Module 5: Human Resource Management

5.1 Recruitment & selection:

Job analysis:
Job analysis is a method for describing jobs and/or the human attributes necessary to perform them.
Job analysis is systematically studying a job's tasks, duties, and responsibilities and the knowledge,
skills, and abilities needed to perform them. It is the starting point for nearly all personnel functions
and is critically important for developing the means for assessing personnel. According to
Brannick, Levine, and Morgeson (2007), three elements comprise a formal job analysis:
1. The procedure must be systematic. This means the analyst specifies a procedure in advance and
follows it.
2. A job is broken into smaller units. We need to describe the components of jobs rather than the
overall job.
3. The analysis results in some written product, either electronic or on paper.
Talent management is a strategic approach to attracting, developing, engaging, and retaining
employees to maximize organizational performance and achieve business goals. Talent
management begins with understanding what jobs need to be filled, and the human traits and
competencies employees need to do those jobs effectively. Job analysis is the procedure through
which you determine the duties of the positions and the characteristics of the people to hire for
them. Job analysis produces information for writing job descriptions (a list of what the job entails)
and job (or person) specifications (what kind of people to hire for the job.
The supervisor or human resources specialist normally collects one or more of the following types
of information via the job analysis:
Work activities- First, he or she collects information about the job's actual work activities, such as
cleaning, selling, teaching, or painting. This list may also include how, why, and when the worker
performs each activity.
Human behaviours- Information about human behaviours the job requires, like communicating,
lifting weights, or walking long distances. Machines, tools, equipment, and work aids. Information
regarding tools used, materials processed, knowledge dealt with or applied (such as finance or
law), and services rendered (such as counselling or repairing).
Performance standards- Information about the job's performance standards (in terms of quantity
or quality levels for each job duty, for instance).
Job context- Information about such matters as physical working conditions, work schedules,
incentives, and, for instance, the number of people with whom the employee would normally
interact.
Human requirements- Information such as knowledge or skills (education, training, work
experience) and required personal attributes (aptitudes, personality, interests).

There is no one way to do a job analysis. Many methods provide different types of information
about jobs and human attributes needed for jobs. Job analysis techniques can be used to collect
information that is job-oriented or person-oriented, depending on the purpose of the job analysis.

The Job-Oriented Approach: The job-oriented job analysis provides information about the nature
of tasks done on the job. Some methods describe the tasks themselves. Other methods provide
information about the characteristics of tasks. For example, a task for a police officer would be:
complete report after arresting a suspect.
The statement above describes something a police office does. The characteristic isn’t a specific
task but describes common features that cut across tasks. The purposes of the job analysis
determine which type of approach would be more useful. The task descriptions provide a picture
of what people do on a job, whereas the characteristics of tasks can be used to compare the nature
of tasks across different kinds of jobs. Police officers and teachers share the characteristic of using
pencils and pens to do tasks, so there can be some similarities in types of tasks, even though the
specific tasks themselves may vary.
The Person-Oriented Approach: A person-oriented job analysis provides a description of the
characteristics or KSAOs necessary for a person to successfully perform a particular job. KSAOs
are the employee’s knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics necessary for a job. The
first three characteristics focus mainly on job performance itself; the “other” characteristics relate
to job adjustment and satisfaction, as well as performance. A task is something a person does. A
KSAO is an attribute or characteristic of the person required to do a particular task or tasks. Tasks
define what is done on a job, whereas KSAOs describe the sort of person needed. KSAO is an
acronym that represents four essential components:
Knowledge refers to the understanding or awareness of concepts, facts, and information required
to perform a job. This can include both formal education and practical experience. For example, a
software developer needs knowledge of programming languages like Python or Java. Skills are the
learned proficiency or expertise in specific tasks. Skills are often technical in nature and can be
developed through practice. For instance, an accountant needs strong skills in financial analysis or
spreadsheet management. Abilities are the natural or developed traits that determine how well
someone can perform certain tasks. This includes cognitive abilities such as problem-solving or
physical abilities like manual dexterity. A surgeon, for example, must have the ability to remain
calm under pressure and possess fine motor skills to perform delicate operations. Other
characteristics refer to personal attributes or traits that may influence job performance but don’t
necessarily fall into the above categories. These could include things like personality traits, work
ethics, or attitudes. For instance, a customer service representative should have a positive attitude
and excellent communication skills.
Examples of KSAOs
Registered Nurse:
 Knowledge: Medical terminology, patient care protocols, pharmacology.
 Skills: Administering injections, operating medical equipment, record-keeping.
 Abilities: Emotional resilience, critical thinking, physical stamina.
 Other characteristics: Compassion, teamwork, attention to detail.
Marketing Manager:
 Knowledge: Market research, digital marketing trends, consumer behaviour.
 Skills: Data analysis, content creation, campaign management.
 Abilities: Strategic thinking, multitasking, creative problem-solving.
 Other characteristics: Leadership, adaptability, communication skills.
Job analysis typically involves the objective measurement of work behavior performed by actual
workers. Therefore, a job analyst must be an expert in objective measurement techniques to
perform an accurate job analysis. A job analysis leads directly to the development of several other
important personnel “products”: a job description, a job specification, a job evaluation, and
performance criteria. A job description is a detailed accounting of the tasks, and equipment used
to perform the job; and the job output (end product or service). Workers are most familiar with job
descriptions. Often new workers are provided with descriptions of their jobs during initial
orientation and training. Human resources departments may also make job descriptions for various
jobs accessible to employees. A job analysis also leads to a job specification, which provides
information about the human characteristics required to perform the job, such as physical and
personal traits, work experience, and education. Usually, job specifications give the minimum
acceptable qualifications that an employee needs to perform a given job. A third personnel
“product,” job evaluation, is the assessment of the relative value or worth of a job to an
organization to determine appropriate compensation or wages. Finally, a job analysis helps outline
performance criteria, which are the means for appraising worker success in performing a job.

