RADA College

Distance Education Division

(Degree Programme)

Module for
Business Research Method
(MGMT - 3211)

September, 2021
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
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Course Introduction

Dear Learners, well come to the study of the course Business Research Method for
Management. The course should equip you with an in depth knowledge and appreciation of the
importance of research and research methods in any of your work activities and skill of doing
research to resolve problems encountering in either management or leadership functions or both.
Research Methodology is a subject matter that is associated with our daily business and
organizational dealings in one way or the other. It is a very crucial tool with which
organizational and managerial problems are identified, rectified, and sound decision making
directions are set to smoothly function, and achieve organizational goals and objectives.
The purpose of this course is to provide you the basic understandings of research, research
problem identification, relevant critical literature review, and research design, sampling design,
data collection techniques, analysis of data collected, result interpretation and research report
writing.

The first chapter of this module introduces research and basic concepts related to research. The
remaining chapters discusses defining research problem, review of literature and research
proposal development. Research design, features of research design, measurement, sampling
design, questionnaire design, source of data, data collection, method of data collection, data
presentation and analysis, interpretation of data, and research report writing.
Each study chapter contains an introduction, objectives, the main content, summery, self test
exercise, and answer key for self test exercise. You are expected to study the materials carefully,
reflect on them and do the tasks and exercise accordingly. We wish you success in this course
and hope you will find it interesting and use full. Enjoy your study. Good luck!

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Course Objectives:

At the end of this course, you will be able to:

 Explain the nature and concept of research;

 Identify research problems, review relevant literatures, and develop research proposals;
 Describe research design, sampling design, and questionnaire development;
 Discuss sources of data and systematic methods of data collection;
 Present and analyze data collected;
 Interpret data analyzed to contextual setting;
 Write standardized research report for end users.

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Module Introduction

Dear Learner! We are happy to present this Module to you. We hope that you are eager to
acquire knowledge in Research Methodology for Management, and related concepts. The
Module contains eight (8) units each has different sub topics which focus on specific topic of the
respective units. The Module provides you with the information required to understand key
concepts, theories, principles, and process in Research Methodology. As you go through, you
will be introduced many issues including the meaning of Research Methodology, types of
Research Methodology, the role of Research Methodology in decision making and problem
solving, etc. Every unit or section of the Module contains a variety of activities. These activities
help you to learn by doing and to think for yourself.
Module objectives:
After completing the module, you will be able to:
 Understand the role of business research;
 Differentiate the different types of research;
 Identify and define research problem;
 Design appropriate research design;
 Know sampling design;
 Differentiate types of data and instrument of data gathering methods;
 Analyze and interpret data;
 Prepare standard research project;
 Develop confidence to solve any managerial and business problems;
 Undertake any research problems and come up with possible solutions;
 Conduct research independently.

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UNIT ONE: RESEARCH METHODS: AN OVERVIEW

1. Introduction
Dear Learner! This is the first unit of the module Research Method in Business. In this unit
we are going to give you an overview of Research Method. The aim of this unit is to present you
an over view of what is all about Research Method and how managers use research to make
decision and solve problems. Research is essentially an investigation, a recording and analysis
of evidences for the purpose of gaining knowledge. (Robert Ross). Research is an organized
enquiry Designed and carried out to provide information for solving a problem, (Fred
kerlinger). Research is a careful inquiry or Examination to discover new information or
relationship and to expand to and to verify the existing knowledge. (Francis Rummel).
Research in management is the application of the scientific methods in searching for the truth
about business phenomena. It is a process that includes activities of idea and theory
development, problem definition, searching for and collecting information, analyzing data, and
communicating the findings and their implications.

Unit Objectives: - At the end of this unit students will be able to:
 Understand and define research;
 Describe the purpose and types of research;
 Describe the major components of the research process;
 Define business research and its importance;
 Understand when business research is needed and when it should not be conducted;
 Identify the various categories of business research activities;
 Discover the various areas of business research;
 Describe the characteristics of a good research;

1.1. Meaning & Definition of Research

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Dear learner, what do you think of the term Research? (You can write your response on the
space left below):

