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TEACHING METHODOLOGY LECTURE NOTES

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO TEACHING METHODOLOGY

What is a Curriculum

 Is a total guided learning experiences designed to facilitate learners learning for

establishing quality relations.
 a set of courses offered by an educational institution. It means two things: on one hand,
the curriculum defines a range of courses from which students choose, on the other hand
the curriculum is understood as a specific learning program, which describes the teaching,
learning, and assessment materials of a defined knowledge body available for a given
course.
 The courses offered by an educational institution, or a set of courses constituting an area
of specialization
 Defined as the totality of student experiences that occur in the educational process
 The learning experiences and intended outcomes formulated through systematic
reconstruction of knowledge and experience, under the auspices of the school, for the
learners’ continuous willful growth in personal-social competence” (Tanner & Taner, 1980
AU80: The in-text citation "Tanner & Taner, 1980" is not in the reference
list.
 A curriculum is a planned sequence of learning experiences
 Curriculum here refers to the content, learning experiences, materials, assessments, and
so on that students and teachers engage with to achieve prescribed educational outcomes
 Is the totality of what happens in a school setting
Importance of a curriculum

An effective curriculum provides teachers, students, administrators and community

stakeholders with:

 A measurable plan and structure for delivering a quality education.

 The curriculum identifies the learning outcomes, standards and core
competencies that students must demonstrate before advancing to the ne xt level
 A school’s curriculum informs teachers what skills must be taught at each grade
level to ultimately prepare students for postsecondary education or a job .
 An evidenced-based curriculum acts as a road map for teachers and students to
follow on the path to academic success and teachers play a key role in
developing, implementing, assessing and modifying the curriculum
 Administrators follow a detailed curriculum to help students achieve state and
national standards of academic performance
 The curriculum ensures that each school is teaching students relevant material
and monitoring the progress of students from all types of backgrounds.
 A curriculum outlines for students a sequence of courses and tasks that must be
successfully completed to master a subject and earn a diploma or degree.

 Cole (2003) defines curriculum as a policy statement about education and the ways of
realizing the policy through a programme of action.

 Oluoch (2006) explains curriculum as all that is planned to enable the student acquire and
develop desired knowledge, skills and attitudes.
  Saylor and Alexander (1974) define curriculum as a set of learning activities and
experiences for children planned by the school to attain the aims of education.

 In addition to teaching students academic skills, the curriculum is also intended

to teach students the importance of responsibility, hard work and responsible
citizenship.

 On further analysis and consolidation of the above definitions of curriculum, it can be said
that curriculum acts as a guide to the process of education. It gives lanes and boundaries to
the process of education.

Types of curriculum

Andrew (2005) identified four types of curricula, namely;

a) Official Curriculum: Which refers to a planned course of study that has been adopted by the
government e.g. Zambian Education system has a curriculum for Primary Education and
Secondary Education

It is sometimes known as the national curriculum that guides production of educational material
in a country.

b) Hidden Curriculum: Which consists of all that is learned during school activities, out of the
designated official curriculum. These includes:

– How learners should sit

– How to greet the teacher

– Role of the teacher and prefect

– How to relate with the teachers, fellow students and other people at school.
– Values such as hard work, respect, obedience, co-operation, value for others, empathy etc.

c) Observed Curriculum: refers to the curriculum that can be used in the teaching-learning
process in class. Observed curriculum may differ in terms of teaching methods and strategies
employed by the teacher in class.

d) Curriculum as experienced: which refers to children’s experience in the teaching-learning

process

Determinants of the curriculum

The following are the factors that determines the curriculum design:

 politicians,
 economy,
 technology
 Educator
 policy makers
 Certain interest groups in society.
 public
 Students
 Examination council of zambia

Process of developing a curriculum.

Hilda Taba noted seven major steps in the process of developing a curriculum.

i) Diagnosis of needs

ii) Formulation of objectives

iii) Selection of contents

iv) Organization of contents

v) Selection of learning experiences

vi) Organization of learning experiences

vii) Evaluation and means of evaluation

i) Diagnosis of needs

The teacher starts the process by identifying the needs of the students for whom the curriculum is
to be planned.

ii) Formulation of objectives.

Objectives formulation should encompass the following areas:

a) Concepts or ideas to be learned.

b) Attitudes, sensitivities, and feelings to be developed.

c) Ways of thinking to be reinforced, strengthened or initiated

d) Habits and skills to be mastered.

iii) Selection of Content

The objectives selected or created suggest the subject matter or content of the curriculum unit
subject. Subject matter should be related to the grade level of the student.

iv) Organization of Content

 A teacher cannot just select content, but must organize it in some type of sequences taking into
consideration the maturity of the learners, their academic achievement, and their interests.

v) Selection of learning experiences

Content must be presented to pupils or pupils must engage in an interaction with the content. To
select learning experiences, Taba suggests that the teacher should ask a number of questions. For
example;
a) Is the experience appropriate for learning the main ideas?

b) Does the experience promote “Active learning?”

c) Is the experience appropriate to the students’ maturity level?

Taba also felt that learning experiences should reflect a variety of experiences, including, “reading,
writing, observing, doing research, analyzing, discussing, tabulating, painting, constructing and
dramatizing.

vi) Organization of learning experiences.

Taba outlines a sequence for organizing learning experiences: –

– Introduction

– Development

– Generalization

– Application or summary

Introduction involves developing student interest and proving diagnostic evidence for the teacher.
Development or study consists learning activities that are designed to develop various aspects of
the subject and to provide needed factual material. These activities include “reading, research, and
analysis of data, committee work and study of various kinds. Generalization refers to student’s
attempts to put ideas together. E.g comparing and contrasting and exploration of the reasons for
similarities and differences. Application or summary is the stage at which the student applies
generalization to a larger framework.

vii) Evaluation and Means of Evaluation

Involves determining whether objectives have been met, diagnosis of the curriculum plan, and
assessment of any changes in student behavior.

Revision Question

1. Define the curriculum

2. Explain on the importance of the curriculum

3. Outline the seven steps that are necessary for the completion of curriculum development
according to Hilda Taba.

4. Discuss the determinants of the curriculum

Syllabus

 New Cambridge Advanced learners’ dictionary (2003) defines a syllabus as “a plan with
subjects to be studied in a course.”

 It is an outline or other brief statement of the main points of a discourse, the subjects of a
course of lecturers, the contents of a curriculum, etc.
  A syllabus can be said to be a plan with subjects to be studied in a course by a particular
group of people (learners) within a given period of time.

 The syllabus may also contain the general objective of teaching the primary or secondary
school curriculum

 However, if the curriculum changes, the syllabus must also change

Information to be obtained from the syllabus

 The objectives of each topic

 The number of periods per week for each subject

 Recommended textbooks for pupils

 The recommended teachers’ guides

 Recommended reference books

 This places the syllabus at a very important position of breaking down the curriculum for
its effective and efficient implementation.

Importance of the syllabus

To the students, it helps them to know

 The assignment

 The expectations of the course

 The assessment process and how the grading is done

  Understand the structure of the course

To the teachers, the syllabus can act as a guide and it provides them with the following
information

 The goals and objectives of a course,

 prerequisites,

 the grading/evaluation scheme,

 materials to be used (textbooks, software),

 topics to be covered,

 A schedule, and a bibliography.

The schemes of work

No teacher can effectively teach without schemes of work, worse still the syllabus and lesson
plans. Schemes of work is the candle light which guides the teacher to follow the education
curriculum designed in the society to educate its own members.

The reflective teacher has to plan a scheme of work in advance for the coverage of subject,
topics or concepts as drafted in the syllabus. It's basically the teacher's own personal plan of
what he /she intends to teach why and how will teach over a period of time.

Characteristics of good schemes of work should take into account the pupils' needs and
interests which allow plenty of activities and involvement suited to their age, experiences and
stage of cognitive development.
SCHEMES OF WORK

Definition of schemes of work

 A scheme of work is defined as the guideline that breaks down the broad topics given
in the syllabus in to a narrower, teachable units

 In other words it is the amount of materials the teacher prepares and intends to teach
during a stipulated period of time.

 It is also a guideline that defines the structure and content of an academic course.

 The scheme of work is usually an interpretation of a specification or syllabus and can

be used as a guide throughout the course to monitor progress against the original plan.

 It is also a plan made to last perhaps a term, month or just a number of weeks

 It will normally include times and dates.

 Schemes of work can be shared with students so that they have an overview of their
course.

Structure of the scheme of work

LUAPULA SIDE SECONDARY SCHOOL

SCHEMES OF WORK

NAME:…………… SUBJECT:………… GRADE:…… TERM:….… YEAR:………..

Week beginning Topic/ Detailed work to Objectives References

be done
The lesson plan

A good lesson is a vital component of the teaching learning process. Starting each lesson with
something short and interesting will going to settle the students and engage them with the
lesson. Proper class room planning will keep teachers organized and on track and help the
students to reach its implementation and helps the students to maintain focus. It is the teacher's
reflection. Planning is a complex yet essential part of the teaching process that changes overtime
as teachers gain more hands on experience.

Well sequenced lesson plans benefit both the teacher and the students. Well organized
and properly sequences lesson plan allow for a smoother functioning classroom , class room
disruptions are minimized, the stress on the teacher is reduced, and the learning environment is
optimized for students.

Objectives are also more easily tackled, class room disruptions are minimized, the stress on the
teacher is reduces and the learning environment is optimized for students.

A lesson plan is the instructor's road map of what students need to learn and how it will be done
effectively during the class time. . The daily lesson plan should detail the specific activities and
content the teacher will teach during a particular week. They usually include:

. Lesson objectives

. Procedures for delivering instructions

. Methods of assessing your students

. Material needed to carry out the lesson plan

For a good lesson it is very important always to have learning objectives in mind for
implementing important activities in the classroom. Similarly, goals are very important in
curriculum planning because they determine what the student will accomplish.

When a plan is ready teacher can focus on what is to be taught and achieved.

TEMPLETE OF A LESSON PLAN TO BE FOLLOWED

LESSON PLAN

NAME OF SCHOOL: …………………..