Uses of Job Analysis information: Job analysis is important because managers use it to support
just about all their human resource management activities.
1. RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION- Information about what duties the job entails and
what human characteristics are required to perform these activities helps managers decide
what sort of people to recruit and hire.
2. EEO COMPLIANCE- Job analysis is crucial for validating all major human resources
practices. For example, to comply with the Disabilities Act, employers should know each
job's essential job functions, which in turn requires a job analysis.
3. PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL- A performance appraisal compares each employee’s
actual performance with his or her duties and performance standards. Managers use job
analysis to learn what these duties and standards are.
4. COMPENSATION- Compensation (such as salary and bonus) usually depends on the job's
required skill and education level, safety hazards, degree of responsibility, and so on all
factors you assess through job analysis.
 5. TRAINING- The job description lists the job's specific duties and requisite skills and
therefore the training that the job requires. Job analysis is important in helping employers
execute their overall strategic plans.

Sources of recruitment/Methods of recruitment:

The first decision is whether to promote someone from within (internal recruitment) or to hire
someone from outside the organization (external recruitment).

Newspaper Ads- Running ads in periodicals such as local newspapers or professional journals is a
common method of recruiting employees. Newspaper advertisements typically ask the applicant
to respond in one of four ways: calling, applying in person, sending a résumé directly to the
organization, or sending a résumé to a blind box. Applicants are asked to respond by calling when
an organization wants to either quickly screen applicants or hear an applicant’s phone voice (e.g.,
for telemarketing or receptionist positions). Organizations use apply-in-person ads when they do
not want their phones tied up by applicants calling (e.g., a travel agency or pizza delivery
restaurant), want the applicants to fill out a specific job application, or want to get a physical look
at the applicant. Applicants are asked to send a résumé directly to the company (send-résumé ads)
when the organization expects a large response and does not have the resources to speak with
thousands of applicants. The fourth type of ad directs applicants to send a résumé to a blind box.
Organizations use blind boxes for three main reasons. First, the organization does not want its
name in public. This could result in an avalanche of résumés, many from unqualified applicants.
Second, the company might fear that people would not apply if they knew the name of the
company. Third, on rare occasions, a company needs to terminate an employee but wants first to
find a replacement.

Situation-wanted ads are placed by the applicant rather than by organizations. These ads take
various forms: Some list extensive qualifications, some give applicants’ names, and some are
generally more creative than others. Situation Vacant Ads: These are advertisements placed by
companies or employers who have job openings and are looking to hire employees. Situation
Wanted Ads: These are advertisements placed by individuals who are looking for jobs and are
seeking employment opportunities.

Point-of-Purchase Methods- The point-of-purchase method of recruitment is based on the same

“POP” (point of-purchase) advertising principles used to market products to consumers. In
employee recruitment, job vacancy notices are posted in places where customers or current
employees are likely to see them: store windows, bulletin boards, restaurant placemats, and the
sides of trucks. The advantages to this method are that it is inexpensive and it is targeted toward
people who frequent the business. The disadvantage is that only a limited number of people are
exposed to the sign.

Campus Recruiters- Many organizations send recruiters to college campuses to answer questions
about themselves and interview students for available positions. Not surprisingly, the behavior and
attitude of recruiters can greatly influence applicants’ decisions to accept jobs that are offered. Due
to cost considerations, many employers have cut back on the use of on-campus recruiting. As a
result, an increasing number of colleges are organizing virtual job fairs, in which their students
and alumni can use the Web to “visit” with recruiters from hundreds of organizations at one time.
In a virtual job fair, applicants can talk to or instant-message a recruiter, learn more about the
company, and submit résumés.

Outside Recruiters- Outside recruiting sources such as private employment agencies, public
employment agencies, and executive search firms. Private employment agencies and executive
search firms are designed to make a profit from recruitment activities, whereas public employment
agencies are operated by state and local public agencies and are strictly nonprofit.

Employment Agencies and Search Firms-

Employment agencies operate in one of two ways. They charge either the company or the applicant
when the applicant takes the job. From an organization’s perspective, there are few risks in using
an employment agency that charges the applicant for its services. That is, if the employment
agency cannot find an appropriate candidate, the organization has not wasted money. However, if
the employment agency is successful, the organization gets a qualified employee at no cost.
Employment agencies are especially useful if an HR department is overloaded with work or if an
organization does not have an individual with the skills and experience needed to select employees
properly. The disadvantage of employment agencies is that a company loses some control over its
recruitment process and may end up with undesirable applicants.
Executive search firms, better known as “head hunters,” differ from employment agencies in
several ways. First, the jobs they represent tend to be higher paying, non–entry-level positions
such as executives, engineers, and computer programmers. Second, reputable executive search
firms always charge their fees to organizations rather than to applicants. Third, fees charged by
executive search firms tend to be about 30% of the applicant’s first-year salary.
Public Employment Agencies- The public employment agencies are designed primarily to help the
unemployed find work, but they often offer services such as career advisement and résumé
preparation. From the organization’s perspective, public employment agencies can be of great
value in filling blue-collar and clerical positions. Not only is there no cost involved in hiring the
applicants, but often government programs are also available that will help pay training costs. In
addition, with the advent of standardized testing programs the quality of employees hired through
public agencies is now much higher than in the past. Many public employment agencies have made
finding jobs easier by placing kiosks in locations such as shopping malls and public buildings.
Applicants can use the kiosks to search for local job openings and get information on how they
can apply for the jobs. Employers that receive large numbers of walk-in applicants are increasingly
using recruiting kiosks. Rather than speaking to a receptionist, potential job applicants can use the
kiosk located in the company lobby to search for current job openings and then apply to jobs for
which they are qualified.