Research in common parlance refers to search for knowledge. Actually the word Research is
derived from French word „Researcher‟ meaning „to search back‟. In simple term research is an
in-depth study of the status, to find out the inner truth, inner story of any subject of interest, and
also to solve problems.
One can also define research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a
specific topic. In fact research is an art of scientific investigation. In short, research is all about;
 A careful investigation /inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge.
 A systematized effort to gain new knowledge.
 Search for knowledge through objective and systematic methods of finding solution to a
problem.
Definitions of Research
- Research is essentially an investigation, a recording and analysis of evidences for the
purpose of gaining knowledge. (Robert Ross).
- Research is an organized enquiry Designed and carried out to provide information for
solving a problem, (Fred kerlinger).
- Research is a careful inquiry or Examination to discover new information or relationship
and to expand to and to verify the existing knowledge. (Francis Rummel).
- According to Clifford woody Research comprise defining and redefining problems,
formulating hypotheses, collecting, organizing and evaluating data, making deduction
and reaching conclusions and lastly carefully testing the conclusions to determine
whether they fit for formulating hypotheses. Research is thus
 An original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its
Advancement.
 The search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of
finding solutions to a problem.

These Definitions Emphasis the following characteristics of research

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 1. Research must follow a systematic / scientific procedure and well drawn research plan.
2. It is a controlled, empirical and critical investigation.
3. It involves investigation of some hypothetical propositions.
4. Its purpose is to provide information for decision making and solving problems. Further
to establish relationship between the variables.
5. It is an organized and careful investigation /inquiry, recording, analyzing the available
evidence to gain knowledge.

1.2. Types of Research

Dear learner, what are the types of research? (Specify the types of research you do
know on the space provided below)
_____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
The basic types of research are as follows:
A. Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries
of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of
affairs as it exists at present. In social science and business research we quite often use the
term Ex post facto research for descriptive research studies. The main characteristic of this
method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what has
happened or what is happening. Most ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive
studies in which the researcher seeks to measure such items as, for example, frequency of
shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. Ex post facto studies also include attempts by
researchers to discover causes even when they cannot control the variables. The methods of
research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including
comparative and correlation methods. In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher
has to use facts or information already available, and analyze these to make a critical
evaluation of the material.
B. Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental
(to basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate
problem facing a society or an industrial/business organization, whereas fundamental research
is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a theory. “Gathering
knowledge for knowledge‟s sake is termed „pure‟ or „basic‟ research.” Research concerning
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 some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental
research. Similarly, research studies, concerning human behavior carried on with a view to
make generalizations about human behavior, are also examples of fundamental research, but
research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business
problem is an example of applied research. Research to identify social, economic or political
trends that may affect a particular institution or the copy research (research to find out
whether certain communications will be read and understood) or the marketing research or
evaluation research are examples of applied research. Thus, the central aim of applied
research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problem, whereas basic research
is directed towards finding information that has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to
the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.
C. Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or
amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,
phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in
investigating the reasons for human behavior (i.e., why people think or do certain things), we
quite often talk of „Motivation Research‟, an important type of qualitative research. This type of
research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires using in depth interviews for the
purpose of studying. Other techniques of such research are word association tests, sentence
completion tests, story completion tests and similar other projective techniques.
Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or what they think
about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research. Qualitative research is
especially important in the behavioral sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying
motives of human behavior. Through such research we can analyze the various factors which
motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a
particular thing. It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative research in practice is
relatively a difficult job and therefore, while doing such research, one should seek guidance from
experimental psychologists.
D. Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or
theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to
reinterpret existing ones. On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or
observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research,

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 coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or
experiment.
We can also call it as experimental type of research. In such a research it is necessary to get at
facts firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate the
production of desired information. In such a research, the researcher must first provide himself
with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then works to get enough facts
(data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks
will manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired
information. Such research is thus characterized by the experimenter‟s control over the variables
under study and his deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects. Empirical
research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some
way. Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered to be the
most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.
E. Case study: Case study refers to the collection and presentation of detailed information
about a particular participant or small group, frequently including the accounts of subjects
themselves. A form of qualitative descriptive research, the case study looks intensely at an
individual or small participant pool, drawing conclusions only about that participant or group
and only in that specific context. Researchers do not focus on the discovery of a universal,
generalizable truth, nor do they typically look for cause-effect relationships; instead,
emphasis is placed on exploration and description. It studies typically examine the interplay
of all variables in order to provide as complete understanding of an event or situation as
possible.
F. Some other types of research
All other types of variations of one or more of the type of research stated here under are based on
either the purpose research, the time required to accomplish research, and the environment in
which research is done.
Longitudinal and one- time research: in for more case data are collected at multiple time
points and comparisons are made across time. In other word research is carried on over several
time periods. But, a onetime research is the research that is confined to a single period of time.
In one time research data are collected at a single point in time and it is also known as cross
sectional research