TEACHER:……………………………………….
SUBJECT:…………………………………………
DATE:………………………………................
CLASS:…………………………………………….
DURATION:……………………………………
No. OF STUDENTS: Females:……Males:………….
TOPIC:……………………………………………………………………………………………
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SUBTOPICS:……………………………………………………………………………………
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REFERENCES:…………………………………………………………………………………
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RATIONALE:……………………………………………………………………………………
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OBJECTIVES:……………………………………………………………………………………
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TEACHING/LEARNING MATERIALS
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PREVIOUS
KNOWLEDGE……………………………………………………………………………………
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INTRODUCTION:………………………………………………………………………………
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LESSON DEVELOPMENT

STEP TEACHER ACTIVITIES LEARNER ACTIVITIES Te

CONCLUSION
Questions (either oral or written or home
work)………………………………………………………………………………………………
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Include also a marking
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Self- evaluation
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UNIT 2: TYPES OF TEACHING METHODS

Definition:

A teaching method comprises the principles and methods used by teachers to enable
student learning. These strategies are determined partly on subject matter to be taught and partly
by the nature of the learner. For a particular teaching method to be appropriate and efficient it has
to be in relation with the characteristic of the learner and the type of learning it is supposed to bring
about. Suggestions are there to design and selection of teaching methods must take into account
not only the nature of the subject matter but also how students learn

Teaching methods, or methodology, is a narrower topic because it’s founded in theories and
educational psychology. If you have a degree in teaching, you most likely have heard of names
like Skinner, Vygotsky, Gardner, Piaget, and Bloom. If their names don’t ring a bell, you should
definitely recognize their theories that have become teaching methods. The following are the most
common teaching theories.
Behaviorism

Behaviorism is the theory that every learner is essentially a “clean slate” to start off and shaped by
emotions. People react to stimuli, reactions as well as positive and negative reinforcement, the site
states. Learning Theories names the most popular theorists who ascribed to this theory were Ivan
Pavlov, who many people may know with his experiments with dogs. He performed an experiment
with dogs that when he rang a bell, the dogs responded to the stimuli; then he applied the idea to
humans. Other popular educational theorists who were part of behaviorism was B.F. Skinner and
Albert Bandura.

Social Cognitive Theory

Social Cognitive Theory is typically spoken about at the early childhood level because it has to do
with critical thinking with the biggest concept being the idea of play, according to Edwin Peel
writing for Encyclopedia Britannica. Though Bandura and Lev Vygotsky also contributed to
cognitive theory, according to Dr. Norman Herr with California State University, the most popular
and first theorist of cognitivism is Piaget.

Constructivism

Constructivism is another theory created by Piaget which is used as a foundation for many other
educational theories and strategies because constructivism is focused on how people learn. Piaget
states in this theory that people learn from their experiences. They learn best through active
learning, connect it to their prior knowledge and then digest this information their own way. This
theory has created the ideas of student-centered learning in education versus teacher-centered
learning.

Types of teaching methods

There are different types of teaching methods which can be categorized into three broad types.
These are

 teacher-centred methods,
  learner-centred methods,
 content-focused methods
 And interactive/participative methods.

(a) Instructor/teacher centred methods

Here the teacher casts himself/herself in the role of being a master of the subject matter. The
teacher is looked upon by the learners as an expert or an authority. Learners on the other hand are
presumed to be passive and copious recipients of knowledge from the teacher. Examples of such
methods are expository or lecture methods - which require little or no involvement of learners in
the teaching process. It is also for this lack of involvement of the learners in what they are taught,
that such methods are called “closed-ended”.

(B) learner-centred methods

In learner-centred methods, the teacher/instructor is both a teacher and a learner at the same time.
In the words of Lawrence Stenhouse, the teacher plays a dual role as a learner as well “so that in
his classroom extends rather than constricts his intellectual horizons”. In Student-Centered
Approach to Learning, while teachers are the authority figure in this model, teachers and students
play an equally active role in the learning process. The teacher's primary role is to coach and
facilitate student learning and overall comprehension of material. The teacher also learns new
things everyday which he/she didn’t know in the process of teaching. The teacher, “becomes a
resource rather than an authority”. Examples of learner-centred methods are discussion method,
discovery or inquiry based approach and the Hill’s model of learning through discussion (LTD).
(c) Content-Focused Methods
In this category of methods, both the teacher and the learners have to fit into the content that is
taught. Generally, this means the information and skills to be taught are regarded as sacrosanct or
very important. A lot of emphasis is laid on the clarity and careful analyses of content. Both the
teacher and the learners cannot alter or become critical of anything to do with the content. An
example of a method which subordinates the interests of the teacher and learners to the content is
the programmed learning approach.

(d) Interactive/Participative Methods

This fourth category borrows a bit from the three other methods without necessarily laying
emphasis unduly on either the learner, content or teacher. These methods are driven by the
situational analysis of what is the most appropriate thing for us to learn/do now given the situation
of learners and the teacher. They require a participatory understanding of varied domains and
factors.

Specific Teaching Methods

We can now consider a number of specific methods which can be drawn from in the course of
classroom instruction. It is however, important to note that the choice of any form of methods
should not be arbitrary, but needs to be governed by the criteria we have already examined. At the
same time each method is not fool-proof, but has its own advantages and disadvantages. That is
why I would recommend the use of complementary methods rather than one method.

1. Lecture method

A lecture is an oral presentation of information by the instructor. It is the method of relaying factual
information which includes principles, concepts, ideas and all theoretical knowledge about a given
topic. In a lecture the instructor tells, explains, describes or relates whatever information the
trainees are required to learn through listening and understanding. It is therefore teacher-centred.
The instructor is very active, doing all the talking. Trainees on the other hand are very inactive,
doing all the listening. Despite the popularity of lectures, the lack of active involvement of trainees
limits its usefulness as a method of instruction.
The lecture method of instruction is recommended for trainees with very little knowledge or
limited background knowledge on the topic. It is also useful for presenting an organised body of
new information to the learner. To be effective in promoting learning, the lecture must involve
some discussions and, question and answer period to allow trainees to be involved actively.

Preparation and delivery of a lecture

As stated earlier, during the lecture, the trainees merely listen to the instructor. It is therefore very
important to consider the attention span of trainees when preparing a lecture. The attention span is
the period of time during which the trainees are able to pay full attention to what the instructor is
talking about. It is estimated to be 15-25 minutes only. It is difficult to hold the trainees attention
for a long period of time and careful preparation of lectures is very necessary.

The instructor should have a clear, logical plan of presentation. He/she should work out the
essentials of the topic, organise them according to priorities and logical connections, and establish
relationships between the various items. Careful organisation of content helps the trainees to
structure and hence, to store or remember it. When developing a theme in a lecture, the instructor
should use a variety of approaches. A useful principle in any instruction is to go from
the known to unknown; from simple to complex, or from parts to a whole.

Knowing the trainees and addressing their needs and interests is very important. For example, in
explaining technical processes the instructor should search for illustrations that will be familiar to
the trainees. Unfamiliar technical words should be introduced cautiously. New terminologies
should be defined and explained and examples given.

In order to gain and focus the attention of trainees, the instructor should be adequately prepared,
fluent in his/her presentation and should use various teaching aids and illustrations such as charts,
transparencies, codes and even the real objects during presentation. Question and answer periods
should be included in the lecture.

Qualities of a good lecture

1. A good lecture should not be too long as to exceed the trainees attention span (up to 25 minutes).
2. A good lecture should address a single theme.

3. In a good lecture technical terms are carefully explained.

4. Familiar examples and analogies are given.

5. A good lecture establishes fluency in technical content.

6. A good lecture uses illustrations and examples.

7. A good lecture builds on existing knowledge.

8. A good lecture employs a variety of approaches.

2. The discussion method

Discussion involves two-way communication between participants. In the classroom situation an

instructor and trainees all participate in discussion. During discussion, the instructor spends some
time listening while the trainees spend sometimes talking. The discussion is, therefore, a more
active learning experience for the trainees than the lecture.

A discussion is the means by which people share experiences, ideas and attitudes. As it helps to
foster trainees involvement in what they are learning, it may contribute to desired attitudinal
changes. Discussion may be used in the classroom for the purpose of lesson development, making
trainees apply what they have learnt or to monitor trainees learning by way of feedback.

Lesson development

In areas in which trainees already have some knowledge or experience, discussion may be used to
develop the main points to be covered in a lesson. For example, in safety training many of the
procedures and behaviour that should be observed can be established through discussion with
trainees. Trainees can draw on their experience of working in workshops contract sites to
contribute to the discussion. In discussing some issues, differences of opinion arise. The discussion
can help to clarify the different points of view and may assist each trainee to define his or her own
opinion. Used in this way, discussion may be more effective in motivating trainees than lectures.
Trainees can see that some importance is attached to their contributions.

Application

Discussion may also be used, following a lecture or demonstration, to help trainees apply what
they have learned. The instructor can ask questions, that help trainees to relate concepts and
principles to contexts that are familiar to the trainees or in which they will ultimately be needed.
For example following a lecture on “types of wood joint”, the instructor may, lead a discussion
directing trainees attention to the places or pieces of furniture where each type is found, and the
reasons for using one type than the other. Used in this way discussion contributes to the transfer
of learning.

Feedback

The discussion method also provides an opportunity to monitor trainees learning. The answers
provided by trainees and the questions they ask, reveal the extent and quality of learning taking
place. Instructors can use this information to repeat or modify an explanation to improve learning.
They can also provide feedback to trainees, thereby helping to reinforce learning that has taken
place. Discussion used in this way should follow after other methods of classroom instruction such
as lectures, demonstration or practice sessions.

Conducting a discussion

Discussion sessions can be led by the instructor, or can take place in groups. In either case, the
goal is to meet the lesson objectives by allowing the trainees to:-

A) Relate relevant personal experiences or events which have occurred in the work setting.

B) Contribute ideas or personal opinions.

C) Apply what has been learned to familiar situations or solving problems.

D) Express what had been learned?

Whether the discussion is instructor led or takes place in groups it must be guided by the instructor.
It must be focused on the objectives of the lesson: it is the instructor’s responsibility to see that the
objectives are met. If it is not properly guided, a discussion can degenerate into a consideration of
inappropriate or unimportant topics adding confusion rather than clarification to the lesson.

3. The demonstration lesson

“the most effective way to teach an occupational skill is to demonstrate it... One of the two most
essential teaching skills is the ability to demonstrate; the other is the ability to explain. Both are
vital to the success of either an operation lesson or an information lesson”. Weaver and cencil
in applied teaching techniques.

Definition

Demonstration means any planned performance of an occupation skill, scientific principle or

experiment.

Teacher preparation

1. Rehearse your presentation in advance of the lesson.

2. Anticipate any difficult steps, possible interruptions e.t.c.

3. Obtain all materials, tools, equipment, visual and teaching aids in advance and check their useful
condition.
4. Have all materials within reach and conveniently arranged.

5. Time the demonstration not to exceed 15 minutes.

6. Remove all extraneous materials; check lighting, visibility, student grouping, and proximity to
electric, gas and water outlets.

7. Plan to use a skill or method to advantage; work from simple to complex, one step at a time.

Presentation

1. Make sure all students can see and hear the lesson.

2. Be enthusiastic, professional, effective but not dramatic.

3. Relax; use any mishaps or humour to your advantage.

4. Observe all safety rules and procedures.

5. Keep eye-contact with the class; ask and encourage class questions.

6. Explain why and how: use the techniques of show and tell.

7. Use a medial summary to strengthen your explanation.

Precautions

1. Avoid interruptions; keep demonstration smooth and continuous.

2. Never demonstrate on a student’s material.

3. Work towards one aim.

4. Allow time for possible student participation.

Carrying out a demonstration

1. Give a good performance. Remember that the trainees learn by your good example.

2. Explain each step or process as you proceed. Follow your lesson plan.

3. Make sure the trainees see the demonstration from the angle they will perform it themselves.

4. Be sure everyone can see and hear. Maintain eye contact.

5. Emphasise key points, and if possible prepare before hand ask key questions as you go along
and allow trainees to ask questions.