Employee Referrals- Another way to recruit is by employee referral, in which current employees
recommend family members and friends for specific job openings. Surveys investigating this
referral method indicate that about of private organizations have formal referral programs and use
employee referrals in some way. In a survey of HR professionals, employee referrals were rated
as the most effective recruitment method.

Direct Mail- Because direct mail has been successful in product advertising, several organizations
have used it to recruit applicants, especially those who are not actively job hunting. With direct-
mail recruitment, an employer typically obtains a mailing list and sends help-wanted letters or
brochures to people through the mail.

Internet- the Internet continues to be a fast-growing source of recruitment; in, hiring managers said
that they received their résumés electronically. Internet recruiting efforts usually take one of two
forms: employer-based websites and Internet recruiting sites.

Employer-Based Websites- With employer-based websites, an organization lists available job

openings and provides information about itself and the minimum requirements needed to apply to
a particular job. Though the level of sophistication varies across organization websites, on most,
applicants can download their résumés, answer questions designed to screen out unqualified
applicants, and then actually take employment tests. On many sites, the tests are instantly scored,
and if the applicant is deemed qualified, interviews are scheduled electronically.

Internet Recruiters- Internet recruiter is a private company whose website lists job openings for
hundreds of organizations and résumés for thousands of applicants. Although small organizations
are as likely as larger ones to recruit employees through their web pages, larger organizations are
more likely to use Internet recruiters.

Job Fairs- Job fairs are used by organizations and are designed to provide information in a personal
fashion to as many applicants as possible. Many organizations have booths at locations.
Incentives- when unemployment rates are low, organizations have to take extra measures to recruit
employees. One of these measures is to offer incentives for employees to accept jobs with an
organization.

Nontraditional Populations- When traditional recruitment methods are unsuccessful, many

organizations look for potential applicants from nontraditional populations.

Realistic Job Previews- Realistic job previews provide information that is as accurate as possible
about all aspects of a job. Such information can be supplied through a brochure or other written
description of the job, through a film or video, or through an on-the-job sample of the work to see
if the applicant can perform the required tasks. The purpose of a realistic job preview is to acquaint
prospective employees with both positive and negative aspects of the job. The hope is that this
practice will reduce overly optimistic or unrealistic expectations about what the job involves.
Research has shown that the use of realistic job previews correlates positively with job satisfaction,
job performance, organizational commitment, and reduced turnover. Realistic job previews have
also been found to reduce the number of applicants initially accepting jobs, because potential
employees learn, even before starting a job, whether certain aspects of the work situation are
unappealing or otherwise not appropriate for them.

Methods of selection:

When it comes to employee screening for job candidates, various sources and methods are used to
evaluate the suitability of applicants for a position. The resume or CV (Curriculum Vitae)
submitted by the candidate can be screened. Applicant tracking systems (ATS) often scan resumes
to help employers identify relevant keywords and experiences. Portfolio or Work Samples are
screened for evaluate previous work or creative output provided by the candidate, especially
common in creative, technical, and design fields. Platforms like Behance or even a personal
website to are used to showcase portfolios.
There have been attempts to quantify the biographical information obtained from application forms
through the use of either weighted application forms or biographical information blanks (BIBs).
Weighted application forms assign different weights to each piece of information on the form. The
weights are determined through detailed research, conducted by the organization, to determine the
relationship between specific bits of biographical data, often referred to as biodata, and criteria of
success on the job. Two other sources of information used in employee screening and selection are
references and letters of recommendation. Typically, reference checks and letters of
recommendation can provide four types of information: (1) employment and educational history,
(2) evaluations of the applicant’s character, (3) evaluations of the applicant’s job performance, and
(4) recommender’s willingness to rehire the applicant.

The aim of selection is to assess the suitability of candidates by predicting the extent to which they
will be able to carry out a role successfully. It involves deciding on the degree to which the
characteristics of applicants match the person's specifications and then using this assessment to
choose between candidates. The main selection methods are interviews, tests, and assessment
centers.

Selection interviews- The interview is the most familiar method of selection. The aim is to elicit
information about candidates that will enable a prediction to be made about how well they will do
the job and thus lead to a selection decision. A face-to-face interview enables the establishment of
close contact and rapport between the interviewer and the candidate, thus easing the acquisition of
information about the candidate’s suitability and how well he or she would fit into the organization.
Interviews can be structured or unstructured. A competency-based interview is a structured
interview in which the predetermined set of questions put to all candidates aims to establish the
extent to which they have the competencies/competencies required to perform the job as set out in
the person's specification. Competency-based interviews can be used to select graduates or
college/school leavers where it is not possible to assess them based on their work experience.
Instead, interviewers ask candidates to provide examples of their activities and educational and
extra-curricular experiences, which demonstrate that they have the particular core competency the
organization is looking for. The term competency-based interview is sometimes used more loosely
to mean any interview that is based on the information contained in the person's specification that
will include knowledge, skills and abilities as well as behavioural competency requirements.
Strength-based interview is a structured interview in which the objective is to find out what
candidates are good at doing rather than just what they are capable of doing. It includes questions
such as: ‘What are you good at?’, ‘What comes easily to you?’ and ‘What have you done recently
that you are proud of?’

