ME 430 Internal Combustion Engines
Engineering Fundamentals of Internal
Combustion Engines
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Fatih AKTAŞ
Gazi University
Department of Mechanical Engineering
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ME 430 Internal Combustion Engines
Lecture Notes for the Undergraduate Course
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Fatih AKTAŞ
Gazi University
Department of Mechanical Engineering
2023-2024 Spring
fatihaktas@[Link]
Office : 454
[Link]
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ME 430 – Internal Combustion Engines
Chapter 3
Air-Standart Ideal Engine
Cycles Otto/Diesel/Dual
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Fatih AKTAŞ
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Copyright © Gazi University, Permission required for reproduction or display.
CONTENTS
• Idealization of the Cycles
• Air-Standart Ideal Cycle Assumptions
• Ideal Otto Cycle
• Ideal Diesel Cycle
• Ideal Dual Cycle
• Comparison of Air-Standart Ideal Cycles
• Actual Air-Fuel Cycle Concept
• Summary
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BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN THE ANALYSIS
OF POWER CYCLES Thermal efficiency of heat engines
Most power-producing devices operate on cycles.
Ideal cycle: A cycle that resembles the actual cycle
closely but is made up totally of internally reversible
processes is called an Ideal Cycle.
Reversible cycles such as Carnot cycle have the
highest thermal efficiency of all heat engines
operating between the same temperature levels.
Unlike ideal cycles, they are unsuitable as a realistic
model.
Modeling is a
powerful
engineering tool
that provides
great insight and The analysis of many
simplicity at the complex processes can be
expense of some reduced to a manageable
loss in accuracy. level by utilizing some
idealizations 5
On a T-s diagram, the ratio of the The idealizations and simplifications in the
area enclosed by the cyclic curve to analysis of power cycles:
the area under the heat-addition 1. The cycle does not involve any friction.
process curve represents the thermal Therefore, the working fluid does not
efficiency of the cycle. Any experience any pressure drop as it flows in
modification that increases the ratio pipes or devices such as heat exchangers.
of these two areas will also increase 2. All expansion and compression processes
the thermal efficiency of the cycle. take place in a quasi-equilibrium manner.
3. The pipes connecting the various
components of a system are well insulated,
and heat transfer throughthem is negligible.
Care should be exercised On both P-v and T-s diagrams, the area enclosed
in the interpretation of the by the process curve represents the net work of the
results from ideal cycles cycle
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THE CARNOT CYCLE AND ITS
VALUE IN ENGINEERING
The Carnot cycle is composed of four totally
reversible processes: isothermal heat addition,
isentropic expansion, isothermal heat rejection, and
isentropic compression.
For both ideal and actual cycles: Thermal
efficiency increases with an increase in the average
temperature at which heat is supplied to the system
or with a decrease in the average temperature at
which heat is rejected from the system.
P-v and T-s diagrams of
A steady-flow Carnot engine a Carnot cycle
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AIR-STANDARD ASSUMPTIONS
Air-standard assumptions:
1. The working fluid is air, which
continuously circulates in a closed
loop and always behaves as an ideal
gas.
2. All the processes that make up the
cycle are internally reversible.
3. The combustion process is replaced
by a heat-addition process from an
external source.
4. The exhaust process is replaced by a
The combustion process is replaced by heat-rejection process that restores
a heat-addition process in ideal cycles. the working fluid to its initial state.
Cold-air-standard assumptions: When the working fluid is considered to
be air with constant specific heats at room temperature (25°C).
Air-standard cycle: A cycle for which the air-standard assumptions are
applicable.
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AN OVERVIEW OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES
Compression ratio
Mean effective
pressure
• Spark-ignition (SI) engines
• Compression-ignition (CI) engines
Nomenclature for reciprocating engines.
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OTTO CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES
Actual and ideal cycles in spark-ignition engines and their P-v diagrams. 10
OTTO CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES
Four-stroke cycle The two-stroke engines are
1 cycle = 4 stroke = 2 revolution generally less efficient than
their four-stroke counterparts
Two-stroke cycle
but they are relatively simple
1 cycle = 2 stroke = 1 revolution
and inexpensive, and they
have high power-to-weight
and power-to-volume ratios.
T-s
diagram
of the Schematic of a two-stroke
ideal Otto reciprocating engine.
cycle.
