind Direction -
Heading)
© Capt. Rahul Monga
Wind components along runway
• Runways are normally described by their magnetic directions and so
the w/v should be converted into a magnetic direction also.
• Example:
• What are the along- and across-runway components of a w/v 090 °
T/40kt on runway 07? Magnetic variation is 10°W.
Solution
Magnetic w/v 100°M/40 kt Runway 070°M
Angle between R/W and Wind = 100 -070 = 30°
Head wind = 40 cos30° = 35 kt
Cross wind = 40 sin 30° = 20 kt
Note that if landing in the opposite direction:
Headwind = 40 cos 150° (250 -100) = -35 kt indicating a twc
© Capt. Rahul Monga
Max drift and drift calculation
• You can calculate drift while flying by using the Maximum
Drift concept.
• Drift depends on the TAS of the aircraft and also the angle
at wind is affecting the aircraft. It will be maximum when
abeam
• Max Drift = Wind Speed * 60 / TAS
• Example: What is the maximum drift of an aircraft TAS 240
kt if the wind speed is 30 kt
• Solution: 30 x 60 / 240 = 7.5°
© Capt. Rahul Monga
max drift and drift calculation
Once Max Drift is known then the actual drift angle is
calculated in the following 2 steps
1. Find Cross Wind Component = Wind Speed X Sin (Wind
Angle)
2. Then Drift Angle = Max Drift X Cross Wind Component
© Capt. Rahul Monga
Nautical air/ground miles
• Nautical Air Mile (NAM) is the
measure of the air distance
flown by an aircraft at its TAS.
• Nautical Ground Mile (NGM) is
the measure of the distance
flown by an aircraft at its GS.
• In STILL AIR, NAM = NGM
• HEADWIND: NAM > NGM
• TAILWIND: NAM < NGM
• NAM = NGM x (TAS/GS
© Capt. Rahul Monga
Nautical air/ground miles
• Q: A sector distance is 450 NM
long. The TAS is 460 kt. The wind
component is 50 kt tailwind. What
is the still air distance?
• A: 450 X (460/510) = 397
• Q: An aircraft flies at TAS 142 kt
for 63 NAM. If the WC is -20 kt,
how many NGM does it fly?
• A: NAM = NGM x (TAS/GS)
• NGM = NAM x (GS/TAS)
• =63 x 122/142
• =54
© Capt. Rahul Monga
Intercepting a radial
• Intercepting a radial means
joining a radial at a particular
angle.
• ATC can specify the angle to join
a radial - say 30/45/60 deg
• The most rapid way to get on to
a distant radial would be to fly
perpendicular, straight to it: a 90
deg intercept. To intercept a 270º TO course from the
south, fly direct north until the needle
centers. To intercept that same line (which
would also be the 90º FROM radial) from
the north, fly directly south
© Capt. Rahul Monga
Intercepting a radial
• Usually intercept angles are
shallower angle.
• To find intercept heading, take the
magnetic direction of the line that
you're trying to get on.
• If you are intercepting from the
left side of the line, add the
intercept angle to get heading Example:
Intercept the 280 radial at 30 deg (TO the station) from south
• If you are intercepting from the of that line.
Fly heading (280º + 30º) = 310º.
right of the line, subtract the Intercept 280 radial at 45º
Fly heading of (280º - 45º) = 235º.
intercept angle to get heading. Notice that you need to follow the track, so you have to cater
for wind.
© Capt. Rahul Monga