Selection tests are used to provide valid and reliable evidence of levels of abilities, intelligence,
and personality; developing a better recruitment website; developing a talent bank to ensure that
vacancies are filled quickly; streamlining processes to reduce the time to fill vacancies; and the
development of a competency framework used for competency-based selection. A talent
management toolkit is used to identify and develop potential high performers at every level in the
organization. Psychological tests are measuring instruments, which is why they are often referred
to as psychometric tests: ‘psychometric’ means mental measurement. Psychometric tests assess
intelligence or personality. They use systematic and standardized procedures to measure
differences in individual characteristics, thus enabling selectors to gain a greater understanding of
candidates to help in predicting the extent to which they will be successful in a job. The tests
should have been developed by a reputable psychologist or test agency on the basis of extensive
research and field testing, and they must meet the specific needs of the user

One of the most detailed forms of employment screening and selection takes place in an assessment
center, which offers a detailed, structured evaluation of applicants on a wide range of job-related
knowledge, skills, and abilities. Specific managerial skills and characteristics an assessment center
attempts to measure include oral and written communication skills, behavioral flexibility,
creativity, tolerance of uncertainty, and skills in organization, planning, and decision-making.
Because a variety of instruments are used to assess participants, the assessment center often makes
use of large test batteries. In assessment centers, applicants are evaluated on several job-related
variables using a variety of techniques, such as personality and ability tests that are considered to
be valid predictors of managerial success. Applicants also take part in several situational exercises,
which are attempts to approximate certain aspects of the managerial job. These exercises are
related to work samples, except that they are approximations rather than actual examples of work
tasks.

5.2 Performance Appraisal:

In work organizations, performance measurement typically takes place in formalized performance

appraisals, which measure worker performance compared to certain predetermined standards.
Performance appraisals serve many purposes for the individual worker, for the worker’s
supervisor, and for the organization as a whole. For the worker, performance appraisals are linked
to career advancement. Performance appraisals function as the foundation for pay increases and
promotions, provide feedback to help improve performance recognize weaknesses, and offer
information about the attainment of work goals. Work supervisors use performance appraisals to
make personnel decisions such as promotions, demotions, pay raises, and firings and to give
workers constructive feedback to improve work performance. Moreover, the formal performance
appraisal procedure facilitates organizational communication by helping to encourage interaction
between workers and supervisors. Research has shown that employees who receive regular
performance appraisals that are characterized as “helpful” to the performance of their job show
stronger commitment to their jobs and organizations. For the organization, performance appraisals
provide a means of assessing the productivity of individuals and work units.
Process:

Methods:

KRAs (Key Result Areas) and KPIs (Key Performance Indicators) are used in appraisals to provide
a structured approach to evaluating performance, ensuring accountability, and aligning individual
efforts with organizational goals by defining measurable outcomes and tracking progress. To
effectively fill out Key Result Areas (KRAs) and Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) in an
appraisal form, identify the employee's job responsibilities and align them with the company's
strategic objectives, then translate them into measurable KRAs and KPIs. The process of defining
and agreeing upon KRAs and KPIs should occur before the performance period begins so that
employees have a clear understanding of what they are expected to achieve and how their
performance will be measured.

Why Use KRAs and KPIs in Appraisals?

 Clear Performance Tracking: KRAs and KPIs provide a structured approach to monitor
progress towards strategic goals.
 Accountability and Alignment: By defining individual or team responsibilities, KPIs and
KRAs enhance accountability and align efforts with organizational objectives.
 Data-Driven Decision-Making: KPIs provide data that HR can use to make informed
decisions regarding talent management, resource allocation, and strategic planning.
  Focus on Results: KRAs and KPIs encourage employees to focus on achieving results
rather than just completing tasks.
 Facilitate Performance Improvement: By identifying areas where performance falls short,
KPIs can help employees and managers identify areas for improvement and development.
 Promote Transparency and Fairness: A clear framework of KRAs and KPIs ensures that
employees understand what is expected of them and how their performance will be
evaluated.
Here's a more detailed breakdown:
1. Understand the Basics:
 KRA (Key Result Area): These are the broad, strategic areas where an employee is
expected to deliver results. They outline the employee's roles and responsibilities and help
align their work with the larger business plan. Example: For a sales manager, a KRA might
be Achieve and maintain a high level of sales team performance. KRA for Psychologist
might be Client Assessment and Diagnosis
 KPI (Key Performance Indicator): These are specific, measurable metrics used to track
progress and assess performance against the KRAs. Example: To measure the sales
manager's KRA, a KPI could be Increase monthly sales revenue by 10%. KPI for
Psychologist’s KRA-Client Assessment and Diagnosis will be:
1. Number of new client assessments completed per month
2. Accuracy of diagnoses based on standardized tests
3. Time taken to complete assessments

2. Steps to Fill Out KRAs and KPIs:

 Review Job Description: Start by thoroughly reviewing the employee's job description to
understand their core responsibilities and expected outcomes.
 Identify Key Areas: Determine where the employee contributes to the organization's
success.
 Translate into KRAs: Convert these key areas into KRAs, focusing on the results the
employee is expected to achieve.
 Set Measurable KPIs: For each KRA, define specific, measurable, achievable, relevant,
and time-bound (SMART) KPIs.
 Specific: KPIs should be clearly defined and not ambiguous.
 Measurable: They should be quantifiable and trackable.
 Achievable: The targets should be challenging but realistic.
 Relevant: KPIs should directly relate to the KRA and the organization's objectives.
 Time-bound: Set a timeframe for achieving the KPIs.
 Document and Share: Document the KRAs and KPIs in the appraisal form and share them
with the employee at the beginning of the evaluation period.
 Regularly Monitor and Discuss: Track progress against KPIs throughout the evaluation
period and have regular discussions with the employee to provide feedback and support.

The job performance of individuals can be assessed in many ways. The most common procedures
can be divided into two categories objective performance measures and subjective judgments.
Objective measures are counts of various behaviors (e.g., number of days absent from work) or of
the results of job behaviors (e.g., total monthly sales). Subjective measures are ratings by people
who should be knowledgeable about the person’s job performance. Usually supervisors provide
job performance ratings of their subordinates. Both types of measures can be useful, but studies
have shown that when both are used for the same employees, they don’t always agree on the level
of performance suggesting they likely reflect different aspects of job performance. Both objective
and subjective measures will be presented in the following discussion.