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OTTO CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES
In SI engines,
the
compression
ratio is limited
by
autoignition
or engine
knock.
The thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle
increases with the specific heat ratio k
of the working fluid. 12
OTTO CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES
In air-standard cycles, air is considered an ideal gas such that the following ideal
gas relationships can be used:
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OTTO CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES
In addition to these, the following variables are used in this chapter for cycle analysis:
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OTTO CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES
When analyzing what occurs within engines during the operating cycle and exhaust
flow, this text uses the following air property values:
Air flow before it enters an engine is usually closer to standard temperature, and
for these conditions a value of k=1.4 is correct. For these conditions, the following air
property values are used:
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OTTO CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES
It is common to find the Otto cycle shown with processes 6–1 and 5–6 left off the figure.
The reasoning to justify this is that these two processes cancel each other thermodynamically 16
and are not needed in analyzing the cycle.
Thermodynamic Analysis of Air-Standard Otto Cycle at WOT
Process 6-1—constant-pressure intake of air
Intake valve open and exhaust valve closed:
Process 1-2—isentropic compression stroke
All valves closed:
Process 2-3—constant-volume heat input
(combustion)
All valves closed:
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Thermodynamic Analysis of Air-Standard Otto Cycle at WOT
Process 3-4—isentropic power or expansion stroke
All valves closed:
Process 4-5—constant-volume heat rejection Process 5-6—constant-pressure exhaust
(exhaust blowdown) stroke
Exhaust valve open and intake valve closed: Exhaust valve open and intake valve closed:
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Thermodynamic Analysis of Air-Standard Otto Cycle at WOT
Thermal efficiency of Otto cycle:
Isentropic compression and expansion strokes recognizing
Rearranging the temperature terms gives
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DIESEL CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE
FOR COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES
In diesel engines, only air is compressed during the
compression stroke, eliminating the possibility of
autoignition (engine knock). Therefore, diesel engines
can be designed to operate at much higher compression
ratios than SI engines, typically between 12 and 24.
• 1-2 isentropic
compression
• 2-3 constant-
pressure heat
addition
• 3-4 isentropic
expansion
• 4-1 constant-
volume heat
rejection.
In diesel engines, the spark plug is replaced
by a fuel injector, and only air is compressed
during the compression process.
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Cutoff
ratio
for the same compression ratio
Thermal
efficiency of
the ideal Diesel
cycle as a
function of
compression
and cutoff
ratios (k=1.4)
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DIESEL CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES
The pressure at peak levels well past TDC. This combustion process is best
approximated as a constant-pressure heat input in an air-standard cycle, resulting in
the Diesel cycle 23
Thermodynamic Analysis of Air-Standard Diesel Cycle
Process 6-1—constant-pressure intake of air at
Intake valve open and exhaust valve closed:
Process 1-2—isentropic compression stroke
All valves closed:
Cutoff ratio is defined as the change in
volume that occurs during combustion,
given as a ratio:
Process 2-3—constant-pressure heat input
(combustion)
All valves closed:
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Thermodynamic Analysis of Air-Standard Diesel Cycle
Process 3-4—isentropic power or expansion stroke
All valves closed:
Process 5-6—constant-pressure exhaust
Process 4-5—constant-volume heat rejection stroke
(exhaust blowdown) Exhaust valve open and intake valve closed:
Exhaust valve open and intake valve closed:
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Thermodynamic Analysis of Air-Standard Diesel Cycle
It is found that the value of
Thermal efficiency of Diesel cycle: the term in brackets is greater
than one.
When this equation is compared with
With rearrangement, this can be shown to equal Otto thermal efficiency eqn. can be
seen that for a given compression ratio
the thermal efficiency of the Otto
cycle would be greater than the
Where; thermal efficiency of the Diesel
cycle.
Constant-volume combustion
at TDC is more efficient than constant-
Recall that the Otto thermal efficiency; pressure combustion.
However, CI engines operate with much higher
compression ratios than SI engines (12 to 24
versus 8 to 12) and thus have higher thermal
efficiencies. 26
QUESTIONS
Dual cycle: A more realistic Diesel engines operate at
ideal cycle model for modern, higher air-fuel ratios than
high-speed compression ignition gasoline engines. Why?
engine. Despite higher power to
weight ratios, two-stroke
engines are not used in
automobiles. Why?