6. Observe all safety rules, precautions and procedures; and emphasise them.

7. Use proper instructions, aids such as chalkboard, charts, handouts e.t.c. To support your
demonstration.

8. Provide for trainees participation where possible, during and after demonstration.

9. Demonstrate the correct way only. First impressions are important, therefore, make them correct
ones.

10. Always summarise the steps and emphasise key points again.

After demonstration

1. Return all items used during demonstration to their storage places.

2. Make arrangements to have the trainees practice the skill as soon as possible in a practical class
session.

3. Observe and analyse trainee(s) performance and correct mistakes.

4. Offer reinforcement where necessary.

5. Coach weak or slow trainees.

6. Check trainee’s completed work for accurate performance and record.

7. Allow sufficient time interval before demonstrating another operation.

4. Buzz groups

Another method of instruction is the buzz group. During a longer session, the plenary group can
break into sub-groups to discuss one or two specific questions or issues. The room soon fills with
noise as each sub-group ‘buzzes’ in discussion. If appropriate, after the discussion one member of
each group can report its findings back to the plenary. Buzz groups can be in pairs, trios, or more
depending on the activity. People turn to their neighbours for a quick buzz, or form larger groups
of three or more. This allows almost every one to express an opinion. While they are buzzing,
participants are able to exchange ideas and draw on their wide collective experience. It may
provide a good opportunity for trainees to reflect on the content of a lecture. A good buzz session
will generate many ideas, comments and opinion, the most important of which will be reported
back.

Buzz groups help trainers as they allow you to:

- draw your breath

- gauge the mood, by listening to some of the discussions

- change pace of the session

- encourage participants to reflect on what they have learnt and how they might apply it in their
work.
Disadvantages

The main obstacle using buzz sessions lie in unfamiliarity with their use, the time required, the
need for leaders or facilitators within each sub-group, and the need to have tables and chairs
arranged for quick and easy discussion.

5. Brainstorming

The purpose of a brainstorming session is to discover new ideas and responses very quickly. It is
particularly a good way of getting bright ideas. It differs from the buzz groups discussion in that
the focus is on generating as many ideas as possible without judging them. In this technique, all
ideas are given equal credence.

Participants are encouraged to let ideas flow freely, building on and improving from previous
ideas. No idea, however crazy, should be rejected. These ideas are listed exactly as they are
expressed on a board or flipchart, or written on bits of paper. The combination of swiftly generated
ideas usually leads to a very animated and energizing session. Even the more reserved participants
should feel bold enough to contribute. The purpose of listing responses is to collect existing
experiences and thoughts.

It is useful to collect answers to questions when you expect much repetition in the responses.

After a brainstorm session, the ideas can be discussed further and evaluated, for example listing
the best options in a systematic way. Ideas can be grouped and analyzed so that they belong to the
group rather than individuals. Unlike a buzz session, a brainstorm session can work well with a
large group and usually takes less time. It is best to limit the time for plenary brainstorms, as you
might lose the attention of some participants.
6. Role plays

In role plays, participants use their own experiences to play a real life situation. When done well,
role plays increase the participant’s self-confidence, give them the opportunity to understand or
even feel empathy for other people’s viewpoints or roles, and usually end with practical answers,
solutions or guidelines.

Role plays are useful for exploring and improving interviewing techniques and examining the
complexities and potential conflicts of group meetings. They help participants to consolidate
different lessons in one setting and are good energisers.

However, role plays can be time-consuming and their success depends on the willingness of
participants to take active part. Some trainees may feel a role play is too exposing, threatening or
embarrassing. This reluctance may be overcome at the outset by careful explanation of the
objectives and the outcome. Some role plays can generate strong emotions amongst the
participants. It is therefore essential that a role play is followed by a thorough debriefing. This
provides the opportunity for the trainer and the participants to raise and
 Activity
1. Critically discuss on lecture and discussion method
2. Differentiate between teacher centred and learner centred teaching teachniques

UNIT 3: TEACHING/LEARNING RESOURCES

Introduction

 Learning is complex and requires the involvement of multiple factors and that these factors
together occurs in the classroom environment is particularly important and sensitive.
 The fundamental factors involved in the learning process in the classroom, include the state of
physical, emotional, and personality of the teacher, the content of training, etiquette training,
teaching space and teaching aids.
 Among these factors, as the theory and practice of teaching aids coordinates special place. Use
by the teacher of teaching aids, makes the material presented in a cognitive structure that suits
the learners (Ahadi, 1985).
What Are Learning Resources?
For many people, the words educational materials invoke images of large, print, classroom
textbooks with small type, outdated information, and content that covers the breadth but not depth
of a subject. But learning resources are more than that. They are any tool that helps teachers teach
and students learn.

Learning resources include:

Textbooks (print and digital) Apps

chalk board Websites Study guides
Workbooks Software Teacher guides
Worksheets Online courses Labs
Manipulative (blocks, beads, etc.) Activity books Models
Flashcards Graphic novels Movies
Educator workshops Reference books Televisions shows
Non-fiction books DVDs Webcasts
Posters/charts CDs Podcasts
Educational games Magazines & periodicals Maps & atlases

However, learning resources are also called teaching aids. A teaching aid is an object such as a
book, picture, or device used by a teacher to enhance or enliven classroom instruction.
 Teaching aids are classified into three and these are, audio aids, visual aids and audio visual aids
(these combine both vision and hearing senses and always give a more vivid picture examples are
films).
 The process of teaching and learning largely depends on the available of these teaching materials and
today there are a wide range of teaching aids and these include visual aids like the blackboard, realia
or pictures; audio aids like cassette tapes or CDs; and audio visual aids such as video tapes and so on”.
And even the teacher is also a source of visual aids (The Role and Importance of Teaching Aids for
Nigerian Teachers 2012).
 Teaching aids for formal learning must also consider reading, language, developmental, and
ability levels; and must include qualitative and quantitative assessment; and contain
comprehensive teacher guides.

 In addition, teaching aids must be accurate, evidence-based, objective-driven, and designed to

engage today’s students and teachers as well as aligned to state, district, and curriculum standards.
Informal learning resources must still adhere to quality content and design standards as well as
providing a meaningful education experience.

Uses of teaching aids

 Teaching aids prove to be a formidable supplement for teachers when the

reinforcement of a skill or concept is necessary.

 Not only do they allow students more time to practice, but they also present the
information in a way which offers students a different way to engage with the
material. Of course, this is important in order to reach the various learning types
in the class.
 Teaching aids are also help the teachers explain better knowledge and help the students
understand. It is like the picture of the lesson and it is also a tool that is used by the teacher to
present new language.
 It can also be used to stimulate students or relieve anxiety, fears or boredom since many teaching
aids are like games.
 Teaching aids are also an integral component in any classroom. The many
benefits of teaching aids include helping learners improve reading
comprehension skills, illustrating or reinforcing a skill or concept, differentiating
instruction and relieving anxiety or boredom by pres enting information in a new
and exciting way.

 Teaching aids also engage students’ other senses since there are no limits in
what aids can be utilized when supplementing a lesson

 .Psychologists say that, what We Hear We Know but What We See We Remember:
therefore individuals are prone to forgetfulness and hold on more to memories of
things they have seen than heard. When an audio visual aid is correctly used it will
help in retention of the acquired knowledge and this is what even an experienced
teacher wants (Ahadi 1985).

 Motivation is almost everything in teaching and learning process, every individual

whether teen or adult is more attentive to practical knowledge, the use of teaching
aids can motivate and capture the students’ interest in what you are teaching.

 Teaching aids also prompts reasoning and this is a good example or conceptual
thinking. A good example is the use of cylinders and pyramids in teaching
mathematics

 Teaching aids reduces the workload of explanation on the teacher and gives a
more permanent knowledge (MOE NY).
  It also provides a more direct experience for the students. A student may have
seen an object without knowing its name or use, the teacher will teach on that
same subject but they just won’t get it, that’s where the aid comes in to remind
them and you will hear things like ‘okay!’ ‘We know it!’.

 Teaching aids also gives each learner the opportunity to interact with the content
in a way which allows them to comprehend more easily as well as helping teachers
to close the gap and hone the reading comprehension skills of their students

Qualities of a good chart

 A good chart must be kept simple and neat. Use easy-to-read graphics and clear
organization. Don’t allow distracting, irrelevant details or stray marks, such as arrows or
overemphatic use of underlining.
 A good chart must have simple pictures to complement the words. The more ways students
can access information about a subject, the better.
  A good chart must bring lessons to life.
 In a scholastic setting, a chart must have educational merit - enough substance and content
to develop skills of students (as per curricular objectives
 A chart should be thoughtful and creative. There should be a blend of the familiar and new.
 A well-crafted chart has contrast in textures, densities, colors, dynamics, and energies.
 A chart should not become stagnant. It must not stall out. The chart must remain alive and
keep heading somewhere with conviction
 A good chart “connects” with the teacher and the audience. It generates a human
responsiveness through aesthetic influence.
 A good chart has something unique and appealing about itself that distinguishes it from the
rest. It is memorable and wears well, ultimately becoming time-honored.
 A good chart must not be crowed.
 It should also have an even margin.
 A good chart must have work which is well centred.

The black board

A blackboard (also known as a chalkboard) is a reusable writing surface on which text or

drawings are made with sticks of calcium sulfate or calcium carbonate, known, when used for this
purpose, as chalk. Blackboards were originally made of smooth, thin sheets of black or dark
grey slate stone.

A blackboard can simply be a board painted with matte dark paint (usually black, occasionally
dark green). Matte black plastic sign material (known as ‘closed-cell PVC foamboard’) is also
used to create custom chalkboard art. A more modern variation consists of a coiled sheet of plastic
drawn across two parallel rollers, which can be scrolled to create additional writing space while
saving what has been written. The highest grade blackboards are made of a rougher version
porcelain enameled steel (black, green, blue or sometimes other colours). Porcelain is very hard
wearing and blackboards made of porcelain usually last 10–20 years in intensive use.