All or part of the written appraisal may be in narrative form. Here the person’s supervisor assesses
the employee's past performance and required areas of improvement. The supervisor’s narrative
assessment aids help the employee understand whether his or her performance was good or bad,
and how to improve that performance. Once the types of dimensions have been considered, the
next decision is whether to evaluate performance by comparing employees with one another
(ranking), using objective measures such as attendance and number of units sold, or having
supervisors rate how well the employee has performed on each of the dimensions.

Employee Comparisons- To reduce leniency, employees can be compared with one another instead
of being rated individually on a scale. The easiest and most common of these methods is the rank
order. In this approach, employees are ranked in order by their judged performance for each
relevant dimension. Rank orders are easily used when there are only a few employees to rank, but
they become difficult to use with larger numbers. Ranking the top few and bottom few employees
is relatively easy, but deciding which employees should be placed in the ranks is more difficult.

To make this process easier, paired comparisons can be used. This method involves comparing
each possible pair of employees and choosing which one of each pair is the better employee. If
you have 5 employees (A, B, C, D, E), you would create a chart with the following pairs: (A vs
B), (A vs C), (A vs D), (A vs E), (B vs C), (B vs D), (B vs E), (C vs D), (C vs E), (D vs E). For
each pair, you would decide which employee is performing better. The final type of employee
comparison system is called forced distribution. With this method, a predetermined percentage of
employees are placed in each of the five categories. Employees consider forced distribution scales
to be the least fair method of performance appraisal. Forced distribution systems are much easier
to use than the other two employee comparison methods, but they also have a drawback. To use
the method, one must assume that employee performance is normally distributed, that is, that there
are certain percentages of employees who are poor, average, and excellent.

Performance rating scales are the most frequently used merit rating technique. The supervisor’s
task is to specify how or to what degree the worker possesses each of the relevant job
characteristics. In the ranking technique, supervisors list their workers in order from highest to
lowest or best to worst on specific characteristics and abilities and on overall job proficiency. A
behaviorally anchored rating scale (BARS) attempts to evaluate job performance in terms of
specific behaviors that are important to success or failure on the job rather than in terms of general
attitudes or factors such as communication skills, cooperation, or common sense. Behavioral
checklists consist of a list of behaviors, expectations, or results for each dimension. This list is
used to force the supervisor to concentrate on the relevant behaviors that fall under a dimension.
Behavioral checklists are constructed by taking the task statements from a detailed job description
(e.g., Types correspondence) and converting them into behavioral performance statements
representing the level at which the behavior is expected to be performed (e.g., Correspondence is
typed accurately and does not contain spelling or grammatical errors).

In the behavioral observation scale (BOS) approach to performance appraisal, employees are also
evaluated in terms of critical incidents. In that respect, the BOS is similar to the BARS. However,
BOS appraisers rate subordinates on the frequency of the critical incidents as they are observed to
occur over a given period. Ratings are assigned on a 5-point scale, and the evaluation yields a total
score for each employee, obtained by adding the ratings for each critical incident. With the critical
incident method, the supervisor keeps a log of positive and negative examples (critical incidents)
of a subordinate's work-related behavior. Every 6 months or so, the supervisor and subordinate
meet to discuss the latter's performance, using the incidents as examples. Compiling incidents is
useful. It provides examples of good and poor performance the supervisor can use to explain the
person's rating. It makes the supervisor think about the subordinate’s appraisal all during the year
(so the rating does not just reflect the employee's most recent performance). Behavioral
Expectation Scales (BES), a method of rating employees based on specific behaviors and
performance expectations.
Management by objectives (MBO) involves a mutual agreement between employees and managers
on goals to be achieved in a given period. Instead of focusing on abilities or traits as in merit rating,
or on job behaviors as in BARS and BOS, management by objectives focuses on results on how
well employees accomplish specified goals. The emphasis is on what employees do rather than on
what their supervisors think of them or perceive their behaviors to be. Furthermore, MBO actively
involves employees in their evaluations; they are not simply graded or rated by others. MBO
consists of two phases: goal setting and performance review. In goal setting, employees meet
individually with supervisors to determine the goals for which they will strive in the time before
the next appraisal, usually 1 year, and to discuss ways of reaching those goals. The goals must be
realistic, specific, and as objective as possible. For example, it is not enough for salespersons to
say that they will try to sell more products. A fixed number of items must be established as the
goal. In performance reviews, employees and supervisors discuss the extent to which the goals
were met. Again, this is a mutual process involving both parties. The performance appraisal is
based on job results, not on characteristics such as initiative or general skills. Employees in MBO
programs may feel pressured to set higher goals with each appraisal to show evidence of
improvement. A supervisor may not accept last year’s quota as a sufficient goal for this year’s job
performance. Thus, the goals may become increasingly unrealistic. The MBO technique satisfies
fair employment guidelines and is effective in increasing employee motivation and productivity.

360-degree feedback, also known as multi-source feedback, is the assessment of someone’s

performance by several people, which is fed back to the individual. The assessors usually include
their manager and subordinates but to these may be added colleagues and even, rarely, customers.
It is also known as multi-source feedback. Assessors rate aspects of performance such as
leadership, teamwork, communication, organizational skills, decisiveness, drive, and adaptability.
Questionnaires are normally processed with the help of software developed within the organization
or, most commonly, provided by external suppliers. Feedback is presented to individuals, often
anonymously but sometimes by their manager. If the purpose of the system is primarily
developmental, as should be the case, the action may be left to individuals as part of their personal
development plans, but the planning process may be shared between individuals and their
managers if they both have access to the information. Even if the data only goes to the individual,
it can be discussed in a performance review meeting so that joint plans can be made, and there is
much to be said for adopting this approach. Expert counseling and coaching for individuals
because of the feedback may be provided by a member of the HR department or an outside
consultant. The advantage of 360-degree feedback is that individuals can get a more rounded view
of their performance from different perspectives than they can obtain if their only assessment is
by their manager. The disadvantages are that the process can be stressful, people do not necessarily
give honest feedback, and it involves quite a lot of administration.

