SNC2DP Course Review

CHEMISTRY
Safety:

• WHMIS & HHPS Symbols

o HHPS – Household Hazardous Product Symbols

o WHMIS – Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System (a Canadian system)

o GHS – Global Harmonized System – recognized around the world

Describing Matter & Classifying Matter:

• Chemical vs. Physical Properties

o Physical Property – A characteristic of a substance that can be observed without a
chemical reaction occurring.
 Ex. The length of an object is 24.5 cm.
o Chemical Property – A characteristic of a substance that can only be observed if a
chemical reaction occurs.
 Ex. The burning temperature of the object is 218°C.
• Chemical vs. Physical Change
o Physical Change – Any change to a substance that does not involve a chemical
reaction.
 Ex. Cutting a paper in half.
o Chemical Change – Any change to a substance that does involve a chemical reaction.
 Ex. Setting a piece of paper on fire.
• Evidence of a Chemical Change:
o Change in colour.
o Change in odour.
o Gas is produced (not from evaporation).
o Solids (aka precipitate) are produced from precipitation (not from freezing).
o Release/absorption of energy (heat or light). Release of energy is exothermic.
Absorption of energy is endothermic.
o Change is sometimes irreversible.

Atomic Structure
• Standard Atomic Notation
o

• Bohr & Lewis Diagrams for Atoms

o Bohr Diagram Example:

Includes all orbits and electrons. Additionally, in the nucleus, state # of protons and # of
neutrons.
o Lewis Diagram Example:

Includes only element symbol and valence electrons.

• Atoms vs. Ions
o Atoms are electrically neutral particles, meaning # of protons = # of electrons. They
consist of 3 subatomic particles, each located in either the nucleus, or orbits of the
atom. Only outer-most orbits are called “valence orbits” and outer-most electrons are
called “valence electrons.”
o Ions are atoms that have become electrically charged by gaining or losing valence
electrons (# of protons ≠ # of electrons).
 Atoms that have gained electrons are called Anions with a negative ionic
charge.
 Atoms that have lost electrons are called Cations with a positive ionic charge.
o Most atoms are very reactive. The reactiveness of an atom depends on the valence
electrons.
o Atoms try to obtain stable octets (for stability), a state at which its valence shell is full.
There are three ways to obtain this:
 Losing electrons (give electrons to another atom) (Ionic Bond)
 Gaining electrons (take electrons from another atom) (Ionic Bond)
 Share electrons (Covalent Bond)
o This “desire” to obtain a full valence shell is known as the octet rule.
o Atoms lose/gain/share electrons with other atoms, forming compounds.
Patterns and Trends in the Periodic Table

• Periodic Table
o Vertical columns in the periodic table are called groups, ranging from 1-18 (usually in
roman numerals). Some groups are called families due to their similar properties.
 Group 1 – Alkali Metals
 Group 2 – Alkaline Earth Metals
 Group 17 – Halogens
 Group 18 – Noble Gases
o Horizontal rows in the periodic table are called periods. There are 7 periods.
• Metals, Non-Metals, Metalloids
o Metals with 1, 2, or 3 valence electrons tend to lose electrons to obtain a full shell,
becoming positive ions (cations). Metals typically appear before the staircase.
o Metalloids are a mix between metal and non-metal properties. They typically appear on
the staircase, a zigzag line near the end of periodic table. Metalloids usually share
electrons (covalent bond).
o Non-Metals with 5, 6, or 7 valence electrons tend to gain electrons to obtain a full shell,
becoming negative ions (anions).
o Elements in the same group form ions with the same charge because they need to
lose/gain the same number of valence electrons.
• Atomic Radii
o Atomic radius explains the behaviour of atoms or compounds.
 The lower down an atom is in a group on the periodic table, the bigger the
atomic radius is.
 The atomic radius decreases the further right the element is in the period on the
periodic table.

Bonding

• Bonds are forces that keep atoms/ions together in a compound. Atoms bond to fill their valence
orbits and gaining stable octet for stability.
• Electronegativity
o Electronegativity (EN) is the ability of an atom to attract a pair of electrons.
o The values can help classify whether a compound is ionic, polar covalent, or nonpolar
covalent.
 If one atom has a significantly higher EN value than the atom it’s bonding too, it
will take the electron pair away from the other atom, hence an electron transfer
has occurred. This is an ionic bond.
 If both atoms have very similar EN values, they are equally holding on to the
electron pair. This means the shared electron pair has a stable balance of
attractive and repulsive forces; hence the result is a nonpolar covalent bond.
 If one atom has a slightly larger EN value than the other atom, it means both are
holding on to the electron pair, but one atom pulls the electrons more. This
causes partial charges (one atom is partially positive, the other is partially
negative) between the atoms called poles, resulting in a polar covalent bond.
o If the difference in EN value between atoms is:
 0 – 0.4: Nonpolar Covalent
 0.5 – 1.7: Polar Covalent
 1.8 – 3.2: Ionic
• Characteristics of Ionic vs Covalent Bonds
o Ionic Bond is a transfer of electrons from one atom to another, creating a cation and
anion, held together through electrostatic attraction. This bond occurs between a metal
(cation) and non-metal (anion).
  Physical Appearance – Hard, brittle, crystalline solids.
 Melting/Boiling Point – High
 Solubility – Soluble
 Conductivity – Conducts electricity.
 Flammability – Rarely burns.
 Identifying if the cation is a metal and the anion is a nonmetal in a chemical
formula can indicate the bond is ionic.
o Covalent Bond is the sharing of one or more pairs of electrons, held together by this
sharing. Covalent bonds can share single pair, double pair, or triple pairs of electrons.
This bond occurs between two non-metals.
 Physical Appearance – Soft and flexible.
 Melting/Boiling Point – Low
 Solubility – Low solubility.
 Conductivity – Conducts electricity poorly.
 Flammability – Flammable.
 Identifying if the cation and anion are nonmetals in a chemical formula can
indicate the bond is covalent.
• Diagrams for Ions & Ionic Compounds
o Bohr Diagrams
 Notice how the diagram for the ion is similar to Bohr diagrams of neutral atoms
but brackets are added, and the charge of the ion is included in the top right.
When writing ionic charges, must write number then charge (e.g. 1+) NOT the
opposite (e.g. +1). For ionic compounds, just combine multiple ion diagrams
together, like below.

o Lewis Diagrams
 There are two Lewis diagrams for Ionic Compounds, the 1st is electron transfer.
In the diagram below, the arrows indicate where the electron from the cation is
going to go in the anion.