There are thousands of ways. Chalkboards are great! Here are 4:

 1. Use it to entice: have something intriguing up on the board when the students enter the
classroom, to grab their attention and get them thinking.
2. Use it to play: since you can erase it so easily, it’s a great space for you and your students
to be silly and fun and crazy and creative for a while.
3. Use it to remind: a small note written at the top corner can be a helpful reminder for
more “absent-minded” students.
4. Use it to review: jot down a few key numbers and words, seemingly randomly, but that
you know the students will encounter during the lesson today. Then at the very end, have
the students say what each one is important for before you erase each one from the board

Advantages

As compared to whiteboards, blackboards still have a variety of advantages:

 Chalk requires no special care; whiteboard markers must be capped or else they will dry out.
 Chalk is an order of magnitude cheaper than whiteboard markers for a comparable amount of
writing.
 It is easier to draw lines of different weights and thicknesses with chalk than with whiteboard
markers.
 Dashed lines can be drawn very quickly using a technique involving the friction of the chalk
(or chalk marker) and blackboard.
 Chalk has a mild smell, whereas whiteboard markers often have a pungent odor.
 Chalk writing often provides better contrast than whiteboard markers.
 Chalk can be easily erased; writing which has been left on a whiteboard for a prolonged period
may require a solvent to remove.
 Chalk can be easily removed from most clothing; whiteboard markers often permanently stain
fabric, wood (wood frame), etc..
 Chalk is mostly biodegradable, whereas most plastic recyclers will not take whiteboard
markers.
Other advantages include;
Here are other reasons why chalkboards still matter in the classroom.

Accessibility: In many developing countries, chalkboards far outnumber whiteboards because

they are easier to access. Vipin Makkar, regional manager for PolyVision in India, says, “India is
one of the major markets for chalk surfaces in the region. They are very popular in education
segments because the running cost of chalkboards is much less expensive compared to
markerboards or glass boards. Chalk is also less expensive than markers.”
Penmanship: Many believe that penmanship is superior on a chalkboard. Chalkboards are often
sold with lines for this very purpose, especially when students are just learning to write.
Penmanship also holds more importance in certain languages. Japanese, Chinese and Korean are
all examples of languages where the characters are intricate, and penmanship is part of the
expression of the word. Chi Kin Tam, a regional sales manager for PolyVision in Hong Kong, says
this is a main reason why educators still use chalkboards in the classroom. “Another key reason
for preferring chalk in Chinese market is that we think chalk is a better way to present the Chinese
calligraphy. The Chinese characters are much thicker and writing with chalk is a closer
representation of traditional writing with a brush.”

Tactile Nature: Chalk feels more like a pen or pencil when writing. For that reason, many
educators prefer writing with chalk versus markers. Makkar notes that this is one reason why
teachers in India use chalkboards. “Teachers in schools prefer to write with chalk because of
writing experience and feel.” Also the scrape of an underline and tapping the chalk on the board
add emphasis to specific points

Nostalgia: For many, the thought of a chalkboard conjures up a classic university setting, where
the wall is full of knowledge, from math formulas to philosophical theories. This nostalgia for
days past is what keeps many professors using chalkboards. It’s the way they learned, and it’s the
way they prefer to teach. Professors at the School of Mines & Technology in South Dakotaare
fighting to keep their chalkboards while the school undergoes a renovation for this very reason.
For those that value this nod to yesteryear in the classroom, chalkboards add an emotional aspect
to teaching.
Disadvantages

On the other hand, chalk produces dust, the amount depending on the quality of chalk used. Some
people find this uncomfortable or may be allergic to it, and according to the American Academy
of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology (AAAAI), there are links between chalk dust and allergy and
asthma problems.[3] The dust also precludes the use of chalk in areas shared with dust-sensitive
equipment such as computers. The writing on blackboards is difficult to read in the dark. Chalk
sticks shrink through use, and are notorious for breaking in half unless inserted in a writing
utensil designed for chalk.

The scratching of fingernails on a blackboard, as well as other pointed, especially metal objects
against blackboards, produces a sound that is well known for being extremely irritating to most
people. According to a study run by Michael Oehler, a professor at the University of Media and
Communication in Cologne, Germany, humans are "predisposed to detest" the sound of nails on a
blackboard.[4] The findings of the study were presented at the Acoustical Society of
America conference and support earlier findings from a 1986 study by Vanderbilt
psychologist Randolph Blake and two colleagues found that the sound of nails on a chalkboard
annoyed people even when the high-pitch frequencies were removed. The study earned Blake a
2006 Ig Nobel Prize

However, we should acknowledge that students can’t learn from one type of instructional material
alone and believe that it’s the educators, parents, and administrators who can best determine what
content will be effective for learners. Supplemental resources help teachers differentiate
instruction and engage students who, for whatever reason, need enrichment beyond the core
classroom material. No matter which materials are used, though, parents and educators should hold
all instructional content providers accountable for the quality of their learning resources.

Furthermore, though teaching aids are important in the teaching and learning process, it is important to
also know that wrong usage of teaching aids can confuse as well as irritate students causing them to
lose interest. Therefore to make teaching aids more beneficial, both experienced and unexperienced
teachers should know the right aid and use them correctly if they are to achieve the objectives by the
end of the lesson (International Academic Journal of Social Sciences 2015).
 In conclusion, it is important to know that the use of teaching aids allows students to learn using all their
senses. And since 75% of learning is learned by sight and vision, this result in many teachers using audio
visual teaching aids. However one reason why the number of teachers do not use teaching aids is to think
that the purpose of teaching aids vehicles only to train students with the aim of teaching aids that are
already made. But this idea is wrong, because the disposal of surplus equipment can be a teaching aid that
can make the teacher reach the desired goals. Therefore, no teacher should teach, especially in the early
years of primary school without a teaching aid.

Activity

discuDiscuss the assertion which say that some experienced teachers say that they can teach

very well without any teaching aid.

Unit 4: Learning objectives

What Are Learning Objectives?

 A learning objective should describe what students should know or be able to do at the end
of the course that they couldn't do before
 Learning objectives define learning outcomes and focus teaching. They help to clarify,
organize and prioritize learning. They help you and your students evaluate progress and
encourage them to take responsibility for their learning.
 Learning objectives should be brief, clear, specific statements of what learners will be able
to do at the end of a lesson as a result of the activities, teaching and learning that has taken
place. They are sometimes called learning outcomes.
  The Learning objective or objectives that you use can be based on three areas of learning,
thus; knowledge, skills and attitudes.

What is the difference between an aim and a learning objective?

 A lesson aim is a very general statement of what the overall goal is in a lesson – the
intention behind the teaching.
 The lesson objective/objectives are the measurable stages that a learner will go through
and need to achieve in order to achieve the overall goal.
 Aims are like strategy, objective are like tactics

What do I include in learning objectives?

Well-written learning objectives include these three elements:

1. Condition - the condition under which the student will perform the described
behavior

2. Behavior - a description of a specific, observable behavior

3. Degree - the degree indicates the desired level or degree of acceptable performance

How do you write aims and learning objectives?

 As part of your planning you need to decide what your students need to be able to DO after
they have learned something that you have taught.
 Beginning your planning with the learning objectives will also help you ensure that your
tasks and activities are appropriate and will help your students achieve their objectives.
 A learning objective must not include the phrases 'to know' or 'to understand' but instead
active verbs such as 'state', 'explain', 'outline', 'list' or 'describe'. Avoid using verbs that are
difficult to measure objectively.
 The following verbs are difficult to assess and measure and therefore should be used with
caution: Know, comprehend, understand, appreciate, familiarize, study, be aware, become
acquainted with, gain knowledge of, cover, learn, realize Know and understand do not
specify any overt 'doing' and although knowing and understanding underpin learning,
  Objectives are always written using active doing verbs. They are statements of what you
want your learners to do and should be stated clearly e.g define or describe an action are
*measurable, in terms of time, space, amount, and/or frequency.
 Other Examples of Measurable Action Words (examples) include Explain, Demonstrate,
Analyze, Formulate, Discuss, Compare, Differentiate, Describe, Name, Assess, Evaluate,
Identify and Design.

Writing Learning Objectives correctly – checklist!:

 Does the learning objective reflect a step in achieving an overall lesson aim? It is
objective?

 Do your lesson activities ensure that students will achieve their objective and your overall
aim?

 Is the learning objective measurable?

 Is the learning objective student-centred?

 Have you used effective, action verb that targets the desired level of performance?

More examples of Learning Outcomes

 Good learning outcomes are focused on what the learner will know or be able to do by the
end of a defined period of time and indicate how that knowledge or skill will be
demonstrated.

 Upon completing this assignment, students will be able to provide accurate diagrams of
cells and be able to classify cells from microscopic images.

 By the end of this course, students will be able to identify and develop data collection
instruments and measures for planning and conducting sociological research.

 By the end of this workshop, participants will be able to identify and classify their spending
habits and prepare a personal budget.
Learning outcomes should use specific language, and should clearly indicate expectations for
student performance.

Activity
In groups choose a topic and formulate at least three objectives
The formulation of objectives is guided by Blooms Taxonomy
Bloom's taxonomy

Introduction and a Brief History of Bloom’s Taxonomy Revisions

Bloom’s Taxonomy was created by Benjamin Bloom in 1956, published as a kind of classification
of learning outcomes and objectives that have, in the more than half-century since, been used for
everything from framing digital tasks and evaluating apps to writing questions and assessments.
The original sequence of cognitive skills was Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis,
Synthesis, and Evaluation. The framework was revised in 2001 by Lorin Anderson and David
Krathwohl, yielding the revised Bloom’s Taxonomy. The most complex or demanding cognitive
skill–or at least represents a kind of pinnacle for cognitive tasks The most significant change was
the removal of ‘Synthesis’ and the addition of ‘Creation’ as the highest-level of Bloom’s
Taxonomy. And being at the highest level, the implication is that it’s the most complex or
demanding cognitive skill–or at least represents a kind of pinnacle for cognitive tasks.

Definition
In one sentence, Bloom’s Taxonomy is a hierarchical ordering of cognitive skills that can,
among countless other uses, help teachers teach and students learn.

Original Bloom’s Taxonomy

Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy

Bloom's taxonomy is a set of three hierarchical models used to classify educational learning
objectives into levels of complexity and specificity. The three lists cover the learning objectives in

 Cognitive,

 Affective

 And sensory domains.

The cognitive domain list has been the primary focus of most traditional education and is
frequently used to structure curriculum learning objectives, assessments and activities.

The cognitive domain (knowledge-based)

In the original version of the taxonomy, the cognitive domain is broken into the following six
levels of objectives. In the 2001 revised edition of Bloom's taxonomy, the levels are slightly
different: Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate, Create (rather than Synthesize).

Knowledge

Knowledge involves recognizing or remembering facts, terms, basic concepts, or answers without
necessarily understanding what they mean. Its characteristics may include:

 Knowledge of specifics—terminology, specific facts

 Knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics—conventions, trends and sequences,
classifications and categories, criteria, methodology
 Knowledge of the universals and abstractions in a field—principles and generalizations,
theories and structures

Example: Name three common varieties of apple.

Comprehension

Comprehension involves demonstrating an understanding of facts and ideas by organizing,

comparing, translating, interpreting, giving descriptions, and stating the main ideas.

Example: Compare the identifying characteristics of a Golden Delicious apple with a Granny
Smith apple.
Application

Application involves using acquired knowledge—solving problems in new situations by applying

acquired knowledge, facts, techniques and rules. Learners should be able to use prior knowledge
to solve problems, identify connections and relationships and how they apply in new situations.