180-degree feedback is a structured performance appraisal method where feedback on an

employee’s performance is collected from two main sources: the employee through self-
assessment, and their direct manager. This approach provides a dual perspective on the employee’s
work-related behaviors, contributions, and overall performance. The self-assessment aspect
encourages individuals to reflect on their strengths and weaknesses, fostering self-awareness and
personal development. The manager’s assessment offers an external view of the employee’s
contributions, achievements, and areas that require improvement or further development. The
sandwich feedback technique, also known as the praise-criticism-praise method, involves
delivering feedback by starting with positive reinforcement, then providing constructive criticism
or areas for improvement, and finally ending with another positive statement.
5.3.1 Human Resource Development

HRD is a process for developing and unleashing human expertise through organization
development and personnel training and development to improve performance.

Formal human resource development examples-

 Tuition assistance
 Work-related college courses
 Personalized development plan
 Organizational training sessions
 Internal training with consultants or qualified staff members

Informal human resource development examples

 Mentoring by managers or more experienced employees
 Managerial coaching
 Cross-training with highly trained employees

What is Training and Development?

In the organizational context, Training and Development are systematic processes to enhance
employees' skills, knowledge, and abilities (SKAs) to improve their performance and prepare them
for future roles. Both are foundational for individual growth, organizational effectiveness, and
continuous improvement.

Training: Training is a short-term process focused on developing specific skills or knowledge for
an employee’s current role. It is practical and task-oriented, targeting immediate application. Peter
Drucker, a pioneer in modern management, emphasized the value of training, asserting that
improving employee capabilities is essential for organizational success. Drucker believed that the
effectiveness of any organization is strongly linked to its employees’ continuous skill
enhancement. Example: At Amazon, warehouse employees receive on-the-job training to quickly
understand picking, packing, and safety protocols. This training enables employees to perform
their roles effectively from day one, reducing errors and enhancing productivity.

Development: Development is a broader, long-term process aimed at equipping employees with

general skills and knowledge for future roles. It often includes leadership training, mentoring, and
opportunities for employees to take on stretch assignments. The development emphasizes personal
and professional growth over specific job functions. Example: IBM's "Think Academy" provides
employees with continuous learning resources that focus on leadership, strategy, and emerging
technologies. This ensures that IBM employees remain adaptable and skilled, fostering their career
growth while aligning with the company’s long-term vision (Dessler, 2021). These processes
promote a culture of continuous learning, where employees are empowered to keep up with
industry standards, adapt to evolving job roles, and engage more fully with their work. This
adaptability is essential in the modern workplace, where skill demands shift rapidly (Armstrong &
Taylor, 2019).

The ADDIE model, standing for Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement, and Evaluate, is a widely
used instructional design framework that guides educators and trainers in creating effective
learning experiences by providing a structured, systematic approach to training development.
1. Analyze: Identify Needs: Determine the specific skills or knowledge gaps within the workplace
that need addressing through training. Example: A tech company identifies that its sales team
struggles to effectively sell a new product line. Understand Context: Consider the organizational
goals, target audience, and learning environment. Example: A financial services firm recognizes a
need for leadership development training to improve team management skills.
2. Design: Set Objectives: Define clear and measurable learning outcomes for the training
program. Example: The sales training program aims to improve product knowledge,
communication skills, and negotiation techniques. Plan Content & Methods: Determine the best
approach for delivering the training, whether it's instructor-led, online, or blended. Example: The
leadership development program could involve workshops, online modules, and coaching
sessions.
3. Develop: Create Materials: Develop the necessary resources, such as presentations, e-learning
modules, and assessments, to support the training. Example: For the sales training, create
presentations, role-playing scenarios, and quizzes. Pilot Test: Conduct a pilot test to refine the
materials and ensure they are effective.
4. Implement: Deliver Training: Roll out the training program to the target audience, ensuring they
have access to the necessary resources and support. Example: Conduct workshops, make e-
learning modules accessible, and provide ongoing support to learners.
5. Evaluate: Assess Effectiveness: Evaluate the training program's effectiveness by measuring
knowledge retention, skill improvement, and impact on performance. Example: Conduct post-
training assessments, observe performance in the workplace, and gather feedback from learners.
Refine & Improve: Use the evaluation data to refine the training program and make improvements
for future iterations.

Training Methods:
Organizations employ various training methods depending on the objectives of the program and
the needs of the target audience. Here are some commonly used methods:

1. On-the-Job Training (OJT): This method involves employees learning directly through
experience, often under the guidance of an experienced mentor or supervisor. OJT is beneficial for
roles requiring hands-on skills or knowledge of specific procedures.
Types of OJT
 Internship: A combination of paid work experience and classroom instruction.
 Job shadowing: A new employee observes a trained employee to learn a job.
 Job instruction: A trainer teaches employees how to perform their job directly on the job.
 Cross-training: Employees are trained to perform multiple tasks within their job role.
 Delegation: Subordinates are given more responsibility to grow and develop their skills.

2. Coaching and Mentoring: This one-on-one approach focuses on personal and professional
development through guidance from a senior employee or manager. Coaching aims to develop
specific competencies, while mentoring is more holistic, targeting long-term growth. Example:
Many companies use formal mentoring programs to develop new hires or future leaders. Deloitte,
for example, pair’s junior employees with senior mentors to help them understand company
culture, network, and grow within the firm.

3. Role-Playing: A participatory method where employees act out scenarios they might encounter
on the job, helping them develop communication, problem-solving, and interpersonal skills. Role-
playing is often used for customer service or management training. Example: Customer service
representatives might role-play handling difficult customer interactions, allowing them to practice
their responses and build confidence.

