Republic of the Philippines

ta TARLAC AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

Camiling, Tarlac

LEARNING RESOURCE MATERIAL

CHAPTER 1
COMMUNICATION

Good Communication is as
stimulating as black coffee, and
just as hard to sleep after.
-Anne Morrow Lindbergh-

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 discuss the nature and meaning of communication;
 expound the different definitions of communication and its importance in every field of
interest;
 determine the components of communication process;
 describe the different models of communication which is appropriate to various
communication situations; and
 explain the principles of communication in order to make the communication effective.
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ABSTRACTION

WARM UP TIME

Guess the correct term being defined or described by using the given clue. Write your answer on
the blank before the number.
__________________1. the transmission of information, ideas, feelings, etc. (1 word - 13
letters)
__________________2. the guide toward realizing the effective communication (2 words - 13
and 7 letters)
__________________3. the one who initiates the communication (1 word - 6 letters)
__________________4. means used to convey the message. (1 word – 7 letters)
__________________5. translating information into a message in the form of symbols (1 word –
8 letters)
__________________6. interpreting the symbols sent by the source (1 word – 8 letters)
__________________7. the individual to whom the message is directed (1 word – 8 letters)
__________________8. response by the recipient of the message (1 word – 8 letters)
__________________9. an interference that distorts the communication process. (1 word – 5
letters)
__________________10. a diagram used to explain human communication process (1 word – 5
letters)
__________________11. the guidelines that are following for effective communication (1
word – 10 letters)

T HE NATURE OF COMMUNICATION

We say that communication is the blood-line of society. There would be no society if there
was no communication. Even in the animal kingdom, communication is very vital to their
survival. In almost all endeavors, communication plays an important role.

Communication is basic to success in whatever field of interest you are in. Proper
communication makes business a success. A successful career is dependent on your ability to say
what you mean, feel what you mean, express your ideas, persuade others to believe in you, and
persuade them to react or respond to you. All things being equal, a person who can effectively
communicate usually has an edge.

 A sales manager using persuasive language has to convince his sales force to perform
beyond their quota and avail of the different promo offers of the company.
 A medical practitioner has to explain in clear language what is wrong with his patient,
what medicine to take, and what precautions to observe in order to get well.
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 A lawyer has to explain clearly in court his client’s innocence and demand damages from
the opposing party.
 A teacher, the molder of minds, has to speak clearly to impart knowledge, inculcate
values, and direct the students to become worthy citizens of the country.
 Diplomats from warring countries meet in quiet assembly halls to discuss the fate of their
countries and how to best achieve peace throughout the world.

Communication, therefore, helps understand people better, removes misunderstandings,

creates clarity of thoughts and expression, and educates people. Communication may be written
or oral, formal or informal, and upward, downward, horizontal, diagonal, interpersonal,
intrapersonal, interdepartmental, and intra-organizational.

D EFINITIONS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication is the act of conveying information for the purpose of creating a shared
understanding. It is something that humans do every day. The word "communication" comes
from the Latin word "communis," meaning "to share," and includes verbal, non-verbal, and
electronic means of human interaction. Scholars who study communication analyze the
development of communication skills in humans and theorize about how communication can be
made more effective.

There are many definitions of communication from the different minds of scholars.

Communication is the process of passing information from one person to another. The
purpose of communication understands information. Whatever one wants to say to someone
should be understood by them, or else the very purpose of the communication would be defeated.