Example: Would apples prevent scurvy, a disease caused by a deficiency in vitamin C?

Analysis

Analysis involves examining and breaking information into component parts, determining how the
parts relate to one another, identifying motives or causes, making inferences, and finding evidence
to support generalizations. Its characteristics include:

 Analysis of elements
 Analysis of relationships
 Analysis of organization

Example: List four ways of serving foods made with apples and explain which ones have the
highest health benefits. Provide references to support your statements.

Synthesis

Synthesis involves building a structure or pattern from diverse elements; it also refers to the act of
putting parts together to form a whole. Its characteristics include:

 Production of a unique communication

 Production of a plan, or proposed set of operations
 Derivation of a set of abstract relations

Example: Convert an "unhealthy" recipe for apple pie to a "healthy" recipe by replacing your
choice of ingredients. Explain the health benefits of using the ingredients you chose vs. the original
ones.

Evaluation

Evaluation involves presenting and defending opinions by making judgments about information,
the validity of ideas, or quality of work based on a set of criteria. Its characteristics include:
 Judgments in terms of internal evidence
 Judgments in terms of external criteria

Example: Which kinds of apples are best for baking a pie, and why?

The student at this level tries to build abstract knowledge.

The psychomotor domain (action-based)

Skills in the psychomotor domain describe The affective domain (emotion-based)

Skills in the affective domain describe the way people react emotionally and their ability to feel
other living things' pain or joy. Affective objectives typically target the awareness and growth
in attitudes, emotion, and feelings.

There are five levels in the affective domain moving through the lowest-order processes to the
highest.

Receiving

The lowest level; the student passively pays attention. Without this level, no learning can occur.
Receiving is about the student's memory and recognition as well.

Responding

The student actively participates in the learning process, not only attends to a stimulus; the student
also reacts in some way.

Valuing

The student attaches a value to an object, phenomenon, or piece of information. The student
associates a value or some values to the knowledge they acquired.

Organizing

The student can put together different values, information, and ideas, and can accommodate them
within his/her own schema; the student is comparing, relating and elaborating on what has been
learned.
Characterizing

the ability to physically manipulate a tool or instrument like a hand or a hammer. Psychomotor
objectives usually focus on change and/or development in behavior and/or skills.

Bloom and his colleagues never created subcategories for skills in the psychomotor domain, but
since then other educators have created their own psychomotor taxonomies. Simpson
(1972) proposed the following levels:

Perception

The ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity: This ranges from sensory stimulation,
through cue selection, to translation.

Examples: Detects non-verbal communication cues. Estimate where a ball will land after it is
thrown and then moving to the correct location to catch the ball. Adjusts heat of the stove to correct
temperature by smell and taste of food. Adjusts the height of the forks on a forklift by comparing
where the forks are in relation to the pallet.

Key words: chooses, describes, detects, differentiates, distinguishes, identifies, isolates, relates,
selects.

Set

Readiness to act: It includes mental, physical, and emotional sets. These three sets are dispositions
that predetermine a person's response to different situations (sometimes called mindsets). This
subdivision of psychomotor is closely related with the "responding to phenomena" subdivision of
the affective domain.

Examples: Knows and acts upon a sequence of steps in a manufacturing process. Recognizes his
or her abilities and limitations. Shows desire to learn a new process (motivation).

Keywords: begins, displays, explains, moves, proceeds, reacts, shows, states, volunteers.

Guided response

The early stages of learning a complex skill that includes imitation and trial and error: Adequacy
of performance is achieved by practicing.
Examples: Performs a mathematical equation as demonstrated. Follows instructions to build a
model. Responds to hand-signals of the instructor while learning to operate a forklift.

Keywords: copies, traces, follows, react, reproduce, responds.

Mechanism

The intermediate stage in learning a complex skill: Learned responses have become habitual and
the movements can be performed with some confidence and proficiency.

Examples: Use a personal computer. Repair a leaking tap. Drive a car.

Key words: assembles, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats,
manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches.

Complex overt response

The skillful performance of motor acts that involve complex movement patterns: Proficiency is
indicated by a quick, accurate, and highly coordinated performance, requiring a minimum of
energy. This category includes performing without hesitation and automatic performance. For
example, players will often utter sounds of satisfaction or expletives as soon as they hit a tennis
ball or throw a football because they can tell by the feel of the act what the result will produce.

Examples: Maneuvers a car into a tight parallel parking spot. Operates a computer quickly and
accurately. Displays competence while playing the piano.

Key words: assembles, builds, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds,
heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches. (Note: The key words are the
same as in mechanism, but will have adverbs or adjectives that indicate that the performance is
quicker, better, more accurate, etc.)

Adaptation

Skills are well developed and the individual can modify movement patterns to fit special
requirements.

Examples: Responds effectively to unexpected experiences. Modifies instruction to meet the needs
of the learners. Performs a task with a machine that was not originally intended for that purpose
(the machine is not damaged and there is no danger in performing the new task).
Key words: adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, reorganizes, revises, varies.

Origination

Creating new movement patterns to fit a particular situation or specific problem: Learning
outcomes emphasize creativity based upon highly developed skills.

Examples: Constructs a new set or pattern of movements organized around a novel concept or
theory. Develops a new and comprehensive training program. Creates a new gymnastic routine.

Key words: arranges, builds, combines, composes, constructs, creates, designs, initiate, makes,
originates.

How Bloom’s Taxonomy is useful to Teachers

 Many educators love Bloom’s because, among other virtues, it gives them a way to think
about their teaching and the subsequent learning of their students.
 The framework can also be used to create assessments, evaluate the complexity of
assignments, increase the rigor of a lesson, and simplify an activity to help personalize
learning, design a summative assessment, plan project-based learning, frame a group
discussion, and more. Because it simply provides an order for cognitive behaviors, it can
be applied to almost anything.
 Bloom's taxonomy serves as the backbone of many teaching philosophies, in particular,
those that lean more towards skills rather than content. These educators view content as a
vessel for teaching skills. The emphasis on higher-order thinking inherent in such
philosophies is based on the top levels of the taxonomy including analysis, evaluation,
synthesis and creation.
 Bloom's taxonomy can be used as a teaching tool to help balance assessment and evaluative
questions in class, assignments and texts to ensure all orders of thinking are exercised in
students' learning, including aspects of information searching.
 Bloom’s Taxonomy can be used to:
i. plan lessons
ii. design curriculum maps
iii. develop online courses
iv. plan project-based learning
 v. self-assessment

Furthermore, Bloom suggests that pupils need to have knowledge before they can understand it
and that they need to understand it before they can apply it in different contexts. They need to be
able to handle these "lower order" skills (knowledge, comprehension, application) before they
can analyses and criticize. This is necessary before they can combine different kinds of
knowledge to create new understandings, (synthesis) after which they can then move on to
evaluate, the "highest" order. Moving between these stages demands increasingly complex
thinking by the learner.

There may well be exceptions to this, but Bloom's is helpful when scaffolding questions. If pupils
cannot answer questions of a specific type, the teacher can lower the order to take them back to
what they can do, then build it up again.

Try to use the steps in the taxonomy to plan sequences of questions in a lesson or to plan objectives
for lessons over a period of time to make sure they are making increasingly challenging cognitive
demands on pupils.

Activity

1. Critically discuss the three levels of Blooms taxonomy thus, cognitive domain,
affective domain and psychomotor domain
2. Explain how Blooms Taxonomy is useful to teachers
Unit 5: Questioning (refer also to handout)
Introduction

Questioning is the key means by which teachers find out what pupils already know, identify gaps
in knowledge and understanding and scaffold the development of their understanding to enable
them to close the gap between what they currently know and the learning goals.

Questions are the most common form of interaction between pupils and teachers, yet research
suggests that the majority are recall and comprehension - lower order questions which do not
require pupils to actively process information. It is only in active processing that the pupil achieves
deep level learning. In order to raise pupils' levels of achievement they therefore need regular
practice in higher order thinking - analysing, synthesising and evaluating. Focusing on the kinds
of questions we ask in classrooms and the strategies we use can help us achieve this.

Questions serve a number of essential purposes. For example they:

 Give immediate feedback on pupils’ understanding, which can then be used by the teacher
to modify the teaching.
 Help pupils to develop their thinking from the lower order concrete and factual recall type
to the higher order analytical and evaluative which promote deeper understanding. Higher
order questions help pupils explore ideas and make connections, helping pupils see the "big
picture" of the learning. This in turn leads to greater motivation and improved engagement.
 Prompt pupils to inspect their existing knowledge and experience to create new
understandings. Articulating understanding helps to clarify it and improves the likelihood
that it will be retained.
 Focus pupils on the key issues and enable teachers and pupils to see progress over time.
 Model for pupils how experienced learners seek meaning- moving them towards greater
independence.
 Questions help to find out if the method used in the lesson as successful or not.
 Questions create in the class the stimulating and challenging atmosphere essential for and
conducive to good training. This atmosphere arouses curiosity and creates intellectual and
emotional receptivity.
  To link the previous work the pupils have learnt with the new the y are about to embark
on.

Planning key questions and embedding them early in lesson - often in the learning objective - has
been particularly effective. Recording these in medium term plans/ schemes of work has
encouraged teachers to share the essence of what they want pupils to know and understand, to
communicate this to pupils (sharing learning goals) and to find ways of checking these have been
achieved in lessons through plenary activities. It is this feedback which in turn enables teachers to
tailor their teaching to what pupils need to know next that enables the assessment to be for rather
than of learning.

Planning for fewer, better questions...

 Clarify your learning intentions - link your key questions to them

 Plan a few key questions to use, perhaps collaboratively, or within medium term plans
 Extend the key questions with subsidiary questions to ask.
 Consider the techniques you will employ - e.g. asking the same child follow up questions
to probe understanding. Where will pupils need most "think time"?
 Analyze the answers you are given and decide on "follow-up" responses
 Make the questions a focus for recall
 Decide on the level and order/timing of questions. Stage them so that the level of challenge
increases as the lesson proceeds.

How to ask good and relevant questions

 Avoid vague questions such as “what do we find along the East African coast?
 A good question should be clear, short, and straightforward and leads to a point.
 To avoid chorus or simultaneous responses and for the sake of order in the class. Pupils
should raise the hands and then given a chance to answer the question.
 As well as asking the class questions, the student teacher should allow pupils to ask their
questions about the subject being studied.
 The teacher should not ignore wrong answers, but to correct one.
  The questions asked by teachers must not interfere with the pupils thinking. Sometimes
teachers may not give the pupils time to think about what they have learnt.
 Previewing a question in advance (Gives time to prepare - but may still need pair time for
discussion.)