4. E-Learning: E-learning platforms offer self-paced, remote learning opportunities. It’s a cost-
effective solution for companies with large or geographically dispersed teams and is often used for
foundational or compliance training. Example: IBM offers extensive online courses on a range of
topics, from programming languages to AI, allowing employees to gain skills at their own pace.
This makes it easier for IBM to maintain a high level of knowledge across its workforce.

5. Classroom Training: A traditional format involving lectures, discussions, and group activities.
This method is effective for foundational knowledge sharing, as it allows for structured learning.
Example: Manufacturing companies often use classroom training to educate employees on safety
protocols, as it ensures that all employees receive the same, standardized information.

6. Simulations: Creating realistic scenarios that mirror job tasks, simulations are highly effective
for jobs where direct training could be risky or costly. Example: Flight schools use flight simulators
to train pilots, allowing them to practice managing in-flight situations without the risks of an actual
flight.

7. Workshops: Workshops are group-based training sessions that encourage active participation
and hands-on practice. They are ideal for collaborative learning and team-building. Example:
Microsoft organizes coding workshops to upskill its developers on the latest technologies, allowing
for interactive learning and immediate feedback.

Evaluation of Training:
Programs evaluating training programs is essential to measure their effectiveness and ensure
resources are well spent. Proper evaluation helps organizations understand what’s working and
what needs improvement, allowing for better future planning.

The Kirkpatrick Model is one of the most widely used frameworks for evaluating training
effectiveness. It has four levels, each progressively measuring a different aspect of the training
outcome:
1. Reaction: This level assesses participants’ initial reactions to the training, often through surveys
or feedback forms. Questions include, “Did you find the training useful?” or “Would you
recommend it to others?”
2. Learning: This level evaluates the extent to which participants acquired the intended knowledge,
skills, or attitudes. Pre- and post-training tests or assessments can measure learning outcomes.
3. Behavior: This level assesses whether participants are applying what they learned on the job.
Observations, performance reviews, or interviews can help determine if there’s been a noticeable
behavior change.
4. Results: The final level examines the overall impact of the training on the organization. Metrics
such as improved productivity, reduced error rates, or increased customer satisfaction can provide
insight into the program’s success (Kirkpatrick, 2006).

Example: A call center training program might measure reaction through post-training surveys,
learning through knowledge tests, behavior through on-the-job evaluations, and results through
improved customer satisfaction scores.
ROI of Training
Phillips ROI Model: Measures the return on investment (ROI) of training programs by comparing
monetary benefits to training costs. Helps organizations make data-driven decisions and allocate
resources effectively.

This model builds on Kirkpatrick’s model by adding a fifth level of ROI. Return on investment
(ROI) for training programs is calculated to determine if the program’s financial benefits outweigh
its costs. This is crucial for companies looking to justify the budget allocated to employee training.
It is calculated as:
1. Cost-benefit analysis: compares the program’s expenses with the financial gains generated, such
as increased sales or efficiency. Example: A company invests $50,000 in a sales training
program. After the training, they see a $100,000 increase in sales due to the program.
Total Program Benefits: $100,000
 Total Program Costs: $50,000
 ROI = ($100,000 - $50,000) / $50,000 x 100% = $50,000 / $50,000 x 100% = 100%
Interpretation: The training program generated a 100% ROI, meaning the company earned back
every dollar spent on the training and an additional dollar for every dollar invested.

2. Non-Monetary Benefits: Training often brings intangible benefits, like improved employee
satisfaction, better retention, and enhanced company culture, which contribute to the
organization’s long-term health and stability (Phillips, 2012). Example: At Microsoft, an
upskilling program focused on new technologies showed a positive ROI through higher
productivity rates and lower error rates post-training. Kearns and Miller (1997) believe that only
this sort of measure is useful in evaluating the overall impact of training. They argue that particular
measures should be used to evaluate specific training; for example, if development aims to bring
about greater awareness of customers then it should still be measured by the eventual effect on
customer spend, customer satisfaction, and number of customers

5.3.2 Concept of work-life balance

[Link]

Work-family conflict is the dilemma of trying to balance the conflicting demands of work and
family responsibilities. Individuals who report high levels of work-family conflict tend to report
low job satisfaction. Work-family conflict has also been linked to work stress, with high levels of
work-family conflict being associated with strains of anxiety, depression and physical health,
absence and lateness and dissatisfaction with life in general.
Work-life balance refers to the ability to effectively manage work responsibilities alongside
personal life, including family, leisure, and self-care. Achieving a proper work-life balance is
essential for an individual’s well-being, mental health, and productivity. It also contributes to
maintaining healthy relationships with family members and preventing work-family conflict,
where the demands of work negatively impact family life or vice versa.
The Six Components of Work-Life Balance:

 Self-Management refers to sufficiently managing one’s self which can be challenging,

particularly in getting proper sleep, exercise, and nutrition. It is the recognition which tells
us that effectively using the spaces in our lives is vital, and that available resources, time,
and life are finite.
 Time Management or more appropriately said effective time management involves making
optimal use of your day and the supporting resources that can be summoned one can keep
pace when the resources match the challenges. Time management is enhanced through
appropriate goals and discerning what is more important and urgent, versus important or
urgent. It entails knowing what you do best and when, and assembling the appropriate tools
to accomplish specific tasks.
 Stress Management refers to managing the stressful situations. Since, societies tend to
become more complex over time therefore these days stress on an individual is inevitable.
More people, distractions, and noise require each of us to become adept at maintaining
tranquility and working ourselves out of pressure-filled situations. Most forms of
multitasking ultimately increase our stress, versus focusing on one thing at a time.
 Change Management refers to the continuous adaptation of new methods and re-adapting
others is vital to a successful career and a happy home life. Effective change management
involves making periodic and concerted efforts to ensure that the volume and rate of change
at work and at home does not overwhelm or defeat you. In our fast-paced world, change is
virtually the only constant.
  Technology Management refers to effectively managing technology which means ensuring
that technology serves you, rather than abuses you. Technology has always been with us,
since the first walking stick, flint, spear, and wheel. Now, the rate of change is accelerating,
brought on by vendors seeking expanding market share. Often there is no choice but to
keep up with the technology, but one must rule technology, not vice versa.
 Leisure Management is the most overlooked part of the work-life balance supporting
disciplines, it acknowledges the importance of rest and relaxation- that one can’t
shortchange leisure, and that “time off” is a vital component of the human experience.
Curiously, too much of the same leisure activity, however enjoyable, can lead to monotony.
Thus, effective leisure management requires varying one’s activities.