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Conclusion oriented and Decision oriented: a research can be also conclusion oriented and
decision oriented. While doing conclusion oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a
problem, redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and prepared to conceptualize as he wishes.
Decision oriented research is always for the need of decision makers and the researcher in this
case is not free to embark up on research according to his inclinations. Operation research is an
example of decision oriented research since it is a scientific method of providing executives with
a quantitative base for decision regarding operation under their control.
Historical Research: is a research that utilizes historical survey like documents remains, etc, to
study event or ideas of the past including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote
point of time. In other word, it is a research about events in the past; the process of
systematically examining past events or events to arrive at any account of what happened in the
past.
1.3. Research Approaches
In brief when you start to think about your research methodology/Approach, you need to think
about the difference between the two basic approaches to research. That are: - Quantitative
approach and Qualitative approach.
The Quantitative research is a research that relies primarily on the collection of quantitative data.
It involve the generation of data in quantitative from which can be subjected to rigorous
Quantitative analysis in formal and rigid fashion.
Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions
and behavior. Research in such situation is a function of researcher‟s insight and impressions.
Such an approach generates result either in non-quantitative form or in the form which are not
subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis. It is generally a research relaying primarily on the
collection of qualitative data.
Comparing Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Quantitative and Qualitative research methods/approaches differ primarily in their analytical
objective, type of Question they pose, type of data collection instrument they use, forms of data
they produce and in the degree of flexibility built in to the study design.
Comparison of Quantitative and Qualitative research approaches

Quantitative Qualitative
- seek to confirm hypotheses - seek to explore phenomenon

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 about phenomenon - instruments used more
- instruments used more rigid flexible ,interactive style of
General frame work style of eliciting and eliciting & categorizing
categorizing response to response to Questions
question - use semi-structured methods
- use highly structured methods like in depth –interview ,
such as questionnaire, focus groups and participant
structured interview & observation
observation
Analytical objective - to quantify variations - to describe variations
- to predict casual - to describe and
relationship relationship
- to describe characteristic of - to describe individuals
a population and group experience and
norms
Questionnaire format “close-ended” “open-ended”

Data format Numerical Textual

- study design is stable from - some aspect the study is

beginning to end flexible (adding &
- participant response do not omitting questions)
Flexibility in study influence/determine how - Participant response
Design and which question affects how and which
researcher which question question researcher ask
researcher ask next next.

1.4. Objectives of Research

The purpose of research is to discover answer to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not
been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think
of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings.

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 1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insight into it. studies with this
object in view are known as Exploratory Research
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group –
studies with this object in view are known as Descriptive Research.
3. To Determine the frequency with which something occurs / or with which it is associated
with something else – studies with this object in view are known as Diagnostic Research
studies.
4. To test the hypotheses of a casual relationship between variables – such studies are
known as Hypothesis Testing Research.
Generally the objective of any research study is either to explore a phenomenon or to describe
the characteristics of a particular event /object/ individual or groups or to diagnose or to test the
relationship between variables.
1.5. Motivation In Research
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The
possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.
However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies.
Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about
new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like
may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations.
1.6. Research Method Vs Research Methodology
Research Method: - research method is all about all those methods / techniques / procedures for
conduction of research. Research method, thus, refers to the methods the researchers use in
performing research operations. In other words, all those methods which are used by the
researcher during the course of studying his research are termed as research methods.
In short, research methods can be put into the following three groups:

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 a. Those methods which are concerned with the collection of Date (i.e. methods of data
collection)
b. Those methods / statistical techniques which are used for establishing relationship
between the data and the unknowns (i.e., methods of analysis)
c. Those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the result obtained.
Research Methodology: Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research
problem. It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it
we study the various steps that are generally adopted by the researcher in studying his research
problem along with the logic behind them. It is necessary to the researcher to know not only the
research methods / techniques but also the methodology. Researcher not only need to know how
to develop certain questionnaires, indices or tests, how to calculate, how to apply particular
research techniques, but they also need to know which of these method or technique are relevant
and which are not and what would they mean and indicate and why. Researchers also need to
understand the assumption underlying various methods and they need to know the criteria by
which they can decide that certain methods / procedures will be applicable to certain problems
and others will not.
From what has been stated above, we can say that research methodology has many dimensions
and research methods do constitute a part of research methodology. The scope of research
methodology is wider than that of research method.
“Research Methodology is generally refers to different approaches to systematically inquiry
developed within a particular paradigm with associated epistemological assumptions. (e.g.
Experimental / Non-experimental, Action / grounded / …)
Thus, when we talk about research methodology we are not only talk of research methods but
also consider the LOGIC behind the methods we use in the context of our research study and
explain why we are using a particular method and why we are not using others so that research
result are capable of being evaluated.
 Why research study has been undertaken?
 How the research problem has been defined?
 Why the hypotheses has been formulated and in what way?
 What data have been collected and what particular method has been adopted? And why
not others?
 Why particular method of analysis has been used?, and