 The second diagram is the Lewis diagram of the compound formed after
electron transfer. The diagram for the ion is very similar to Lewis diagrams of
neutral atoms but brackets are added along with the charge of the ion in the top
right. When writing ionic charges, must write number then charge (e.g. 1+) NOT
the opposite (e.g. +1). For ionic compounds, just combine multiple ion diagrams
together, like below.

• Diagrams for Covalent Molecular Compounds

 o Notice how sticks/lines are used to represent 1 pair of electrons. Any pair of electrons
that do not bond in the covalent bond are called lone pairs.

Nomenclature Rules & Chemical Formulas

• Ionic Compounds
o Binary Ionic Compounds - Compounds of only 2 different atoms
 Nomenclature
• Cation retains the same name.
• Anion’s name retains mostly the same but it’s ending is removed and
replaced with “-ide”.
 Formula
• Criss-cross method:
o Write element symbols for metal (cation) first and then non-
metal (anion) second.
o Write charges of the ions above the symbols.
o Criss cross the charges by bringing the charges (without + or -
sign) to subscript position.
o Ensure subscripts are at lowest ratio.
o List evidence that the overall charge is 0 (e.g. 2(1+) + 1(2-) = 0)
• Net Sum Method
o In columns, list each element and the amount of atoms
needed to have net sum zero. (e.g. 2 Al3+ and 3 S2-)
o Under each column, write the total charge of all the atoms in
one column.
o List evidence that the overall charge is 0 (e.g. 2(3+) + 3(2-) = 0)
o Polyatomic Ions/Anions – A group of non-metals that bond with each other but still
containing a charge as a group and hence participating in ionic bonding as if it was a
single element.

NO31- Nitrate
CO32- Carbonate
ClO31- Chlorate
SO42- Sulfate
PO43- Phosphate
NH41+ Ammonium
OH1- Hydroxide

 NICK the CAMEL had CLAM for SUPPER in PHOENIX

• 1st Letter – Element Symnbol
• Consonants - # oxygen
• Vowels – Ionic charge
 Polyatomic ions typically contain an “ate”, “ide”, or “ite” ending.

Two Less Oxygen One Less Oxygen Regular # Oxygen One Extra Oxygen
 Hypo___ite ___ite ___ate Per___ate

If removing one oxygen If removing one oxygen most common If adding one oxygen
from the -ite oxyanion, from the -ate oxyanion, oxyanion has suffix - atom to the -ate
add prefix hypo-. change suffix to -ite. ate. oxyanion, put per-
prefix
o Oxyanions – A class of negatively charged polyatomic ions that contain oxygen. The # of
oxygen atoms can change (affecting the reactivity) but the overall charge remains the
same.

o Multivalent Cations – Transition metals from the middle of the periodic table in the 4th
period or greater that have more complex electron arrangements in their orbitals. This
means there is more than one possible arrangement for these atoms to be stable.

Element Cations & Charges Systematic Name Common Name

(Higher Charge IC, Lower Charge OUS)

Cr2+ Chromium (II) Chromous

Chromium
Cr3+ Chromium (III) Chromic
Co2+ Cobalt (II) Cobaltous
Cobalt
Co3+ Cobalt (III) Cobaltic
Cu+ Copper (I) Cuprous
Copper
Cu2+ Copper (II) Cupric
Pb2+ Lead (II) Plumbous
Lead
Pb4+ Lead (IV) Plumbic
Hg22+ Mercury (I) Mercurous
Mercury
Hg2+ Mercury (II) Mercuric
Sn2+ Tin (II) Stannous
Tin
Sn4+ Tin (IV) Stannic
Fe2+ Iron (II) Ferrous
Iron
Fe3+ Iron (III) Ferric
Mn2+ Manganese (II) Manganous
Manganese
Mn4+ Manganese (IV) Manganic
• Molecular Compounds
o Regular Covalent Compounds
 Nomenclature
• Element with lower EN value goes first using the original elements
name.
• Second element is named as an anion (-ide suffix)
• Prefixes are placed in front of the first and second element (mono, di,
tri, tetra, penta, hexa, hepta, octa).
• “Mono” prefix is not used in front of the first element.
 Formula
• Write element with lower EN value first and higher EN value second.
• Write subscripts indicating # of each atom.
• When creating the formula of a molecule, DO NOT REDUCE THE RATIO.
Only in ionic bonds are ratios reduced.
o Diatomic Molecules
 H2 – Hydrogen gas
O2 – Oxygen gas
F2 – Fluorine gas
Br2 – Liquid Bromine
I2 – Solid Iodine
N2 – Nitrogen gas
Cl2 – Chlorine gas
Describing Chemical Reaction

• Chemical reactions occur when substances undergo chemical changes to form new
substances.
• Most chemical reactions need energy from the collision of molecules to occur, through breaking
and reforming bonds.
• There are two ways to describe chemical reactions:
o Word Equations describe chemical equations using words.
 e.g. Ammonia + Hydrochloric Acid  Ammonium Chloride
o Chemical/Skeleton Equations describe chemical reactions using symbols or chemical
formulas.
 NH3 + HCL  NH4CL
• Reactants are on the left of the arrow.
• Products are on the right of the arrow.
• The arrow indicates “yields” or “produces”, separating reactants and products.
• Symbols must be used to indicate the state of the substances.
o (g) – gas, (l) – liquid, (s) – solid, (aq) – aqueous.