 McFarland defines communication as the process of meaningful interaction among

human beings. Furthermore, it is the process by which meanings are perceived, and
understandings are reached among human beings.
 Newman and Summer define communication as the exchange of facts, ideas, opinions, or
emotions between two or more people.
 Schramm defines communication as a tool that makes societies possible and distinguishes
humans from other societies.
 Berelson and Steiner define communication as the transmission of information, ideas,
emotions, and skills through the use of symbols, words, pictures, figures, and graphs.
 Rogers says that communication is the process of transmitting ideas, information, and
attitudes from the source to a receiver for the purpose of influencing with intent.
 Kar defines communication as all those planned or unplanned processes through which
one person influences the behavior of others.
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T HE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
The communication process is the guide toward realizing effective communication. It is
through the communication process that the sharing of a common meaning takes place between
the sender and the receiver. Individuals that follow the communication process will have the
opportunity to become more productive in every aspect of their profession. Effective
communication leads to understanding.

Communication is the process of exchanging verbal and non-verbal messages. It is a

continuous process. A message is a pre-requisite for communication. This message must be
conveyed to the recipient through some medium. It is essential that this message be understood
by the recipient in the same terms as intended by the sender. He must respond within a certain
time frame. Thus, communication is a two-way process and is incomplete without feedback from
the recipient to the sender on how well the message is understood by him.

THE MAIN COMPONENTS OF THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS ARE AS

FOLLOWS:

Stage 1: Sending the message

a. Sender / Encoder

The sender, also known as the encoder, decides on the message to be sent in the most
effective way. All of this is done with the receiver in mind. In other words, it is his/her job to
conceptualize. The sender may want to ask him/herself questions like: "What words will I
use?" Do I need signs or pictures?

b. Message

It is a key idea that the sender wants to communicate. It is a sign that elicits the response of
the recipient. The communication process begins with deciding on the message to be
conveyed. It must be ensured that the main objective of the message is clear.

c. Medium /Channel

It is the instantaneous form or transmission of a message. Most media or channels are either
oral or written, but as technology advances, visual channels are becoming extremely prevalent.
The telephone and a variety of textual forms like as memos, letters, reports, emails, private
messages, and so on are common channels/media.

Stage 2: Receiving the Message

a. Context
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Communication is affected by the context in which it takes place. This context may be
physical, social, chronological, or cultural. Every communication proceeds with context.
The sender chooses the message to communicate within a context.

Communication does not take place in a vacuum. The context of any communication act is
the environment surrounding it. This includes, among other things, place, time, events, and
the attitudes of sender and receiver.

b. Decoder/Recipient
It is an individual for whom the message is intended, addressed, or targeted. The degree to
which the decoder understands the message is dependent upon various factors, such as
knowledge of the recipient, their responsiveness to the message, and the reliance of the
encoder on the decoder.

c. Feedback

It is the main component of the communication process as it permits the sender to analyze
the efficacy of the message. It assists the sender by confirming the correct interpretation of
the message by the decoder. Feedback may be verbal (through words) or non-verbal (in the
form of smiles, sighs, etc.). It may also take written form in the form of memos, reports, etc.,
or it may be in the form of electronic communication such as emails, private messages, etc.

d. Noise is also called interference or distraction.

It is anything that gets in the way of accurately sending, receiving, and interpreting the
message, whether it be internal from the sender or receiver, or external from the
environment (Lucas, 2000).

In a nutshell, communication begins when the speaker/sender encodes (or utilizes language
to express) his message in his preferred medium and delivers it through his chosen channel.
The listener/receiver receives the communication, decodes (or comprehends) it, and provides
feedback. Context is the background of the communication in terms of who is speaking with
whom, as well as when, where, and how they are communicating. While sending, receiving,
interpreting, or responding to a communication, noise or interference may occur.

C OMMUNICATION MODEL

1. ARISTOTLE’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

Aristotle was the first one who proposed and wrote about a unique model of
communication. Today, his model is referred to as the Aristotle Model of Communication. The
great philosopher already created this linear model before 300 BC, placing more emphasis on
public speaking than on interpersonal communication. The simple model is presented in a
diagram and is still widely used in preparing seminars, lectures, and speeches to this day.
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The Aristotle Model of Communication can be roughly divided into five elements. The
speaker is the most important element, making this model a speaker-oriented model. It is the
speaker’s task to deliver a speech to the public. The role of the audience is passive, which makes
the Aristotle Model of Communication a one-way model, from speaker to receiver.