 Summaries the answer/ argument again for the class - then ask "Does anyone see any
potential problems with what James has said?"
 After an incorrect answer, take a few other responses, then ask the first pupil to decide
whether he wants to change. Vary this by asking pupils with partially correct answers to
listen and add to their response having heard others

Strategies to improve the distribution of your questioning

1. Introduce hands down questioning - where you decide who to ask. Tell the pupils clearly
"This is a hands down question - I expect you all to be able to give me an answer, even if
that answer is 'I'm not sure'." It takes some training, but it's worth it!
2. If you tend to question the same pupils try moving about the classroom. Teachers seem to
ask those pupils seated in a sort of "shifting spotlight" in front of them By moving to
different areas of the room you are likely to ask a wider range of pupils.
3. Distribute slips of paper/card at the beginning of the lesson. As pupils answer a question,
they hand over one of their cards. Teachers can see clearly who has still all their cards and
can target an appropriate question! This technique also allows teachers to engage reluctant
pupils, who may be given fewer cards.
4. Address a question directly to a named pupil. Keep others involved by asking them to
consider what they could add/ whether they agree etc. e.g. “John, do you think that Macbeth
really wants to kill the King at this point? Sam, do you agree? What evidence can you find?
Does anyone think something different?"
5. Use the 'thinking time' pause after asking the question to consider who has answered
questions already. Try simple strategies like asking a pupil who often answers to select two
or three others to answer - thus keeping them involved.
 6. Get an observer to record on a tally chart where you direct questions in the room. This can
be very revealing about distribution in terms of location and gender. A pupil may even be
able to do this, and this may engage others in the discussion about who answers and why...

If there is a "right" answer, try to plan to use a strategy which means all pupils have to give it. This
will enable the teacher to quickly assess who knows and who doesn't, and modify teaching
accordingly.
Strategies for extending pupils’ responses:

 Pausing (giving thinking time) - before and after asking, and after response, encourages
pupils to extend their answers.

 Not only do more pupils answer, they also add greater detail, and pupils who have initially
given an incorrect response often self-correct if the teacher waits a few seconds.

 If you find it hard to wait you could try: - Suggesting pupils have half a minute to share
their answer with a partner before feeding back. This also promotes confidence as it is a
"joint effort". - Planning to use strategies such as "Think, Pair, Share" or snowballing at
key points for "big" questions. - Plan to ask the question, move to another part of the room
and repeat it before taking any answers - "You are not allowed to answer this question in
less than 15 words...

 After the pupil has responded, try:

i. “Could you say a little more about that?”

ii. “Go on…”
iii. Non- verbal cues, e.g. hand upturned, silence with continued eye- contact etc
iv. “Can you show me what you mean?“
v. Echoing: “So you think that…?” “So what you’re saying is…” Can someone
summarise what Tara has just said?”

 Reflecting: “Yes, I sometimes think that… “I know what you mean I also think…” “Do
you feel that…"
  Use body language - e.g. eyes fixed, waiting, or hand extended, upturned to signal
expectations that there may be more to be said..

Techniques which foster extended responses enable teachers to identify and challenge
misconceptions so that their next steps can address the learners’ real needs

Questioning and independent learning

It is important to remember that one of the key aims of assessment for learning is to enable pupils
to become increasingly independent. Questions need to encourage them to think for themselves
and consider other options.

For example, try:

When pupils begin a piece of work, make planning explicit and encourage internalization of the
success criteria:

 How do you think that…?

 How are you going to…?
 Are there particular things you'll need to.... ?
 Do you think that…?
 Is it important to…?
 What might it look like if it's successful?

If they have difficulty:

 Could you try to…?

 What about…?
 Why not…?
 Have you compared your ideas with…?
 What other strategies could you consider?
 Would a … help?

Whilst they are working, help them make their thinking explicit:

 Did you decide to…? / Why did you decide to..?

  Where might ...?
 Have you….?
 Can you think of…..?
 Can you explain how you…?
 What other ways could you...?

At the end of a lesson, promote reflection and metacognition:

 What/ how could you improve…?

 How did that happen?
 What did you get out of it?
 Why was that?
 Which were your best…?
 What were the trickiest bits? Why?
 Which were the most effective strategies?
 Where else might you be able to use those strategies?

Research has found that training learners to generate thought provoking questions and then answer
them generates critical thinking.

Activity

Evaluate the fact that questioning is important to both a teacher and the learner during
lessons.
Unit 6: Learning Assessment

What is assessment?

Assessment is a system and process of collecting evidence about student learning. Assessment
is a lot like research because it involves observing, recording, scoring and interpreting the
information we collect.

Assessment is also the process of gathering data. More specifically, assessment is the ways
instructors gather data about their teaching and their students’ learning (Hanna & Dettmer,
2004). The data provide a picture of a range of activities using different forms of assessment
such as: pre-tests, observations, and examinations. Once these data are gathered, you can then
evaluate the student’s performance. Evaluation, therefore, draws on one’s judgment to
determine the overall value of an outcome based on the assessment data. It is in the decision
making process then, where we design ways to improve the recognized weaknesses, gaps, or
deficiencies.

A good system of assessment provides:

 feedback to students about their learning

 feedback to teachers about their instruction

 evidence to support teachers’ judgments about grading

How does assessment begin? Assessment begins with the end in mind.

A system of assessment begins by defining course learning objectives: what students should
be able to do at the end of instruction. The learning objectives give you a clear target so you
can choose learning activities and assessments that are aimed directly toward those objectives.
When activities and assessments are lined up with the ultimate objectives, you have
alignment.
A framework for instruction and assessment.

We know alignment is important, but how do you align a course? One way is to use a learning
taxonomy. Its purpose is to help you classify your course learning objectives and select
learning activities and assessments that are aligned toward those learning objectives. There
are many learning taxonomies, but the one we can use here is Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy.

Types of Classroom Assessment

Making assessment an integral part of daily instruction is a challenge. It requires planning specific
ways to use assignments and discussions to discover what students do and do not understand. It
also requires teachers to be prepared to deal with students' responses. Merely spotting when
students are incorrect is relatively easy compared with understanding the reasons behind their
errors. The latter demands careful attention and a deep knowledge of the concepts and principles
that students are learning… The insights we gain by making assessment a regular part of
instruction enable us to meet the needs of the students who are eager for more challenges and to
provide intervention for those who are struggling (Burns 2005, p. 31)

Assessment is integral to the teaching–learning process, facilitating student learning and

improving instruction, and can take a variety of forms. Classroom assessment is generally divided
into two major one thus, formative and summative assessment.

Formative Assessment (assessment for learning)

Formative assessment provides feedback and information during the instructional process, while
learning is taking place, and while learning is occurring. Formative assessment measures student
progress but it can also assess your own progress as an instructor.

Formative assessment is ongoing assessment that allows teachers to monitor students on a day-to-
day basis and modify their teaching based on what the students need to be successful. This
assessment provides students with the timely, specific feedback that they need to make adjustments
to their learning.
After teaching a lesson, we need to determine whether the lesson was accessible to all students
while still challenging to the more capable; what the students learned and still need to know; how
we can improve the lesson to make it more effective; and, if necessary, what other lesson we might
offer as a better alternative. This continual evaluation of instructional choices is at the heart of
improving our teaching practice (Burns 2005, p. 26).

Types of Formative Assessment

 Observations during in-class activities; of students non-verbal feedback during lecture

 Homework exercises as review for exams and class discussions)

 Reflections journals that are reviewed periodically during the semester

 Question and answer sessions, both formal—planned and informal—spontaneous

 Conferences between the instructor and student at various points in the semester

 In-class activities where students informally present their results

 Student feedback collected by periodically answering specific question about the instruction and
their self-evaluation of performance and progres

Summative Assessment (assessment of learning)

Summative assessment takes place after the learning has been completed and provides information
and feedback that sums up the teaching and learning process. Typically, no more formal learning
is taking place at this stage, other than incidental learning which might take place through the
completion of projects and assignments.

High-stakes summative assessments typically are given to students at the end of a set point during
or at the end of the semester to assess what has been learned and how well it was learned. Grades
are usually an outcome of summative assessment: they indicate whether the student has an
acceptable level of knowledge-gain—is the student able to effectively progress to the next part of
the class? To the next course in the curriculum? To the next level of academic standing? See the
section “Grading” for further information on grading and its affect on student achievement.
Summative assessment is more product-oriented and assesses the final product, whereas formative
assessment focuses on the process toward completing the product. Once the project is completed,
no further revisions can be made. If, however, students are allowed to make revisions, the
assessment becomes formative, where students can take advantage of the opportunity to improve.
Types of Summative Assessment

 Examinations (major, high-stakes exams)

 Final examination (a truly summative assessment)

 Term papers (drafts submitted throughout the semester would be a formative assessment)

 Projects (project phases submitted at various completion points could be formatively assessed)
 Portfolios (could also be assessed during it’s development as a formative assessment)

 Performances

 Student evaluation of the course (teaching effectiveness)

 Instructor self-evaluation
Summary

Assessment measures if and how students are learning and if the teaching methods are effectively
relaying the intended messages. Hanna and Dettmer (2004) suggest that you should strive to
develop a range of assessments strategies that match all aspects of their instructional plans. Instead
of trying to differentiate between formative and summative assessments it may be more beneficial
to begin planning assessment strategies to match instructional goals and objectives at the beginning
of the semester and implement them throughout the entire instructional experience. The selection
of appropriate assessments should also match course and program objectives necessary for
accreditation requirements.

Activity

Differentiate between summative and formative assessment.

Unit 7: Testing and Marking

Introduction

We have already discussed questioning. Nevertheless, a test or examination is essentially a way of

questioning. It is very difficult to know where classroom questioning ends and testing and
examinations begin. Therefore all suggestions made about questioning are also valid about testing
and examinations. However, a significant but not a hard and fast difference is that in testing and
examinations we tend to stress evaluation, putting marks in order of merit and giving out score or
marks.

Whether you like them or not, tests are a way of checking your knowledge or comprehension.
They are the main instrument used to evaluate your learning by most educational institutions.
According to research studies, tests have another benefit: they make you learn and remember more
than you might have otherwise. Although it may seem that all tests are the same, many different
types of tests exist and each has a different purpose and style.

It must be noted that no teacher or student likes test but so far we find them essential for various
reasons.

Reasons for testing

1. Tests are used to evaluate teaching.

2. Test acts as reinforcement tool to the learners
3. Teachers use test as an instrument that will help them to be objective in their
teaching and not prejudiced.
4. Test identify gaps in knowledge.
5. Test improves transfer of knowledge to new context.
6. Test produce better organization of knowledge.
7. Test can facilitate retrieval of information that was not tested.
8. Tests also provide a means of measuring the past achievement of pupils and
answering question such as “how has the class got?” As the far as the future is
concerned the tests have predictive value.
 9. Test results can also be used in building up cumulative record cards and in
justifying personal assessment.