Law of Conservation of Mass

• The mass of any element at the beginning of a reaction will equal the mass of that element at the
end of the reaction. Mass is neither created nor destroyed.

Types of Chemical Reactions

• Synthesis Reaction – Two reactants combine to make a larger or complex product.

o A + B  AB
• Decomposition Reaction – A large or more complex molecule breaks down to form two or more
simpler products.
o AB  A + B
• Single Displacement Reaction – An element displaces another element in a compound,
producing a new compound and a new element.
o A + BC  AC + B
o A + BC  AB + C
• Double Displacement Reaction – Elements in different compounds displace each other or
exchange places, reducing two new compounds.
o AB + CD  AD + CB
• Neutralization Reaction – A type of double displacement reaction involving acids and bases to
form water and an ionic salt.
o AB + CD  AD + CB
(acid + base  water + salt)
• Combustion Reaction – The rapid reaction of a substance with oxygen to produce oxides and
energy.
o CxHx + O2  CO2 + H2O
(hydrocarbon + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water + energy)

Acids and Bases

• Definitions and Properties

o Acids are any substances that dissolve in water causing an increase in the H+
concentration. In Gr. 10, we deal with 0.1M (mole, unit of measurement).
 Soluble in water  Can be corrosive in high
 Increases conductivity in concentrations.
water.  Tastes sour.
  Reacts with metals to  Usually have a H+ at the
produce bubbles and gas. start of the formula.
o Bases are any substance that when dissolved in water causes an increase in the OH-
concentration. In Gr. 10, we deal with 0.1M (mole, unit of measurement).
 Soluble in water  Basic solutions are also
 Increases conductivity in known as alkaline
water. solutions.
 Can be corrosive in high  Usually have a OH- at the
concentrations. end of the formula.
 Tastes bitter.
• Nomenclature and Chemical Formulas
o Naming Bases
 Simply add “hydroxide” to the end of the cation’s name.
• Ex. Sodium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide.
o Naming Acids
 “Hydrogen” is not added as the first word.
Anion Ending Acid Prefix Acid Suffix
-ate -ic acid
-ite -ous acid
-ide Hydro- -ic acid
 Naming Oxoacids
Add One Remove One
Base Remove Two Oxygen
Oxygen Oxygen
Oxyanion Name Per___ate -ate -ite Hypo___ite
Hydrogen bonded Per___ic acid -ic acid -ous acid Hypo___ous acid
to Oxyanion
Perchlorate Chlorate Chlorite Hypochlorite
Example
Perchloric acid Chloric acid Chlorous acid Hypochlorous acid

• Indicators
o Qualitative Indicators – A substance that can change different colors depending on
whether it is exposed to an acid, base, or neutral water. There is no indication of the
strength of the acid or base.
Synthetic Indicators
Neutral (Deionized
Indicator Acid (HCl) Base Notes
Water)
Phenolphthalein Colorless Colorless Pink
Useful to indicate if
solution is a base.
Bromothymol Blue (BTB) Useful to classify if
Yellow Green Blue solution is acid,
neutral, or base.
Red Litmus Paper Red Red Blue
Useful to indicate if
solution is a base.
Blue Litmus Paper Red Blue Blue
Useful to indicate if
solution is an acid.
Natural Indicators
Neutral (Deionized
Indicator Acid (HCl) Base Notes
Water)
Red Cabbage Juice Red-pink Purple-blue Blue-green
o Quantitative Indicators – Indicators which assign a natural value that indicate the
strength of the acid or base (ex. pH paper).
Indicator Acid (HCl) Neutral (Deionized Water) Base
pH paper Pink Orange Blue
1.0, 2.0 4.0, 5.0, 6.0 11.0, 12.0
• pH Scale
o Used to quantitatively determine the strength of an acid or a base.
o pH stands for powers of hydrogen.
 Strength of an acid is determined by # of H+ ions present.
 Strength of a base is determined by # of OH- ions present or how effective the
solution is at absorbing H+ ions.

o Acids are between 0 – 6.99…

 A strong acid is at 0 and becomes less acidic approaching 7.
o Bases are between 7.1-14.
 A strong base is at 14 and becomes less basic approaching 7.
o A neutral solution has a pH of 7.
o Each step in the pH scale represents 10x in strength.
 PHYSICS
The Nature of Light:

• EM Radiation
o Electromagnetic (EM) Radiation is a wave of energy made of vibrating electric and
magnetic fields, travelling at a speed of 3.00 ∗ 108 m/s (represented by “c”) through a
vacuum.
o The wavelength (𝜆𝜆) of an EM radiation determines the type. The EM radiation spectrum:

o Humans can see EM radiation with a wavelength between 380 nm – 740 nm, called
visible light.
• Light
o The light we view depends on the 𝜆𝜆 of the light. Red light has the largest wavelength
while violet let has the shortest wavelength.
o The color that an object has depends on what type of color it reflects and absorbs (e.g.
blue object absorbs all colors but reflects blue).
o An object that reflects all colors of light will appear white, while an object that absorbs
all colors of light will appear black.
o Visible Light Spectrum:

o The standard colors are Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, and Violet, shortened
to ROY G BIV.
o Natural light is produced by natural objects (e.g. Sun, stars). Artificial light is produced
by human technology.
o Luminous objects emit their own light (e.g. lightbulb) while non-luminous objects reflect
light from another source.
• Sources of Light
o Incandescence – The production of light as a result of high temperature.
o Electric Discharge – Production of light by passing an electric current through a gas.
o Phosphorescence – Production of light by absorbing ultraviolet light resulting in the
emission of visible light over an extended period of time.
o Fluorescence – The immediate emission of visible light as a result of the absorption of
ultraviolet light.
o Chemiluminescence – Production of light from a chemical reaction with little or no heat
produced.
 o Bioluminescence – Production of light in living organisms as the result of a chemical
reaction with little or no heat produced.
o Triboluminescence – Production of light from friction as a result of scratching,
crushing, or rubbing certain crystals.
o Light-Emitting Diode (LED) – Light produced as a result of an electric current flowing in
semiconductors.
o Laser – Electromagnetic waves of exactly the same energy level travelling in unison in
exactly the same direction.
• Properties of Electromagnetic Waves
o A vibration is an object moving in a repeated cycle. A wave is a series of vibrations linked
together.