The Role of the Speaker

According to the Aristotle Model of Communication, the speaker is the main figure in
communication because he is fully responsible for all communication. In this model of
communication, it is important that the speaker selects his words carefully, analyzes his audience
well, and prepares his speech accordingly. At the same time, he should assume the right body
language, as well as ensure proper eye contact and In order to entice the audience, blank
expressions, confused looks, and monotonous speech must be avoided at all times. The audience
must believe in the speaker’s ability to easily put his money where his mouth is.

The Rhetorical Triangle

The rhetorical triangle is essentially a method of organizing and distinguishing the three
aspects of rhetoric. The rhetorical triangle is made up of three persuading methods for use in
direct communication settings. Aristotle did not employ a triangle himself in the Aristotle Model
of Communication, but he effectively characterized the three techniques of persuasion, namely
logos, pathos, and ethos. These modalities of persuasion, always influence each other throughout
conversations in which arguments are conveyed back and forth, but also during one-way
communication, such as during speeches.
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a. Ethos

Ethos is concerned with the writer or speaker’s credibility and degree of authority,
particularly in relation to the subject at hand. A doctor’s ethos is the result of years of study
and training. Due to his qualifications, a doctor’s words carry a significant degree of
authority.

One’s ethos can be damaged in the blink of an eye, however. For example, a reputable
politician may be exposed when corruption scandals emerge and his personal life is revealed
to be diametrically opposed to his political beliefs. Tips for building an ethos in
communication
 Use words that suit the target audience.
 Keep communication professional.
 Conduct research before words are presented as facts.
 Use recommendations from qualified experts, and
 Make logical connections and avoid fallacies.

b. Pathos

Pathos denotes emotion, but in rhetoric, pathos refers to the audience and the way in
which they react to the speaker’s message, the heart of the Aristotle Model of
Communication. The idea behind pathos is that the audience must feel that they are being
communicated with. In certain situations, they want to feel more confident, while in others
they are more sad, angry, or emotional. Before and during the Second World War, Adolf
Hitler gave many speeches in front of tens of thousands of people. His words and particular
pronunciation made his audience feel attracted to him. Pathos, emotion, can therefore also be
abused. For example, people may become anxious as a result of the false consequences of not
buying a product presented in the sales world. The question of whether emotions may be
manipulated in sales strategies is a sensitive one. When collecting money for charities, this is
somewhat socially acceptable. However, when selling products or services, many people will
express their doubts. Nevertheless, capitalizing on pathos can be very effective. Tips for
effectively addressing emotions:

 People’s involvement is stimulated by humor. Keep different types of humor in mind;

 Use images or other visual materials to evoke strong emotions, and
 Pay attention to the intonation and tempo of one’s voice in order to elicit enthusiasm
or anxiety.

c. Logos

Logos means logic, but in rhetoric it broadly refers to the speaker’s message and,
more specifically, the facts, statements, and other elements that comprise the argument.
According to the Aristotle model of communication, logos is the most important part of one’s
argument. For this reason, it is crucial that sales talks always emphasize this particular
element. The appeal to logic also means that paragraphs and arguments must be properly
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organized. Facts, statistics, and logical reasoning are especially important here. When
analyzing logos, always ask yourself:

 What is the context? What conditions are relevant?

 What are the potential counter-arguments?
 Is there any evidence that supports my argument? Always mention this.
 Do I correctly avoid generalizations and am I being specific enough?

2. BERLO’S SENDER – MESSAGE – CHANNEL - RECEIVER (SMCR) MODEL OF

COMMUNICATION

The Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver (SMCR) model of communication,

sometimes called the "Berlo's model,” is the most basic form of communication that people
engage in today. It is really less of a "model" and more of an identification of the parts of
communication as a whole. The SMCR model relies on four key elements:

 Sender -The person who originates the message.