The stationary diesel
engines are among the
most efficient power
producing devices (about
50%). Why?
What is a turbocharger?
Why are they mostly used
in diesel engines
compared to gasoline
P-v diagram of an ideal dual cycle. engines.
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DUAL CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR MODERN COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES
The air-standard cycle used to analyze this modern CI engine cycle is called a Dual cycle or
sometimes a Limited Pressure cycle. It is a Dual cycle because the heat input process of
combustion can best be approximated by a Dual process of constant volume followed by
constant pressure. It can also be considered a modified Otto cycle with a limited upper
pressure. 28
Thermodynamic Analysis of Air-Standard Dual Cycle
The analysis of an air-standard Dual cycle is the same as that of the Diesel
cycle, except for the heat input process (combustion) 2-x-3.
Process 2-x—constant-volume heat input (first part of combustion)
All valves closed:
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Thermodynamic Analysis of Air-Standard Dual Cycle
The analysis of an air-standard Dual cycle is the same as that of the Diesel
cycle, except for the heat input process (combustion) 2-x-3.
Pressure ratio is defined as the rise in pressure during combustion, given as a ratio:
Process x-3—constant-pressure heat input (second part of combustion)
All valves closed:
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Thermodynamic Analysis of Air-Standard Dual Cycle
The analysis of an air-standard Dual cycle is the same as that of the Diesel
cycle, except for the heat input process (combustion) 2-x-3.
Cutoff ratio:
Heat in:
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Thermodynamic Analysis of Air-Standard Dual Cycle
Thermal efficiency of Dual cycle:
This can be rearranged to give
Where;
Recall that the Diesel thermal efficiency;
Recall that the Otto thermal efficiency;
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COMPARISON OF OTTO, DIESEL, AND DUAL CYCLES
First compares Otto, Diesel, and Dual cycles with the same inlet conditions and the same
compression ratios
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COMPARISON OF OTTO, DIESEL, AND DUAL CYCLES
A more realistic way to compare these three cycles would be to have the same peak
pressure—an actual design limitation in engines.
Comparing the ideas, It would suggest that the most efficient engine would have combustion as close as
possible to constant volume but would be compression ignition and operate at the higher compression
ratios that are required.
This is an area where more research and development is needed.
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BASIC CYCLES OF TWO STROKE SI ENGINES
Four-Stroke Cycle. A four-stroke
cycle has four piston
movements over two engine
revolutions for each cycle.
Two-Stroke Cycle. A two-stroke
cycle has two piston movements
over one revolution for each
cycle.
(a) Power or expansion
stroke. High cylinder
pressure pushes piston from
TDC towards BDC with all
ports closed. Air in crankcase
is compressed by downward
motion of piston.
Two-stroke SI engine operating cycle with crankcase compression.
(b) Exhaust blowdown when exhaust port opens near end of power stroke.
(c) Cylinder scavenging when transfer port opens and air-fuel is forced into cylinder
under pressure. Intake mixture pushes some of the remaining exhaust out the open
exhaust port. Scavenging lasts until piston passes BDC and closes transfer and
exhaust ports.
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BASIC CYCLES OF TWO STROKE SI ENGINES
(d) Compression stroke. Piston moves
from BDC to TDC with all ports closed.
Intake air fills crankcase. Spark ignition
occurs near end of compression stroke.
(e) Combustion at almost constant volume
near TDC.
Two-stroke SI engine operating cycle with crankcase
compression.
Two-Stroke SI Engine Cycle
Intake and Scavenging when blowdown is nearly complete, at about 50° bBDC, the intake slot on the side of the cylinder is uncovered
and intake air–fuel enters under pressure. Fuel is added to the air with either a carburetor or fuel injection. This incoming mixture
pushes much of the remaining exhaust gases out the open exhaust valve and fills the cylinder with a combustible air–fuel mixture, a
process called scavenging. The piston passes BDC and very quickly covers the transfer port and then the exhaust port (or the
exhaust valve closes). The higher pressure at which the air enters the cylinder is established in one of two ways. Large two-stroke
cycle engines generally have a supercharger, while small engines will intake the air through the crankcase. On these engines the
crankcase is designed to serve as a compressor in addition to serving its normal function. 36
AIR STANDART APPROXIMATION FOR TWO STROKE SI ENGINE
Process 1-2—isentropic power or expansion stroke.