o Waves consists of 4 main parts:

 Crest: “Top” of the wave
 Trough: “Bottom” of the wave
 Amplitude: “Height” of a wave (from centerline)
 Wavelength: How long a wave is, symbolized by 𝜆𝜆
• Universal Wave Equation
o The speed, frequency and wavelength of a wave are related by a formula that describes
the amount of time it takes for one part of a wave to complete one cycle of motion.
𝑣𝑣 = 𝜆𝜆 ∗ 𝑓𝑓

Quantity Symbol Quantity Term Unit Unit Symbol

𝑣𝑣 Wave speed Meter/second m/s
𝜆𝜆 Wavelength Meter m
𝑓𝑓 Frequency Hertz Hz

o For light specifically, the constant “𝑣𝑣” for wave speed is changed to “𝑐𝑐” where 𝑐𝑐 = 3.00 ∗
108 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠.
• Period and Frequency
o The period of a wave (represented by “T” and is measured in seconds) is how much time
is required for one part of the wave to complete one cycle of motion.
o The frequency of a wave is how many cycles of motion a part of a wave can complete in
one second.
# 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
 Frequency equation is 𝑓𝑓 =
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
o Frequency and period are inverses of each other:
1 1
 𝑓𝑓 = and 𝑇𝑇 =
𝑇𝑇 𝑓𝑓

Reflection:

• Ray Model of Light

o The Ray Model of Light describes how light interacts with objects.
 o The straight pat a beam of light follows can be represented using a ray, a straight line
with an arrowhead indicating the direction the light is travelling in.
o Objects can be self-luminous or reflective, however all objects are a source of light rays.
o The human eye “sees” objects by focusing a diverging bundle of light rays forming an
image.
• Ray Diagrams
o Ray diagrams are used to track the light that is being used to form an image produced by
an object.
o The anatomy of a ray diagram consists of many parts:

Term Description
Two sides on a flat surface – one reflective/shiny and one
Reflecting Surface
opaque, absorbing light.
Point of Incidence A point on the reflective surface anywhere.
A line from the POI and perpendicular to the surface
Normal
(dashed line).
A line coming at the POI in a specific direction (indicated
Incident Ray (𝑖𝑖)
via arrows on the line).
Angle between incident ray and normal, represented by
Angle of Incidence (𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃)
theta i.
A ray reflected from the normal, goes the opposite
Reflected Ray (𝑟𝑟)
direction from original ray.
Angle of Reflection (𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃) Angle of reflection, represented by theta r.
Object The item in front of the mirror.
Image The reflection of the object in the mirror.
Object distance (do) The distance from the mirror to the object.
Image distance (di) The distance from the mirror to the image.
• Laws of Reflection
1. The angle of incidence (𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃) is equal to the angle of reflection (𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃).
2. The incident ray, reflected ray, and normal to the surface of the mirror all lie in the same
plane.
• Characteristics of an Image
o Images formed by mirrors can be characterized through four properties (S. A. L. T.):
 Size – Larger, same size, or smaller to original object.
 Attitude – The orientation of the image, upright/erect or inverted.
 Location – In front or behind the mirror.
 Type – Virtual (behind the mirror) or real (in front of the mirror).
• Types of Mirrors
o Plane Mirrors – A mirror with a flat reflective surface.
o Concave/Converging Mirrors – A mirror in which the reflecting surface is curved
inwards.
o Convex/Diverging Mirrors – A mirror in which the reflective surface is curved outwards.
• Anatomy of Concave/Convex Mirrors
 Part Description
Principal Axis (PA) The middle ray.
Vertex (V) Where the principal axis meets the mirror.
Focal Point (F) Where all rays of light meet, located on the principal axis.
Focal Length (f) The distance between the vertex and the focal point.
Center of Curvature (C) Twice the distance between the vertex and focal point.
• Characteristic Rays of Concave/Convex Mirrors

• Images Formed by Concave/Convex Mirrors

Object Location S A L T
Plane Mirror
Upright
In Front of Mirror Same (laterally Behind Virtual
inverted)
Concave Mirror
Beyond C Smaller Inverted In front Real
At C Same Inverted In front Real
Between C and F Larger Inverted In front Real
At F NO IMAGE
 Inside F Larger Upright Behind Virtual
Convex Mirror
In Front of Mirror Smaller Upright Behind Virtual

• Mirror Equations
o Mirror Equation – The quantitative relationship between the object distance (do), the
image distance (di) and the focal length (f).
1 1 1
= +
𝑓𝑓 𝑑𝑑𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖
o Magnification Equation – The relation between the ratio of the image distance and
object distance to the ratio of the image height (hi) and object height (ho).

ℎ𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖
𝑀𝑀 = =−
ℎ𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑜𝑜

o +/- Sign Conventions:

Quantity Sign Indication
+ Mirror is concave
f
- Mirror is convex
+ Image is real (located in front of mirror) and distance from mirror
di Image is virtual (located behind the mirror) and distance from
-
mirror
+ Image is upright/erect (therefore virtual)
hi
- Image is inverted (therefore real)
+ Image is upright |𝑀𝑀| = 1  Image is same size
M |𝑀𝑀| > 1  Image is bigger
- Image is inverted |𝑀𝑀| < 1  Image is smaller
• Proof for SALT equation questions
S A L T
|𝑀𝑀| = 1 Determine whether M Compare +/- signs of Compare +/- signs of
|𝑀𝑀| > 1 has a +/- value. both do to di. di to do.
|𝑀𝑀| < 1
or or or
or
Determine whether hi Compare +/- signs of Check M sign (+/-).
Compare ho to hi. has a +/- value and both ho to hi.
compare to ho.