Characteristics of a good test

1. A good test must be able to expose the learners to a challenge. Therefore every effort
must be made to see that the test is neither very easy nor very difficult.
2. The test must be precise, with clear and properly worded questions. If so it is
consistent, and would produce nearly similar results if applied to another similar
group of the same educational background, age and ability.
3. It should be valid. In other words it must measure, test or assess what it is constructed
for. The questions must cover the entire ground rather than being directed to just a
small area of the work being tested.
4. A good test should be economical in time and properly timed. It is useless to give a
forty-minute period to a test which takes fifteen minutes to finish. However, if the test
is so long that no one is likely to finish even half of it, its validity is reduced
drastically since only half of the area of study is being tested. Such a test is a sign of
the lazy teacher who really does not know what to teach next because he is
unprepared. This cheats the learners and that teacher himself who knows well that the
test is out of context.
5. A good test should also have clear instructions. This means that a test can be
administered with ease, clarity and uniformity. Directions must be made simple, clear
and concise
6. A good test should also have marks allocated to each question.

Types of test

The main ones are;

1. Oral test

Here the teacher asks quick and short questions and the pupils write the answers.
 2. Written questions which require elaborative written answers.
These are difficult to set and every effort must be made to make them precise. For
example; Kennedy was an American
a) Architect
b) Racing driver
c) Statesman
d) Farmer

Answer C is correct but what about A? Here the word architect is rather vague, for
president Kennedy might be termed ‘an architect of American foreign policy

Other types of tests within the main ones include the following;

Diagnostic Tests
These tests are used to diagnose how much you know and what you know. They can help a teacher
know what needs to be reviewed or reinforced in class. They also enable the student to identify
areas of weakness.
Placement Tests
These tests are used to place students in the appropriate class or level. For example, in language
schools, placement tests are used to check a student’s language level through grammar,
vocabulary, reading comprehension, writing, and speaking questions. After establishing the
students level, the student is placed in the appropriate class to suit his/her needs.
Progress or Achievement Tests
Achievement or progress tests measure the student improvement in relation to their syllabus. These
tests only contain items which the students have been taught in class. There are two types of
progress tests:
 Short-term.
Short-term progress tests check how well students have understood or learned material
covered in specific units or chapters. They enable the teacher to decide if remedial or
consolidation work is required.
 Long-term: Long-term progress tests are also called Course Tests because they check the
learners progress over the entire course. They enable the students to judge how well they
 have progressed. Administratively, they are often the sole basis of decisions to promote to
a higher level.
Progress tests can also be structured as quizzes, rather than as tests. They can be answered by
teams of students, rather than individuals. They can be formulated as presentations, posters,
assignments, or research projects. Structuring progress tests in this way takes into account the
multiple intelligences and differing learning styles of the students. Yet many students still expect
a regular test as a part of learning.
Proficiency Tests
These tests check learner levels in relation to general standards. They provide a broad picture of
knowledge and ability. In English language learning, examples are the TOEFL and IELTS exams,
which are mandatory for foreign-language speakers seeking admission to English-speaking
universities.
Internal Tests / summative test
Internal tests are those given by the institution where the learner is taking the course. They are
often given at the end of a course in the form of a final exam.
External Tests
External tests are those given by an outside body. The exams themselves are the basis for
admission to university, job recruitment, or promotion.
Objective Tests
Objective tests are those that have clear right or wrong answers. Multiple-choice tests fall into this
group. Students have to select a pre-determined correct answer from three or four possibilities.
Subjective Tests
Subjective tests require the marker or examiner to make a subjective judgment regarding the marks
deserved. Examples are essay questions and oral interviews. For such tests, it is especially
important that both examiner and student are aware of the grading criteria in order to increase their
validity.
Combination Tests
Many tests are a combination of objective and subjective styles. For example, on the, the Test of
English as a Foreign Language, the reading and listening sections are objective, and the writing
and speaking sections are subjective.
Benchmark Testing
This testing is used to check whether students have mastered a unit of content. Benchmark testing is
given during or after a classroom focuses on a section of material, and covers either a part or all of
the content has been taught up to that time. The assessments are designed to let teachers know whether
students have understood the material that’s been covered

What to test

The teacher should know clearly what he wants to test. However, the emphasis should be mainly
on attainment. The teacher’s test or examination should not be mainly geared towards success or
failure but should help the pupils to understand the weak points as well as highlighting ‘the
teacher’s teaching. This may call for remedial action by the teacher.

However, should choose a suitable day when a test should be written. It is no good to arrange a
test immediately after a physical education period when every pupil comes in class panting and
sweating, or even on a hot Friday afternoon

Marking

Why marking students is important?

1. It the helps the teacher to evaluate the effectiveness of his method of teaching, to assess
how much the pupils have grasped and to identify are\as of difficulty.
2. Reading and marking of pupils work provides an opportunity for further learning and
teaching.
3. Marking helps to identify individual difficulties and to give individual help to meet a
particular need especially in big classes.
4. Marking and marks help the teacher to accumulate a useful record of every pupil to show
if that individual child is progressing or not and to find out how that individual compares
with the rest of the class.
The actual marking

If marking is to be effective, there are at least three golden rules to be followed:

1. Work must be marked and returned as promptly as possible.

2. The marks and comments / corrections must be easily recognizable and legible.
3. The teacher must consistently use a marking code ( research on common marking codes)

Activity

1. Discuss on the characteristics of a good test

2. Explain why marking of student’s books is important.
Unit 8: Classroom Management

Introduction

Teachers play various roles in a typical classroom, but surely one of the most important is that of
classroom manager. Effective teaching and learning cannot take place in a poorly managed
classroom. If students are disorderly and disrespectful, and no apparent rules and procedures guide
behavior, chaos becomes the norm. In these situations, both teachers and students suffer. Teachers
struggle to teach, and students most likely learn much less than they should. In contrast, well-
managed classrooms provide an environment in which teaching and learning can flourish. But a
well-managed classroom doesn't just appear out of nowhere. It takes a good deal of effort to
create—and the person who is most responsible for creating it is the teacher.

Importance of Classroom Management

 It engages students: Students who are engaged in lessons and the learning material will
be able to register the information better and be able to apply their knowledge when it
comes to test taking.
 It keeps students prepared: When teachers and students are prepared to learn, lessons
and learning will be easier to be administered and the results will be more effective.
 It boosts confidence: In an effective classroom, teachers are able to give more attention
to each student and structure lesson plans to meet certain needs. All of these factors will
help in boosting the confidence of students.

How to Manage a Classroom Effectively

Effective classroom management is being to implement and maintain classroom discipline in

an effective manner. Let’s take a look at what you can do as a teacher or leader to help maintain
discipline and management in your classroom.

1. Have rules: It is important to have a basic set of rules for students to follow. These
regulations will help maintain classroom management and discipline. These rules do not
have to be anything advanced; they can be as simple as making sure that all students adhere
 to timely attendance and making sure that everyone knows the consequences of missing or
late assignments.
2. Have expectations: If your students know what you want from them, they are more likely
to exhibit the type of behavior you want. Start out the day with explaining what you expect
from your students and how they are expected to behave. Be detailed and positive.
3. Make students aware of the rules: Every school has its own disciplinary rules that
students should be expected to flow. Make sure that your students are aware of the rules
and the consequences if the rules are not adhered to.
4. Make the rules known to parents as well: Student’s parents should also be aware of the
management techniques that you are implementing in the classroom. You should ask
parents to go over these rules with the students at home so that everyone is on the same
page, and so that students know that their parents expect this behavior from them as well.
5. Review rules regularly: The thing with children is that you need to be consistent. Remind
your students regularly about the rules and expectations for their behavior to aid in proper
classroom management. Ask them if they have any questions and allow them to voice their
opinions.
6. Be firm and consistent: When you make your rules to manage your classroom, make sure
that they are realistic and void of any inconsistencies. Approach the rules in a positive
manner so that students do not associate any negativity with it. Feel free to reward students
for their positive behavior when you see that they are contributing to effective classroom
management.
7. Be professional: An effectively managed classroom is conducted with professionalism
and adequate structure. Students who are presented with a good authority figure who has
a plan and follows it will fit in to the structure nicely.
8. Have a printed packet: In case you are unable to attend class one day, make sure that you
have a printed packet of your classroom management techniques handy for a
substitute. Your classroom should be aware that, even in your absence, they should still
be able to manage themselves wisely and that all rules still apply. If students show structure
and compliance in your absence, it will make both you and your classroom look well-
managed and efficient.
9. Deal with troublemakers: No matter how great your plan or classroom management
techniques are, there are always going to be students that want to disrupt your class or not
follow rules. Speak with these students early on and discuss plans of action with higher
authority, such as school administrators or principals. Early detection and dealing with
these types of students will make the rest of the classroom know that you mean business..
10. Keep the class interested: Students who are interested in the material that what is going
on in the class will be less likely to cause any disruption, as their attention will be focused
on their lesson.
11. Practice fairness: If you have kids, you would know that they have a tendency to get
jealous very easily. Also, they can easily detect when injustices are occurring. As a
teacher, you need to be fair and make sure that you keep your word and follow up with
anything you commit to. Also remember to never play favorites in a classroom.
12. Practice humor: Creating a positive environment where there is laughter and happiness
is key into keep students interested and engaged in their work, and more likely to comply
with any rules.
13. Do not threaten: Threatening students can weaken a teacher’s credibility in a
classroom. Be careful when you use threats, if any. Instead, try to practice positive
reinforcement.
14. Lead by example: If one of your rules is to have students show up to class on time every
day, make sure that you practice those same rules yourself. If you are late, then you risk
setting a bad example for your students.
15. Do not get angry: If you have a temper, leave it at the door. Teachers who lose their
temper will eventually lose their credibility in the classroom and create an unfavorable
learning environment for their students.
16. Give students opportunities: Giving students the reigns with certain things in the
classroom will make them feel trusted and responsible. By showing students that you have
confidence in their abilities, they will feel like the overall management and flow of the
classroom is up to them to uphold as well.
17. Do not humiliate: Humiliating students will only cause teachers to lose their authority in
the classroom and contribute to psychological damage in children, as well as fear and
resentment.
 18. Be alert: Teachers who are always aware of what is going on in their classroom are less
likely to have a controlled and managed class. Be sure to move around your class often
and take time to interact with each student.

Activity
1. Explain how a teacher can have good classroom management
2. Identify at least five qualities of a good teacher.
Unit 9: Team Teaching
Introduction
Research results on whether team teaching improves student satisfaction and performance are
mixed. Nevertheless, evidence suggests a number of tangible and intangible benefits to students,
faculty, and institutions that engage in team teaching (Wadkins, Miller, and Wozniak, 2006).
Based on a literature review of team teaching literature, this report provides an overview of team
teaching, summarizes some of its benefits, identifies some challenges, provides suggestions for
best practices, and makes recommendations for supporting and engaging in team teaching.

Definition of Team Teaching

Davis (1995) provides this succinct definition of team teaching: “All arrangements that include
two or more faculty in some level of collaboration in the planning and delivery of a course” (p. 8).