All ports (or valves) closed:
Process 2-3—exhaust blowdown.
Exhaust port open and intake port closed.
Process 3-4-5—intake, and exhaust scavenging.
Exhaust port open and transfer port open.
Intake air entering at an absolute pressure on the order
of 140–180 kPa fills and scavenges the cylinder.
Scavenging is a process in which the air pushes out
most of the remaining exhaust residual from the
previous cycle through the open exhaust port into the
exhaust system, which is at about one atmosphere
pressure. The piston uncovers the intake port at point 3,
reaches BDC at point 4, reverses direction, and again
Exhaust scavenging continues
closes the intake port at point 5. In some engines fuel is
until the exhaust port is closed at mixed with the incoming air. In other engines the fuel is
point 6. injected later, after the exhaust port is closed.
Process 5-6—exhaust scavenging.
Exhaust port open and transfer port closed. 37
AIR STANDART APPROXIMATION FOR TWO STROKE SI ENGINE
Process 6-7—isentropic compression.
All ports closed:
In some engines, fuel is added very early
in the compression process. The spark
plug is fired near the end of process 6-7.
Process 7-1—constant-volume heat input
(combustion).
All ports closed:
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AIR STANDART APPROXIMATION FOR TWO STROKE CI ENGINE
Process 7-x—constant-volume heat input
(first part of combustion).
All ports closed:
Process x-1—constant-pressure heat input
(second part of combustion).
All ports closed:
Many compression ignition engines—especially large
ones—operate on two-stroke cycles. These cycles can
be approximated by the air-standard cycle shown in Fig.
This cycle is the same as the two-stroke SI cycle except
for the fuel input and combustion process. Instead of
adding fuel to the intake air or early in the compression
process, fuel is added with injectors late in the
compression process, the same as with four-stroke cycle
CI engines. Heat input or combustion can be
approximated by a two-step (dual) process. 39
Stirling cycle STIRLING AND ERICSSON CYCLES
• 1-2 T = constant expansion (heat addition from the external source)
• 2-3 v = constant regeneration (internal heat transfer from the working fluid to the
regenerator)
• 3-4 T = constant compression (heat rejection to the external sink)
• 4-1 v = constant regeneration (internal heat transfer from the regenerator back to
the working fluid)
A regenerator is a device that
borrows energy from the working
fluid during one part of the cycle
and pays it back (without
interest) during another part.
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The Stirling and Ericsson cycles Both the Stirling and Ericsson cycles are
give a message: Regeneration totally reversible, as is the Carnot cycle,
and thus:
can increase efficiency.
The Ericsson cycle is very much like the
Stirling cycle, except that the two constant-
volume processes are replaced by two
constant-pressure processes.
The execution of the Stirling cycle. A steady-flow Ericsson engine.
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SECOND-LAW ANALYSIS OF GAS POWER CYCLES
Exergy
destruction for a
closed system
For a steady-
flow system
Steady-flow, one-inlet, one-exit
Exergy destruction of a cycle
For a cycle with heat transfer
only with a source and a sink
Closed system exergy
Stream exergy
A second-law analysis of these cycles reveals where the largest
irreversibilities occur and where to start improvements.
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Exp 1: The compression ratio of an engine running on the ideal air standard dual
cycle is 15. The maximum pressure in the cycle is 6500 kN/m2, and the
maximum temperature is 1950 K. At the start of compression, the temperature
and pressure are 27 °C and 100 kN/m2.
a) Find the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
b) Find the mean effective pressure of the cycle.
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Exp 2: In an Otto cycle with a compression ratio r=8, the pressure and
temperature at point 1 are 100 kPa and 300K, respectively. Since Ma=1 kg,
Qi=3000 kJ, find the net work and efficiency for the cycle.
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Summary
• Basic considerations in the analysis of power cycles
• The Carnot cycle and its value in engineering
• Air-standard sssumptions
• An overview of reciprocating engines
• Otto cycle: The ideal cycle for spark-ignition engines
• Diesel cycle: The ideal cycle for compression-ignition
engines
• Stirling and Ericsson cycles
• Second-law analysis of gas power cycles
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