Refraction:

• Refraction is the deflection of light that occurs when light passes through a boundary between
two mediums where light has different velocities.
• When light refracts into a material where its speed is slower, it will bend towards the normal.
When light refracts into a material where its speed is faster, it will bend away from the normal.
• Determining denser/less dense material:
o Refractive Index (n) – Determines how dense a material is. The greater the n value, the
slower the speed of light through the material due to the atoms being more compacted,
slowing the light down. The lower the n value, the faster the speed of light through the
material due to the atoms being less compacted, allowing faster movement of light.

Index of refraction can be calculated by:

𝑐𝑐
𝑛𝑛 =
𝑣𝑣
𝑛𝑛 – index of refraction
 𝑐𝑐 – speed of light (3.00 ∗ 108 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠)
𝑣𝑣 – speed of light in medium (m/s)

o Angles of Incidence/Refraction – If the 𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖 > 𝜃𝜃𝑅𝑅 , it indicates that light is passing from a
less dense material to a denser material. If the 𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖 < 𝜃𝜃𝑅𝑅 , it indicates that light is passing
from a denser material to a less dense material.
• Snell’s Law – A formula that states the relationship between the angle of incidence and
refraction.
𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖 = 𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅 sin 𝜃𝜃𝑅𝑅

Lenses:

• Lens are transparent objects used to refract light.

• Anatomy of Converging/Diverging Lens
Part Description
Focal Point (F) Point where light rays converge
Optical Centre (O) Point at the centre of the lens
Line through the optical centre and focal
Principal Axis (PA)
point
Imaginary line perpendicular to principal
Normal
axis
2F Point twice the distance of focal point
• Converging Lenses
o A converging lens (a.k.a. biconvex lens) is a lens that is thicker in the middle and thinner
at the edges.
o When parallel rays pass through a converging lens, they converge or come together
through the focal point (principal focus).
o Refraction rules for images:

• Diverging Lenses
o A diverging lens is a lens that is thinner in the middle and thicker at the edges.
o When parallel rays pass through a diverging lens, they diverge or spread apart.
 o Refraction rules for images:

• Images formed by Converging/Diverging Lenses

Object Location S A L T
Converging Lens
Beyond 2F Smaller Inverted Opposite (between F and 2F) Real (opposite side)
At 2F Same Inverted Opposite (at 2F) Real (opposite side)
Between 2F and F Larger Inverted Opposite (beyond 2F) Real (opposite side)
At F NO IMAGE
Inside F Larger Upright Same (between 2F and F) Virtual (same side)
Diverging Lens
Beyond 2F Smaller Upright Same (between F and O) Virtual
Between 2F and F Smaller Upright Same (between F and O) Virtual

Refraction Phenomena

• Critical Angle
o As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction continues to
increase and bend away from the normal. When the angle of refraction reaches
90 degrees, the angle of incidence is called the critical angle.
• Total Internal Reflection
o When a refracted ray disappears and only a reflected ray is visible within the
medium, it is then considered total internal reflection.
o 2 conditions for total internal reflection:
 Light has to travel from slow to fast medium.
 The angle of incidence has to be greater than the critical angle (no
refraction occurs)

Equations

• Mirror Equation – The quantitative relationship between the object distance (do), the image
distance (di) and the focal length (f).
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
= +
𝒇𝒇 𝒅𝒅𝒐𝒐 𝒅𝒅𝒊𝒊
• Magnification Equation – The relation between the ratio of the image distance and object
distance to the ratio of the image height (hi) and object height (ho).
𝒉𝒉𝒊𝒊 𝒅𝒅𝒊𝒊
𝑴𝑴 = =−
𝒉𝒉𝒐𝒐 𝒅𝒅𝒐𝒐
• +/- Sign Conventions:
Quantity Sign Indication
 + Converging Lens
f
- Diverging Lens
Real Image (image is on the opposite side of the lens from the
+
object). Image is also inverted.
di
Virtual Image (image is on the same side of the lens from object).
-
Image is also upright.
+ Image is upright
hi
- Image is inverted
+ Image is upright |𝑀𝑀| = 1  Image is same size
M |𝑀𝑀| > 1  Image is bigger
- Image is inverted |𝑀𝑀| < 1  Image is smaller

Human Eye

• Anatomy

Part Function
• Colored part of the eye
Iris
• Opens and closes around a central hole to let in more/less light
• The hole in the iris
Pupil
• Part of the eye where light enters the eye
Sclera • An opaque, protective layer of the eye
Lens • Helps refract and focus light
• A transparent bulge on the top of the pupil that focuses light
Cornea
(refracted more through the cornea)
• A structure at the back of the eye cavity in which an image is
focused.
Retina
• Helps to convert the light signal to an electrical signal that will
be transmitted to the brain
• Transmits the converted electrical signal to the brain.
Optical Nerve
• Creates a blind spot at the back of each eye

• Physiology
o The convex or converging lens of the eye produces the following image:
 S: Smaller
 A: Inverted
 L: On the retina
 T: Real
o We see through our brain. Electrical signals are sent from the retina to the brain through
the optical nerve. The brain takes the inverted image formed on the retina and flips it so
that we can see it upright.
o Accommodation of the Eye is an ability that helps the eye focus by changing the shape
of the lens. This changes the focal length, allowing to focus on the image on the retina.
 • Eye Conditions
o Normal Eye
 Eye refracts light from a distant to form an image on the retina.
o Hyperopia (Far-sightedness)
 Seeing nearby objects is a problem.
 Eye refracts light from nearby objects behind the retina.
 A positive meniscus is used to correct this, which is a more appealing form of
the converging lens.
o Myopia (Near-sightedness)
 Seeing distant objects is a problem.
 Eye refracts light from a distant object to form an image in front of the retina.
 A negative meniscus is used to correct this, which is a more appealing form of
the diverging lens.
o Presbyopia
 Age-related form of far-sightedness due to eye lens losing elasticity
 Treated the same as hyperopia, positive meniscus (converging lens)
• Types of Correction Lenses

o Contact lenses can also be used to assist those with a visual impairment or just for
cosmetic purposes.