 Message -The content that is being communicated.
 Channel - The medium being used to transmit the message.
 Receiver: The person to whom the message is addressed.

This model was first developed in 1960 by David Berlo, a theoretician and founder
of the communications department at Michigan State University. It is used in television
advertising, newspaper and magazine ads, and even some types of social media.

Berlo's model could be summarized as a sender delivering a message through a

platform to a recipient. Two actions are inherent in this model:

 Encoding happens on the sender's end, involving the way in which the message is
transmitted.
 The receiver must decode the message through the channel that was used.

Conspicuously lacking in the SMCR model is any feedback loop (feedback from the recipient
back to the sender).
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COMPONENTS OF BERLO’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

A. S – Sender
The sender is the source of the message or the person who originates it. The person or
source sends the message to the receiver. The following are the factors related to the sender and
are also the same in the case of the receiver.

a. Communication Skills

The communication skills of a person are a factor that affects the communication process.
If the sender has good communication skills, the message will be communicated better
than if the sender’s communication skills are not good. Similarly, if the receiver cannot
grasp the message, then the communication will not be effective. Communication skills
include the skills to speak, present, read, write, listen, etc.

b. Attitude

The attitude of the sender and the receiver creates the effect of the message. The person’s
attitude towards themselves, the receiver, and the environment changes the meaning and
effect of the message.

c. Knowledge

Familiarity with the subject of the message makes the communicated messages have more
effect. Knowledge of the subject matter makes the communicator sends the message
effectively.

d. Social Systems

Values, beliefs, laws, rules, religion, and many other social factors affect the sender’s way
of communicating the message. It creates a difference in the generation of messages. Place
and situation also fall under the social system.

e. Culture

Cultural differences make messages different. A person from one culture might find
something offensive that is very much accepted in another culture.

B. M- Message

A message is the substance that is being sent by the sender to the receiver. It might be in the
form of voice, audio, text, video or other media. The key factors affecting the message are:

a. Content
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Content is the thing that is in the message. The whole message from beginning to end is
the content.

b. Elements
Elements are the non-verbal things that tag along with the content like gestures, signs,
language, etc.

c. Treatment
Treatment is the way in which the message is conveyed to the receiver. Treatment also
affects the feedback of the receiver.

d. Structure
The structure of the message or the way it has been structured or arranged, affects the
effectiveness of the message.

e. Code
Code is the form in which the message is sent. It might be in the form of language, text,
video, etc.

C. C-Channel
Channel is the medium used to send the message. In mass communication and other forms
of communication, technical machines might be used as a channel, like the telephone, the
internet, etc. But in general communication, the five senses of a human being are the
channel for the communication flow, and it affects the effectiveness of the channel.

a. Hearing
Receives the message through hearing.

b. Seeing
Perceives the message through seeing. Also get non-verbal messages by seeing.

c. Touching
Many of the non-verbal communication happen from touching like holding hands.

d. Smelling
Collects information from smelling.

e. Tasting
Taste also provides the information to be sent as a message.

D. R- Receiver
Receiver is the person who gets the message sent in the process. This model believes that the
thinking pattern and all other factors mentioned above must be in sync to that of the sender
for the communication to be effective. The message might not have the same effect as
intended if the receiver and sender are not similar. The receiver must also have a very good
listening skill. Other factors are similar to that of the sender.
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a. Communication skills
b. Attitudes
c. Knowledge
d. Social Systems
e. Culture

Criticisms of Berlo’s SMCR Model

 There is no concept of feedback, so the effect is not considered.

 There is no concept of noise or any kind of barriers in communication process.
 It is a linear model of communication, there is no two way communication.
 Both of the people must be similar according to all the factors mentioned above.