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A host of other similar questions are usually answered when we talk of research methodology
concerning a research study.
1.7. Research and Scientific Method
For clear perception of the term research, one should know the meaning of scientific method.
The two terms, research and scientific method are closely related. Research as already stated, can
be termed as “an enquiry in to the nature of, the reason for and the consequence of any particular
set of circumstances, whether these circumstances are experimentally controlled or recorded just
as they occur”. On the other hand scientific method is the pursuit of truth as determined by
logical considerations. The ideas of science are to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts.
Scientific method attempts to achieve these ideal by observation – experimentation – logical
argument from accepted postulates and the combination of these three in varying propositions
(i.e., declarative tentative statements). In scientific method logic aids in formulating propositions
explicitly and accurately so that their possible alternative become clear with the consequence of
such alternatives.
Thus, the scientific method is the best way yet discovered for examining the truth from lies and
delusion. It is based on certain basic postulates. The simple version looks something like this:
1. Observe some aspects of the universe
2. Invent a tentative description, called Hypotheses, which is consistent with what you have
observed.
3. Use the hypotheses to make predictions.
4. Test those predictions by experiments or further observations and modify the hypotheses
in the light of your results.
5. Repeat step 3 and 4 until there are no discrepancies between theory and experiment and /
or observation.

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 THEORY

Consistent

Observation Hypotheses Prediction

Not
Consistent
(Modify
Hypotheses)

Test

When consistency is obtained the hypotheses becomes a theory and provides a coherent set of
propositions, which explain a class of phenomenon. A theory is then a framework with in which
observations are explained and predictions are made. The great advantage of scientific method is
that:
- It is unprejudiced: one does not have to believe a given researcher: one can redo the
experiment and determine whether his / her results are true or false. The conclusions will
hold irrespective of the state of mind.
- A theory is accepted not based on the prestige or convincing power of the proponent, but
on the results obtained through observation and / or experiments, which any one can
reproduce: the result obtained through scientific method are repeatable.
A frequent criticism made of the scientific method is that it cannot accommodate any thing that
has not been proved. The argument then points out that many things thought to be impossible in
the past are now every day realities. This criticism is based on a misinterpretation of the
scientific method. When the hypotheses pass the test it is adopted as a theory it correctly explains
arrange of phenomenon it can, at any time, be falsified by new experimental evidences. When
exploring a new sort of phenomena scientists do using existing theories but, since this is a new
area of investigation, it is always kept in mind that the old theories might fail to explain the new
experiment and observations. In this case new hypotheses are devised and tested until a new
theory emerges.

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The other limitations of scientific method are relating with the: Difficulty in use of experiments:
for instance the laboratory of social scientists is the world of everyday living. It is difficult to
control external factors; Complexity of subject matters; Measurement problem; Difficulties in
replication / generalization; Differences in observation – bias / preconception of phenomenon;
and Objectivity.
1.8. Research Process
Achieving objective of research study requires the knowledge of the overall research process.
Research process consist a series of steps / actions necessary to effectively carryout research and
the desired sequencing of these steps.
As shown in the chart below the research process consist of a number of closely related
activities. But such activities overlap continuously rather than following a strictly prescribed
sequence. At times, the first step determines the nature of the last step to be undertaken. If
subsequent procedures have not been taken in to account in the early stages, serious difficulties
may arise which may even prevent the completion of the study. One should remember that the
various steps involved in a research process are not mutually exclusive nor they are separate and
distinct. The do not necessarily follow each other in any specific order and the research has to be
constantly anticipating at each step in the research process the requirement of the subsequent
steps. However, as portray in the chart, the following order concerning various step provides a
useful procedural guideline regarding the research process; (1) Formulating the research
objective, (2) Extensive literature survey, (3) Developing Goals / objectives and Hypotheses, (4)
Preparing the research Design, (5) Determining sample Design, (6) Collecting the Data, (7)
Execution of the project, (8) Analysis of Data, (9) Hypotheses testing, (10) Interpretation &
Generalization, and (11) Report writing.