Applications of Lens

• Magnifying Lenses
o For a magnifying lens use a converging lens. Hold the lens over an object such
that the distance of the object is less than the focal length. This will create a
larger upright virtual image that you can look through the lens to see.
• Microscopes
o A basic microscope employs two converging lenses. The objective lens is
positioned between the F and 2F points over an object, producing a larger
inverted image. This image is then projected through the objective lens. The
eyepiece lens is placed so that the real image from the objective lens falls at a
position closer than the eyepiece's focal length. Consequently, the eyepiece
lens functions like a magnifying glass, generating a larger upright virtual image
visible by looking through the lens.
• Movie Projector
o With the help of mirrors and/or lenses a bright light for a light source is projected
through a film that contains the image. The film is positioned such that the light
from the image shines through a converging lens that projects an enlarged real
image forward. Note that the image will be inverted so it is necessary for the
image to be upside down on the film.
 BIOLOGY
Microscope

• Parts of a Microscope
o Eyepiece Lens: Allows you to look through to see your specimen. Typically has
10X but also comes in 5X, 15X, and 20X.y
o Body: Main section of the microscope including eyepiece and objective lens,
not base.
o Arm: Area of the microscope between the tube and base. When carrying
microscope, grip here.
o Nosepiece: Holds the objective lens. Rotate it to change objective lens.
o Objective Lens: Lens closest to specimen, includes scanning lens (4X), low-
power lens (10X), mid-power lens (40X), and high-power lens (100X).
o Stage: Main, flat surface that holds the slides for observation.
o Diaphragm: Useful at higher powers. A five-hole disc under the stage that
adjusts the amount of light passing through the stage opening. Helps properly
illuminate the specimen while also increasing contrast and resolution.
o Stage Adjustment Knob: Adjusts slide position forward, backward, left or right.
o Coarse Adjustment Knob: Moves objective lens closer to, or farther away from
the specimen in large steps.
o Fine Adjustment Knob: Moves the objective lens closer to, or farther away from
the specimen in very small steps. Can be used to fine tune the focus.
o Base: Bottom support structure for the microscope.
o Kimwipes: Specialty paper-based cleaning wipes for cleaning laboratory
equipment and instruments. Do not use to clean microscopes.
o Slides: Rectangular plate to hold the specimen. May contain liquid.
o Lens Paper: Cleaning material to clean lenses or other glass components
without scratches.
o Stage Clips: Holds slides or specimen down.
o Immersion Oil: Used with higher objective lens, placed on cover slip with
objective lens. Acts as a bridge between glass lens and glass slides.
• Microscope Equations
o Total Magnification
 Total Mag = (Ocular Mag) x (Objective Mag)
o Field Diameter
ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖ℎ−𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙−𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
 =
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙−𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖ℎ−𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
o Specimen Size
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 (𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢)
 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = # 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
o Scale of Drawing
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 (𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢)
 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 (𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢)

Cell Anatomy

• Diagrams:
 • Types of Cells

Cell Type Description Examples

Make up prokaryotes, simple single-celled
Prokaryotic Cell organisms lacking a nucleus and membrane- Bacteria and Archaea
bound organelles.

Plant cells (found in plants,

Make up eukaryotes, complex organisms with a
Eukaryotic Cells fungi, etc.) and animal cells
nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
(found in animals)

• Cell & Organelles (Subparts)

Organelle Description
Cell  Basic unit of life.
 A semi-permeable structure.
Cell/Plasma Membrane  Allows some substance to pass into the cell and blocks others.
 Composed of phospholipids and embedded proteins.
Cell Wall  Made of nonliving material called cellulose.
 A.K.A. Microtubule organizing center.
 Located near the nucleus.
Centrioles  Produces microtubules.
 During cell division (mitosis), centrioles divide and move to opposite sides
of dividing cell.
 Composed of two items:
o Microfilaments, thin supportive fibers inside the cell.
Cytoskeleton o Microtubules, shaped like soda straws.
 Helps provide transport lines inside the cell.
 Acts as internal skeleton to give nucleus and cell its shape.
 Center of a cell
 Spherical body
 Contains nucleolus which makes ribosomes.
Nucleus
 Controls many of the functions of the cell by controlling protein synthesis.
 Contains the cell’s DNA, information necessary to build and maintain an
organism.
Chromatin  Chromatin is a mixture of DNA and proteins, lasting most of the cell’s life.
  Cannot be seen in the nucleus.
 Upon cell division, chromatin coils and condenses into thicker bodies
Chromosomes called chromosomes.
 Visible in the microscope.
Nuclear Membrane  Double layer enclosing the cell’s nucleus.
 Found in the nuclear membrane.
Nuclear Pores
 Moves materials from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
 Jellylike material
Cytoplasm
 Outside the nucleus where organelles are located.
Ribosomes  Proteins are made here through a process called protein synthesis.
 A vast system of interconnected, membranous, in folded and convoluted
sacks.
 Located in the cell’s cytoplasm.
Rough Endoplasmic  Continuous with outer nuclear membrane.
Reticulum (Rough ER)  Covered with ribosomes giving it a rough appearance.
 Transports materials through the cell.
 Modifies proteins made on the ribosomes to be sent to the Golgi or
inserted into the cell membrane.
 A flattened, layered, sac-like organelle (imitates pancake stacks).
Golgi Apparatus/Complex  The body modifies, packages, and ships proteins and carbohydrates into
membrane-bounded vesicles for “export” from the cell.
 Does not have ribosomes on the surface.
Smooth Endoplasmic  Makes lipids that will become membranes.
Reticulum (Smooth ER)  Controls the calcium level in muscles.
 Detoxifies poisons, alcohol, and drugs.
 Elongated, disc shaped organelles.
 Contains chlorophyll that traps sunlight for energy.
Chloroplasts
 Photosynthesis (energy from sunlight converted to food) takes place in the
chloroplasts.
 Fluid filled sacs containing food being digested and waste material that is
Vacuoles
on its way out of the cell.
 Takes up most of the space in the cell.
Central Vacuole
 A larger water store.
 Spherical to rod-shaped organelles with double membrane.
 The inner membrane is folded many times, forming a series of projections
Mitochondria called cristae.
 Converts energy stored in glucose into ATP (adenosine triphosphate) for
the cell.
 Contains digestive enzymes.
Lysosomes  Nutrients are digested by the cell here, as well as old organelles that are
being recycled.