3. SHANNON AND WEAVER’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

In 1948, Shannon was an American mathematician and electronic engineer, and Weaver
was an American scientist. Both of them joined together to write an article in "Bell System
Technical Journal" called "A Mathematical Theory of Communication" and also called the
"Shannon-Weaver model of communication".

This model is specially designed to develop effective communication between sender and
receiver. They also find factors which affect the communication process called "noise." At first,
the model was developed to improve technical communication. Later, it has been widely applied
in the field of communication.

The model deals with various concepts like information source, transmitter, noise, channel,
message, receiver, channel, information destination, encode and decode.
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Concepts in Shannon Weaver Model

a. Sender (Information source)

It refers the person who makes the message, chooses the channel, and sends the message.

b. Encoder (Transmitter)
It is the sender who uses machine, which converts message into signals or binary data. It
might also directly refer to the machine.

c. Channel
It is the medium used to send message.

d. Decoder (Reception)
It is the machine used to convert signals or binary data into message or the receiver who
translates the message from signals.

e. Receiver (Destination)
It is the person who gets the message or the place where the message must reach. The
receiver provides feedback according to the message.

f. Noise
It is the physical disturbances like environment, people, etc. which does not let the
message get to the receiver as what is sent.

Explanation of Shannon Weaver Model

The sender encodes the message and sends it to the receiver through a technological
channel like the telephone or telegraph. The sender converts the message into codes
understandable to the machine. The message is sent in codes through a medium.

The receiver has to decode the message before understanding it and interpreting it. The
receptor machine can also act as a decoder in some cases. The channel can have noise and the
receiver might not have the capacity to decode it, which might cause problems in the
communication process.

For instance, the brain might be the sender, the mouth might be the encoder which
encodes to a particular language, air might be the channel, another person’s ear might be the
receptor, and his brain might be the decoder and receiver.

Similarly, air is the channel here. The noise present in his environment that disturbs them
is the noise, whereas his response is the feedback. There were only 5 components when the
model was made. Noise was added later.
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As Shannon was an engineer, this model was first made to improve technical
communication, mainly for telephonic communication. It was made to maximize telephone
capacity with minimum noise.

Later, Weaver applied it to all kinds of communication to develop effective

communication, and the model became famous as the Shannon Weaver Model. In engineering,
Shannon’s model is also called information theory, and it is used academically to calculate
transmission through machines and also has a formula.

Criticism of Shannon-Weaver’s Model of Communication

 One of the simplest models and its generally applied in various communication theories.

 The model which attracts both academics of Human communication and Information
theorist to lead their further research in communication.

 It’s more effective in person-to-person communication than in group or mass audiences.

 The model is based on "Sender and Receiver". Here, the sender plays the primary role,
and the receiver plays the secondary role (receive the information or passive).

 Communication is not a one-way process. If it continues to behave like that, it will lose
its strength. For example, an audience or receiver who is listening to the radio, reading
books or watching television is a one-way communication because of the absence of
feedback.

 Understanding Noise will help to solve the various problems in communication.

4. Osgood-Schramm’s Model

The Osgood-Schramm model is built on the theory that communication is a two-way

street, with a sender and a receiver. Charles Egerton Osgood popularized the notion that
communication was circular rather than linear, meaning that it required two participants to take
turns sending and receiving a message.

For his part, Schramm is considered one of the pioneers of the mass communication field.
He started the doctoral program in mass communication at the University of Iowa, helping
develop mass communication (television, print news, and other ways to communicate) as a
university discipline.
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It is a circular model, so the communication is circular in nature.

 Encoder: The person who does the encoding or sends the message (the source of the
message).
 Decoder: Who receives the message
 Interpreter – Person trying to understand (analyses, perceive) or interpret

Note: From the message's start to finish, there is an interpretation going on.

Based on this interpretation, only the message is received.

This model breaks the sender and receiver models. Communication seems, in a practical
way, not to be a traditional model.

It can happen within us or between two people; each person acts as both sender and
receiver and hence uses interpretation. It is simultaneously taking place, e.g., encoding,
interpreting, and decoding.