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 F

FF

Review concepts
and theories

Define Review of literature Designing Data Analysis

Research Formulate Research Data Collection (hypotheses Interpretation
Problem Hypotheses (including testing) and report
sample design) writing

Review previous
research findings

Research process in flow chart

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Step 1: Formulating research problem: There are two types of problem (research
problem), these are (i) those relates to state of nature and (ii) those of which relates to
relationship between variables. At the very out set the researcher must single out the
problem he want to study. Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research
problem. One – understanding the problem thoroughly and two – Rephrasing the same in
to meaningful terms from analytical point of view. Research problem may be formulated
from practices, theory, and research and so on.
Step 2: Extensive Literature Survey: At this juncture the researcher should undertake
extensive literature survey connected with the problem. For this purpose, the abstracting
and indexing journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are the first place to
go. The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in hand, should be carefully
studied.
Step 3: Developing Objectives and working Hypotheses: Defining the objective of a
research is one of the most important steps going along with formulation of research
problems in the research process. Clearly stated objective / goal keep a research project
focused. The processes of objective definition begin by writing down broad and general
goals of the study. As the process continues, the goals become more clearly define and
the research issues are narrowed. Statement of objective is of basic importance because it
determine the data which are to be collected, the characteristics of the data which are
relevant, relation which are to be explored, the choice of methods / techniques to be used
in these explorations.
After extensive literature survey, developing of research hypothesis or research questions
will take place. Research hypotheses are a tentative assumption made in order to draw out
and test its logical or empirical consequences. Hypotheses should be very specific and
limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to be tested. The role of the
hypotheses is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and to keep him
on the right track. It also indicates the type of date required and the type of method of
data analysis. Research hypotheses often arise as a result of a prior thinking about the
subject, examination of the available data and material including related studies and the
counsel of experts and interested parties.
Step 4: Preparing a research Design (creating research Design): Defining research
problem provides a format for further investigation. A well defined problem points to a
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method of investigation. There is no one best method of research for all situations.
Rather, there are a wider variety of methods for the researcher to choose from. Often the
selection of a method involves a serious of trade-offs and depend up on the purpose of the
research.
For example, there is often a trade-off between cost and the quality of information
obtained. Time constraints sometime force a trade off with the over all research design.
Budget and time constraints must always be considered as part of the design process. In
other word the function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant
evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. But how all these can be
achieved depends mainly on the research purpose. Research purpose may be grouped in
to four categories, viz., (i) Exploration, (ii) Description, (iii) Diagnosis and (iv)
Experimentation
For instance; a flexible research design which provides opportunity for considering many
different aspects of a problem is considered appropriate if the purpose of the research is
that of exploration. But when the purpose happens to be an accurate description of a
situation or of an association between variables, the suitable design will be one that
minimize bias and maximize the reliability of the data collected and analyzed.
The preparation of research design, appropriate for a particular research problem,
involves usually the consideration of the following:
- The means of obtaining the information
- The availability and skill of the researcher
- Explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be
organized and the reasoning leading to the selection, and
- The time available for the research and the cost factor relating to the research.
Step 5: Determining Sample Design: All the times under consideration in any field of
inquiry constitute a „universe‟ or „population‟. It is incumbent on the researcher to clearly
define the target population. There are no strict rules to follow, and the researcher must
rely on logic and judgment. The population is defined in keeping with the objective of the
study.
Sometimes, the entire population will be sufficiently small, and the researcher can
include the entire population in the study. This type of research is called census study,
because data is gathered on every member of the population.
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Usually the population is too large for the researcher to attempt all of its members. A
small, but carefully chosen sample can be used to represent the population. The
researcher must decide on the size and the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly
known as the sample design. In other words, a sample design is a definite plan
determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given
population.
Sampling methods are classified as either probability or Non-probability. In probability
sampling, each members of the population has a known probability of being selected and
it includes random, systematic, stratified and cluster / multistage sampling. In Non-
probability sampling members are selected from a population in some nonrandom
manner, which includes convenient, purposive, quota, snowball sampling.
Step 6: Collecting the Data: In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that
the data at hand are inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are
appropriate. Each research project use a data collection method / techniques appropriate
to a particular research methodology. The two primary goals for both quantitative and
qualitative studies are to maximize response and accuracy. There are different methods of
data collection in both approaches, like collecting data through experiment, survey,
observation, interview, group discussion, schedule and so forth. At this stage the
researcher should select one of these methods of collecting the data taking in to
consideration the nature, objective and scope of investigation, financial resource,
availability of time and the desire degree of accuracy.
Step 7: Analysis of Data: After the data have been collected the researcher turn to the
task of analyzing them. The analysis of data require a number of closely related operation
such as establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data
through coding and tabulation and then drawing statistical inference. There are different
methods of data analysis in both approaches, like descriptive, bivariate, multivariate,
content, comparative, and thematic and so forth. The researcher should select the method
of analysis based upon the purpose and the availability of skill.
Step 8: Interpretation and reporting the results: After analyzing data the next step in
the research process as interpretation and reporting of the final results. Interpretation is
nothing but the explanation of findings on the basis of some theory. With regard to report
writing, the most important consideration in preparing any research report is the nature of
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the audience. The purpose is to communicate information, and therefore, the report
should be prepared specifically for the readers of the report.
1.9. Criteria of Good Research
Dear learner, what do you think are the criteria’s for good research? (Specify your
answer on the space provided below.)
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is
that they all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. One
expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what
has already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that
are as objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and
estimate their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data
should be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and
limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research and is a person of integrity.
In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research:
1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps
to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules.
Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it
certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.