Types of Team Teaching

Team teaching includes a number of different approaches. Some of the more common are

 Interactive team teaching – two faculty members present in front of the class
simultaneously.

 Rotational format team teaching – faculty alternate teaching the class. This rotational
format has a number of variations depending on the subject matter and the number of faculty
involved.

 Participant-observer team teaching – all participating faculty are present for all the classes,
but only one is “teaching” at a time. Roles that the other teachers could play as participating
observer(s) are model learner, observer, panel member, or resource (Klein, 1990).

 Team coordination – faculty arrange and integrate a curriculum so as to maximize learning

and connections using paired or linked courses, an integrated cluster of independent courses,
or freshman interest groups (McDaniels and Colarulli, 1997). Though not necessarily team
teaching per se, this curriculum-level approach to interdisciplinary can help to achieve some
of the expected gains of team teaching.
Those Best Suited to Engage in Team Teaching, William Newell suggests that “one needs to
consider whether potential [team teaching] participants are open to diverse ways of thinking; wary
of absolutism; able to admit that they do not know; good at listening; unconventional; flexible;
willing to take risks; self-reflective; and comfortable with ambiguity” (Davis, 1995, p. 47).

Benefits Team Teaching Provides for Faculty

Literature on teaching and learning suggests a number of benefits faculty gain from participating
in team teaching, thus

 Improve their own teaching skills

 Learn about teaching

 Have opportunities to socialize graduate students into the world of teaching

 Step out of their comfort zone

 Have opportunities for creative assignments

 Become informed and encouraged in interdisciplinary research

 See teaching through the learners’ eyes

 Avoid the lonely, repetitive, fragmented experience of solo teaching

 Gain new insights into their disciplines

 Develop clearer perspective on the differences between disciplines

 Build collegial relationships

 Foster respect

 Build bridges of understanding across disciplines

Benefits Team Teaching Provides for Students
Students also appear to benefit from team-taught courses (Benjamin, 2000; Harris and Watson,
1997; Johnson, Johnson, Smith, 2000; Smith, 1994). The literature suggests that team teaching can

 Deepen students’ analytical abilities

 Help to build bridges of understanding across disciplines for both faculty and students

 Build greater curricular coherence for students

 Create a greater sense of academic community

 Provide explicit structures for academic and social engagement (this is particularly necessary
at commuter campuses)

 Improve student-teacher relationships

 Make classes more interesting and challenging because of the novelty

 Improve student learning outcomes, retention rates, interpersonal skills, communication

skills, analysis and judgment, and diversity

Challenges that Team Teaching Poses to Faculty

Scholarly discussion on the drawback of team teaching is limited faculty (Klein, 1990; Letterman
and Dugan, 2004). The literature does suggest that team teaching can be detrimental to faculty
performance when

 Lack of sufficient time for collaborative work exists

 Lack of training in group dynamics exists

 Problems with overlapping roles exist

 Territorial and status conflicts exist

 One discipline dominates the process

  Insufficient funding and inadequate logistics are provided

 Individual autonomy is lost

Challenges that Team Teaching Poses to Students

Students report that team teaching is ineffective when

 Instructors are not flexible in addressing students’ learning styles

 Confusion about learning expectations exists

 Disparity in evaluation exists

The team teaching problems cited above can be overcome if faculty implement best practices in
planning and execution, and if institutions implement best practices in fostering and supporting
team teaching (Focus on Faculty Newsletter, 2002; Harris and Watson, 1997; Helms, Alvis, and
Willis, 2005; Letterman and Dugan, 2004; National Teaching and Learning Forum Newsletter,
2006; Speaking of Teaching Newsletter 2006, 2007).

Suggested Best Practices for Faculty

Team teaching works well when faculty

 Plan together

 Identify sources of information on team teaching

 Talk to others with experience

 Become acquainted with each other’s’ styles

 Communicate (i.e., clearly define expectations)

 Plan alternating, interjecting strategies

 Attend each other’s’ classes

 Support each other

  Model debate

 Participate even if not teaching on a certain occasion

 Apply common grading standards

 Attend all staff meetings

 Let the students speak

 Be willing to be surprised

 Have an open discussion about power issues. Who is in charge? How will conflict be
resolved?

 Apply team teaching to case-based courses: the team teaching can model how various
perspectives bear on a solution

 Ensure sufficient time and resources for success: team teaching often requires more resources
— e.g., time and planning — than solo teaching

Suggested Best Practices for Institutions

(Laufgraben and Tompkins, 2004; Quinlan, 1998; Smith, 1994)

Institutions can support team-teaching faculty when they

 Create structures to support team teaching

 Are aware of costs and time limitations

 Clearly articulate expectations for the teaching team

 Recognize and reward planning efforts (e.g., planning lunches for teachers, stipends for
summer planning time, and professional development funds for travel to conferences)

 Are flexible when scheduling team planning events. (A one-time workshop, for example,
works only if all members of a team can be present.) Institutional leaders can set aside
several dates and times for planning sessions and require teaching teams to participate as a
group

 Provide examples of successful teamwork in learning communities

  Avoid (whenever possible) changes in teaching assignments once a team has formed and
started its work

 Suggest that teaching teams set meeting schedules well in advance, particularly days and
times to meet once the semester begins

 Create or suggest space where teaching teams can meet. (Space that is away from individual
offices or departments may allow for more focused, less interrupted team planning time.)

Ways to promote teacher collaboration include

 teacher pairings

 Discussion around common concerns

 Multi-sectioned course seminars

 Departmental review

The Fiscal Impact of Team Teaching

Team teaching can be more expensive than solo teaching because it may involve faculty taking
more time to teach fewer total credit hours. One viable approach to garner the positive aspects of
team teaching while reducing fiscal impact is to use the “dispersed model” of team teaching. For
example, a course entitled “Romanticism in the Arts” could be taught by one faculty member from
each of the disciplines of history, art, and literature (the course could be cross-listed in each of
these disciplines, as well). Each faculty member teaches his or her section of one-third of the
students twice a week. Then on the third day of the week, everyone comes together for a class that
explores the interlinking of the disciplines on this theme (McDaniels and Colarulli, 1997).

Conclusion
In summary, successful team teaching requires the active institutional and faculty commitment of
time, resources, and careful planning. By so doing, team teaching can enhance the teaching and
learning experiences of students and faculty and fulfill the purposes of university education by
helping participants integrate disparate disciplines and perspectives.

Activity
1. Define team teaching and explain on each type of team teaching
2. Discuss on the advantages and disadvantages of team teaching.
Unit 10: Record keeping

Definition: record keeping is defined as the

1. The activity of organizing and storing all the documents, files etc. relating to a company's
or organization's activities.
2. Systematic procedure by which the records of an organization are created, captured,
maintained, and disposed of. This system also ensures their preservation for evidential
purposes, accurate and efficient updating, timely availability, and control of access to the
them only by authorized personnel.

Furthermore, School records are books, documents, diskettes and files in which are embodied
information on what goes on in school (e.g. social, academic and non-academic activities,
important events etc.) the school plant as well as other relevant information focusing on the growth
and development of the school (Olagboye, 2004).

Meanwhile, Durosaro (2002) explained that school records are official transcript or copies of
proceedings of actions, events other matters kept by the school manager, school records could be
viewed as authentic register or instruments or documents of official accounts of transaction
or occurrence which are preserved in the school’s office. Therefore, the Education Law in virtually
all states of the federation requires that every school must keep certain specified records.

The Importance of Record Keeping in the Classroom

As a teacher there are many different aspects of classroom management, including the need for a
smooth record keeping process.
By developing an effective management plan for record keeping, you in turn can improve the
workflow of the classroom and spend more time teaching and less time dealing with paperwork.

1: Stay Organized

A cornerstone of a smooth-running classroom is organized record management. Types of records

to be sure you’re keeping include:
 Grades
  Notes sent home
 Attendance
 Time and reasons for sending students to the office (health, behavior, etc.)
One way to simplify record keeping is using document management system (DMS) software to
track and manage classroom files.
For example, with digital classroom records you’re able to search for and organize your files based
on date, student, name and other similar filters, allowing you to quickly track down information.

2: Keep Track of Lesson Plans

Keeping a record of your lesson plans can help to simplify and improve your future classroom
planning.

With a list down on paper (or stored on a computer), a lesson plan calendar can be created to map
out how you’ll spend time in the classroom over the course of the year.

On top of helping to organize and manage your plans for the year, a record of your plans can be
used for reference in years going forward. For example, if you reuse them in the future you’ll have
the opportunity to fine-tune your lesson plans or use them as a resource for creating new plans.

3: Document Class Policies

In case of a dispute or other issue over class standards, it’s important to provide a disclosure
statement outlining your class policies and keep a copy for your own records.
Policies to cover in a class disclosure statement include:

 Makeup work
 Attendance
 Grading scales and extra credit
 General class rules
4: Collaborate With Other Teachers

While keeping track of lesson plans can be used as a helpful resource for you, there are also benefits
to sharing lesson plans and working with other teachers.

For example, other teachers may be able to give tips on how they tackled different subjects with
their students or be able to coordinate assignments depending on how classes are structured.

5: Reports on the Efforts of School Personnel

Be sure to keep any progress reports and communication about what teachers and other school
staff are doing for your child. You may even want to download a parent-school communication
log to keep a record of conversations between you and school officials.

This can help you document patterns and keep track of what you talked about and the decisions
that were made. When you can point to specific information, you can better ensure your child’s
rights are being protected.

Official School Records

It’s a good idea for you to have copies of everything that’s in your child’s official school records.
In fact, there’s a federal law called Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) that gives
you rights around your child’s educational records, including the right to see and photocopy them
all.

Not every school uses the same organization system, so ask your school administrators how their
system is set up. Here are common groups of records kept by schools.

Cumulative file: This may be little more than a profile card with personal identification data,
standardized test scores and report cards.

Confidential file: This is often kept in the school district’s central administrative office, where
the special education program offices are located. The file typically includes:

 All of the reports written as a result of the school’s evaluation for special education and related
services (You can use these sample letters for requesting evaluations and reports.)
 Records of independent educational evaluations, if your child was evaluated this way

 Medical records you’ve agreed to release to the school

 Results of vision and hearing tests done by the school

 Summary reports of the evaluation team and eligibility committee meetings

 Your child’s Individualized Education Program (IEP) or 504 plan

 Correspondence between you and school personnel

Compliance file: This file shows that the school system has met the regulations for timelines,
notification and consent required by federal law. The records in this may include:

 Reports of eligibility determination meetings for children being considered for special
education services

 Correspondence between school officials, including notifications and consent

Discipline file: This may include notes about behavior and discipline issues that involve long-term
suspension or expulsion. If a student has a behavior intervention plan (BIP), it may be filed here.

Attendance file: This contains a record of a student’s school attendance. It might also include
notes from parents regarding excused absences.

Activity
1. Discuss on the main school official records
2. Critically analyze on the importance of record keeping in schools
TEACHING PRACTICE GUIDES