Semantic noise is a concept introduced here. It occurs when the sender and receiver apply
different meanings to the same message. It happens mostly because of words and phrases, e.g.,
technical language, so certain words and phrases will cause you to deviate from the actual
meaning of the communication.

Note: When semantic noise takes place, decoding and interpretation become difficult, and people
get distracted from the actual message.

Advantage of Osgood- Schramm Model of Communication

 Dynamic model shows how a situation can change

 It shows why redundancy is an essential part
 There is no separate sender and receiver, sender and receiver are the same person
 Assume communication to be circular in nature
 Feedback – central feature.

Disadvantage of Osgood- Schramm Model of Communication

 This model does not talk about semantic noise and it assumes the moment of encoding
and decoding.

P
7
RINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION

C’S OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

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We communicate all day long; at home, at work, with our next-door neighbor, at fast
food outlets, etc. We communicate verbally, non-verbally, in writing, and in electronic media.
Unfortunately, the message does not always come across as intended. NOISE! This can lead to
miscommunication and (small) misunderstandings or the wrong impression.

The 7 C’s of effective communication, also known as the seven principles of

communication, are a useful way to ensure good and business communication. The 7 C’s of
Effective Communication provide a useful check list as a result of which both written and verbal
communication pass off in a clear, plain, target group-oriented, and well-structured manner.

1. Completeness
The message must be complete and geared to the receiver’s perception of the word. The
message must be based on facts, and a complex message needs additional information and/or
explanation. A good subdivision of subjects will clarify the message, as a result of which
there will be a complete overview of what is said.

2. Concreteness
Concrete business communication is also about a clear message. This is often supported by
factual material such as research data and figures. The words used as well as the sentence
structure can be interpreted uni-vocally. Nothing is left to the imagination.

3. Courtesy
In addition to considering the feelings and points of view of the target group, it is also
important to approach the audience in a friendly and courteous manner. Use of terms that
show respect for the receiver contributes towards effective communication. The same goes
for the manner in which you address someone. Not everyone will be charmed if you use a
familiar form of address, and the use of a formal address could come across as too distant. By
using the word "they," a larger audience is immediately addressed.

4. Correctness
The correct use of language is preferred. In written business communication, grammatical
errors must be avoided, and stylistic lapses or the wrong use of verbs are not sufficient in
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verbal communication either. The correct use of language increases trustworthiness, and the
receiver will feel that they are being taken seriously.

5. Clarity
Clear or plain language is characterized by explicitness, short sentences, and concrete words.
Fuzzy language is absolutely forbidden, as is formal language and cliché expressions. By
avoiding parentheses and keeping to the point, the receiver will get a clear picture of the
content of the message. Briefly worded information emphasizes the essence of the message.

6. Consideration
Communicating with the target group (Consideration). In order to communicate well, it is
important to relate to the target group and be involved. By taking the audience into account,
the message can be geared towards them. Factors that play a role in this are, for example,
professional knowledge, level of education, age, and interests.

7. Conciseness
A message is clear when the storyline is consistent and when it does not contain any
inconsistencies. When facts are mentioned, it is important that there is consistent, supporting
information. Systematically implementing a certain statement or notation also contributes to
clear business communication. When statements are varied, they will confuse the receiver.

Variations throughout the Years

The 7 C’s of Effective Communication have two more variations that are often overlooked,
namely Creativity and Credibility.

1. Creativity
A text will only be lively when the words and sentence structures are used creatively and
when short sentences are alternated with longer sentences. Creativity is especially important
in texts in which search words are used. It is essential that the search words are constantly
used in a different setting.

2. Credibility
By creating an atmosphere of trust in a conversation or text, you add credibility to the
message. This can be achieved by a clear and striking "tone," which indicates that the
information you are discussing contains the right information.

Utilization of Learning
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