Endosymbiosis

• This term describes symbiosis in which one organism lives inside the other.
• The endosymbiotic theory states that the mitochondria and chloroplasts inside cells
have evolved from bacteria living in large cells. In other words, they were separate living
organisms digested by the cell and then became a part of it. There are 3 proofs:
1. Both mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own DNA separate from DNA of
the cell found in the nucleus. They way the DNA of mitochondria and
chloroplasts are arranged are similar to prokaryotic cells.
2. The size of mitochondria and chloroplasts are similar to the size of bacteria
(prokaryotes).
 3. When mitochondria and chloroplasts divide, which they do independently, they
divide in a similar way bacteria divides.

Plant & Animal Tissues

PLANT TISSUES
A group of actively dividing cells in plants that contribute to plant
Meristematic Tissue growth and development. Additionally, they help heal the wounds
of an injured plant.
Carries out basic metabolic functions as well as providing support
Ground Tissue
in stems and storing food or water.
Covers most of the plant externally and its main purpose is for
Dermal Tissue
transpiration, gas exchange, and defense.
Transports water, minerals, and sugars to different parts of the
plant through tissues called xylem, focusing on transporting water
Vascular Tissue
and structural support, and phloem, focusing on transporting
sugars.
ANIMAL TISSUES
Covering all body surfaces, cavities, hollow organs, they perform
Epithelial Tissue functions including protection, secretion, absorption, excretion,
filtration, diffusion, and sensory reception.
Produces the body and organs movement, having the ability to
Muscle Tissue decrease or increase in length, creating muscle contraction and
muscle relaxation.
Made up of cells, fiber, and gel-like substance, it supports,
protects, and gives structure to other tissues and organs in the
Connective Tissue
body. Additionally, it stores fat, helps move nutrients, and other
substances, as well as repairing damaged tissue.
Found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves, it is responsible for
coordinating and controlling many of the body’s activities. It
Nervous Tissue
stimulates muscle contraction, helps emotions, memory, and
reasoning, etc.

Cell Division

• The cell cycle is meant to replicate cells, creating two new daughter cells that are
genetically identical to the original parent cell. There are several stages to the cycle:

Stage Description
• The cell copies its DNA to prepare for mitosis.

Interphase

Prophase • DNA is wound up and condensed into thick sticks called chromosomes.
 • Each strand of DNA has been replicated and the two copies are attached
together at the center with a protein called the centromere. The two identical
sides of the chromosome are called sister chromatids.
• The nuclear membrane starts to break down.
• The centrioles begin to produce spindle fibers.
• The spindle fibers are attached to each chromosome by the centromere.
Metaphase • The nucleus is now completely dissolved, and the spindle fibers push/pull the
chromosomes so that they are lined up in the middle of the cell.
• The spindle fibers pull the chromosomes apart, with each sister chromatid going
in opposite direction.
Anaphase
• Once separated each chromatid is considered to be its own independent
chromosome.
• A complete set of chromosomes is now at opposite sides of the cell. A new
nucleus begins to form around each set.
Telophase
• The rest of the cell begins to divide. If it is an animal cell a cleavage furrow begins
to appear, this is the pinch point where the cell will divide in two.
• Once mitosis is complete and the genetic material is properly organized,
Cytokinesis cytokinesis is the process where the rest of the original cell is divided between
the two daughter cells

• There are several phases to the cell division cycle with G1 (growth phase 1), S
(synthesis), and G2 (growth phase 2) being occupied by the interphase stage. Mitosis is
a separate stage where the cell duplicates and chromosomes are separated into two
new nuclei.
• Cancer is the uncontrolled cell division.
o The periodicity of a cell dividing is controlled by genetic information inside the
nucleus and if it’s damaged, the cell may divide uncontrollably, hence cancer.
o Too many cells cause large clumps of them called tumours.
o A tumor that does not cause harm is called benign while one that drains
resources and damages is called malignant.
o Cancerous cells can stay in one clump making it easier to treat. It can also
detach and spread throughout the body, known as metastasis, making it harder.
o Substances that can cause cancer are called carcinogens.

Photosynthesis & Cellular Respiration

• Photosynthesis, only present in plant cells, is the process of transforming light energy
into chemical energy through the chloroplast. During photosynthesis, light energy is
used to convert water and carbon dioxide into oxygen and glucose. The glucose is used
by plants as food.
o Word Equation: Water + Carbon Dioxide + light  Oxygen + Glucose
o Skeleton Equation: H2O + CO2 + light  O2 + C6H12O6
• Cellular respiration, present in all cells, is the process which cells derive energy from
glucose through the mitochondria. Glucose and oxygen are the reactants and carbon
dioxide, and water are the products.
o Word Equation: Oxygen + Glucose  Water + Carbon Dioxide + energy
o Skeleton Equation: O2 + C6H12O6  H2O + CO2 + ATP
• Notice the formulas for photosynthesis and cellular respiration are inverses, hence
plants and animal cells work together to keep each other alive.