Work-life balance practices/initiatives at the workplace typically include flexible working options
such as flexible hours, telework, part-time, term-time, and job-sharing, as well as childcare and
eldercare facilities, information or financial support pertaining to the non-work sphere of life, and
various onsite services. Such interventions are typically termed as family-friendly policies (FFPs)
or work-life benefits and policies (WLBPs). WLBPs include flexible work arrangements such as
flexibility in scheduling time of arrival and departure to and/or from work, flexibility in choosing
the place of work, leave instead of family reasons such as parental leave, direct financial assistance
for child care and information services such as finding a childcare center for a new employee, etc.

Wise and Bond (2003) cite four main drivers for introducing work-life policies:
- recruitment, enables becoming an employer of choice, also countering negative work practices
such as longer working hours;
- retention: more responsive to the workforce's changing and diverse needs;
- supportive working environment and improving organizational culture with resultant heightened
morale
- Motivation among staff and equality; improving access through inclusiveness.

Work-life balance programs listed by Konrad and Mangel (2000) were: on-site day care, near site
day care, sick childcare, emergency childcare, sick days of childcare, on-site conveniences,
extended maternity leave, gradual return to work, paternity leave, adoption leave, parental leave,
spouse placement, supervisory training in work, family sensitivity, flex-time, job sharing, part year
work, part-time workforce, voluntary condensed time and part-time work for professionals.

Compressed work week: A compressed work week is an arrangement where an employee works
the standard number of hours in a one or two week period, but compresses those hours into lesser
work days thereby working longer hours at work. Compressed workweeks are suitable for
employees who do not need to deal with incoming work on a daily basis or there are several
employees doing the same job. Organization can reduce stress; employee absenteeism and turnover
thereby increase employee morale and loyalty. Compressed working weeks, involve the
reorganization of work time into extended, but fewer, chunks during a working week. This could
mean working hours being compressed into 3, 4 or 4.5 days a week. Another possibility is working
four 10-hour days per week as opposite to five 8-hour days. This can be achieved by starting work
early and/or finishing late, building up bonus hours which may then use to take a half-day or a full
day's leave from work. The benefits of this type of flexible leave are savings on travel and traffic,
and opportunities to put up days for rest, family or holidays. With these schemes, workers or
groups of workers may start and finish work at different pre-arranged times within agreed limits.
Flexi-time: Flexible working arrangements take a number of structures. These include the
flexibility in working time arrangement, the number of hours worked and with regard to place of
work. These day’s organizations adopt various kinds of flextime policies such as flexible
scheduling program, job sharing, part- time work, tele-working etc. in workplace.

Family Leave: Family leave policies allow employees to be away from the workplace for varying
period of time in order to deal with family responsibilities.

Employee Assistance Programs (EAP): Employee assistance programs are intended to recognize
the interaction between people’s domestic and working lives and to offer confidential counselling
to staff to address personal or other problems, including work-related stress that may be affecting
their performance. The nature of today EAPs is different from organizations to organizations. The
typically examples of EAPs included providing assistance in the areas of personal issues,
relationship issues, eldercare, childcare, parenting issues, harassment, substance abuse, job stress,
balancing work and family, financial or legal and family violence. Some EAPs providers are also
able to offer other services including retirement or layoff assistance, and wellness and health
promotion and fitness while others may offer advice on long term illnesses, disability issues,
counselling for crisis situation. It can help employees in managing stress and resolving personal
problems as well.

Job sharing & job splitting: Job sharing is when two or more employees share the duties and
responsibilities of a single full-time position, working reduced hours or different shifts. E.g. - Two
people might share a receptionist role, each working half the days or shifts, or a teacher might
share the workload of a full-time teaching position with another teacher. It can increase employee
flexibility, improve work-life balance, and offer opportunities for employees to gain experience in
different areas of a role. Job splitting is when a full-time position is divided into two or more
separate positions, each with a reduced workload and responsibilities. E.g. - A full-time marketing
manager role could be split into two roles: one focused on digital marketing and another focused
on traditional marketing. Can lead to greater specialization, increased efficiency, and allow for
different skill sets to be utilized.

Remote Work: The practice of remote work allows employees to eliminate commute time and
balance work and home responsibilities more effectively. By working from home, an individual
can simultaneously fulfil work obligations and address family needs, such as caring for a sick
family member or spending time with children. Example: During the COVID-19 pandemic, many
companies transitioned to remote work, providing employees with more flexibility to balance work
and family life, significantly reducing work-family conflict.

Clear Boundaries between Work and Personal Life: Encouraging employees to set boundaries
helps in maintaining work-life balance. If employees are expected to work overtime regularly or
answer emails after hours, it creates friction between work responsibilities and family
commitments. On the other hand, organizations that promote boundaries, such as no work emails
after a certain time, foster a healthier work environment. Example: Companies like Slack have
implemented policies that limit after-hours communication, encouraging employees to disconnect
and focus on personal and family time.
(Mention Rain [Link]. three Life Satisfaction hypothesis also in the exam)