Biological Levels & Organ Systems

 • Cell Theory of Life, proposed in 1936 by Schlieden and Schwaan, states that all living
things are made up of smaller units. Rober Hooke proved this through the invention of
the microscope.
• All living organisms are made up of cells. If an organism is made up of more than one
cell, it is multicellular but if made up of only one cell, it is unicellular. New cells can only
come from preexisting cells.
• The hierarchy is as follows:
 Atom (Oxygen)
↓ Molecule (Dioxide)
↓ Macromolecule (Phospholipid)
↓ Cell (Animal Cell)
↓ Tissue (Epithelial)
↓ Organ (Lung)
↓ Organ System (Respiratory System)
↓ Organism (Lion)
↓ Population
↓ Ecosystem
 Biosphere
• Within each body consists of several organ systems that work together to form a stable
body. The balance maintained within the body is called homeostasis. The major
systems are:

Organ System Purpose/Function Organ Example

• Gives internal support.
Skeletal System Bones and joints
• Anchors muscles for movement.
• Brings in oxygen. Lungs, bronchi,
Respiratory System
• Expels carbon dioxide waste. alveoli
• Pulls on bones for movement.
Muscular System Muscles
• Warms the body to work.
• Controls all other body systems using
Brain, spinal
Nervous System electrical impulses to receive info and
cord, nerves
give orders.
Integumentary System • Supports and protects the body. Skin
• Makes hormones that control the
Endocrine System body’s functions along with the nervous Glands
system.
• Passes on genes to create more
Reproductive System Testes, ovaries
people.
• Breaks down digested food and uses it Mouth, stomach,
Digestive System
for energy, growth, and repair. intestines
• Moves food and oxygen to where they Heart and blood
Circulatory System
are needed and removes waste. vessels
• Stem cells are cells with the potential to develop into many different types of cells in the
body, serving as a repair system. Cellular differentiation is the process of cells
becoming specialized in their structures and function and performing a certain job in
the body.

Musculoskeletal System
 • Skeleton
o Provides support, protection, and structure for the body.
o Bones are attached to each other using ligaments.
o Muscles are attached to bones using tendons.
o Cartilage is a cushion between bones that rub each other.
o Bones consist of bone marrow, important for the production of blood cells.
o Osteoblasts make the calcium-based bone structure.
• Muscles
o Composed of muscle fibers which are made of muscle cells.
o Muscle cells contain proteins that are capable of contracting and relaxing.
o Muscles can only generate force when contracting, hence muscles usually
come in two.
o Biceps and triceps are antagonistic pairs (pull in opposite directions).
• Muscle Contraction
o Two main types of muscle protein, actin and myosin. They are arranged into
functional units called sarcomeres.
o When activated the actin and myosin filaments slide past each other to cause
the length of the sarcomere to contract. This is known as the sliding filament
model of muscle contraction.
o A motor unit controls multiple muscle fibers, and the strength of contraction is
controlled by which combination of motor signals is firing.
o Summation is the process of several signals arriving one after another and
adding up to become a stronger contraction. Tetanus is when the twitches
become so close together that they become a single contraction.

Frog Anatomy
 CLIMATE CHANGE
Weather & Climate

• Weather – The short-term conditions of the atmosphere.

• Climate – The average weather conditions over a long period of time.
• There are 4 parts of Earth’s climate system:
o Atmosphere – Layer of gases, consisting of exosphere, thermosphere,
mesosphere, stratosphere, and troposphere.
o Hydrosphere – The water on the Earth (streams, rivers, lakes) or surrounding the
Earth (seas & oceans)
o Biosphere – Actual areas of the layers of the Earth where life exists. Includes
sky, ocean, and land, overlapping with other spheres.
o Lithosphere – Earth’s solid outer layer (made up of the crust and upper mantle).

Energy Transfer

• There are two ways heat energy can be transferred:

o Conduction – The transfer of heat energy from one substance to another. The
molecules in the warmer object vibrate faster than the ones in the cooler object.
The faster vibrating molecules collide with the slower molecules. This makes the
cooler molecules vibrate more quickly, and the object gets warmer.
o Convection – The transfer of heat energy in a fluid. Air acts as a fluid, containing
a bubble of warmer air (sun radiation strikes ground, temperature rises due to
conduction and heat is released into atmosphere, forming bubble of warm air).
As the bubble rises, the heat within it disperses into the atmosphere and the
bubble is replaced with cooler air. Similar process occurs in ocean currents.
• Heat sinks are objects that absorb energy and become warmer. Good heat sinks have
high specific heat capacity (amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a
substance by one unit).
o For example, the hydrosphere is a good heat sink because when the air is
warmer than the ocean surface, the ocean absorbs energy from the air, and
when the air is cooler than the ocean surface, the ocean releases energy into the
air.

Climate Change & Greenhouses

• Greenhouse Effect
o Solar radiation (sunlight) passes through the atmosphere and warms the
surface of the Earth.
o Heat energy radiates from the surface as infrared radiation.
o Greenhouse gases (GHG) allow sunlight to enter while absorbing and reflecting
infrared radiation, preventing heat energy from leaving. Most important GHGs
are water vapour, CO2, and methane.
• Climate Change
o Causes of Climate Change:
 Generating electricity and heat by burning fossil fuels causes global
emissions. Burning coal, oil, or gas produces carbon dioxide, a
greenhouse gas that traps the sun’s heat.
  Manufacturing goods produces emissions, mostly from burning fossil
fuels.
 Cutting down forests as trees release carbon that they have stored
within themselves. Additionally, forests convert carbon dioxide to
oxygen through photosynthesis and cutting them down reduces this
process.
 Human consumption of goods such as clothing, electronics, and
plastics contributes to greenhouse gas emissions.
o Climate change is evident:
 Atmosphere getting hotter.
 Oceans are getting hotter and more acidic.
 Sea levels are rising.
o Climate change impacts the Earth in several ways:
 Species become extinct.
 Droughts and heatwaves are more common.
 Natural disasters (hurricanes, tsunamis)
 Warming, rising ocean
 Freshwater shortages