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2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical
reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in
carrying out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole
whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which
follows from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more
meaningful in the context of decision making.
3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more
aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external
validity to research results.
4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified
by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.

 Summery

Research in management is the application of the scientific methods in searching for the
truth about business phenomena. It is a process that includes activities of idea and theory
development, problem definition, searching for and collecting information, analyzing
data, and communicating the findings and their implications.

Research is a careful inquiry or Examination to discover new information or relationship

and to expand to and to verify the existing knowledge. (Francis Rummel). According to
Clifford woody Research comprise defining and redefining problems, formulating
hypotheses, collecting, organizing and evaluating data, making deduction and reaching
conclusions and lastly carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit for
formulating hypotheses. Research is thus: An original contribution to the existing stock of
knowledge making for its Advancement, The search for knowledge through objective and
systematic method of finding solutions to a problem.

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  Self Test Exercise One
Part I: Write “True” if the statement is correct and “False” if the statement is

incorrect.

1. Research is essentially an investigation, a recording and analysis of evidences for

the purpose of gaining knowledge.

2. Research is a careful inquiry or Examination to discover new information or

relationship and to expand to and to verify the existing knowledge.

3. Research in management is the application of the scientific methods in searching

for the truth about business phenomena.

4. Qualitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.

5. Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory and is

generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to
reinterpret existing ones.

6. The purpose of research is to discover answer to questions through the application

of scientific procedures.

Part II: Choose the correct answer & encircle the letter of your choice.
1) Of the following, one is not true about research:

A. A careful investigation /inquiry especially through search for new facts in

any branch of knowledge.
B. A systematized effort to gain new knowledge.
C. Search for knowledge through objective and systematic methods of
finding solution to a problem.
D. All
E. None

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 2) One is not the characteristics of research

A. Research must follow a systematic / scientific procedure and well drawn

research plan.
B. It is a controlled, empirical and critical investigation.
C. It involves investigation of some hypothetical propositions.
D. Its purpose is to provide information for decision making and solving
problems. Further to establish relationship between the variables.
E. All
F. None
3) _______________ includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds.

A. Descriptive research

B. Applied

C. Fundamental

D. All

4) Identify the incorrect statement

A. The Quantitative research is a research that relies primarily on the collection of

quantitative data.

B. Quantitative research involve the generation of data in quantitative from which

can be subjected to rigorous Quantitative analysis in formal and rigid fashion.

C. Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of

attitudes, opinions and behavior.

D. All

E. None

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 5) From the following, one is truly the purpose of research;

A. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insight into it

B. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a
group
C. To Determine the frequency with which something occurs / or with which it is
associated with something else
D. All
E. None
6) All are the qualities of a good research, except one;

A. Good research is systematic

B. Good research is logical

C. Good research is Replicable

D. Good research is Replicable

E. All

F. None

Part III: Fill the Blank spaces with the appropriate answer.
1. ________is all about all those methods / techniques / procedures for conduction
of research.

2. _________ is a way to systematically solve the research problem.

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 UNIT TWO: DEFINING RESEARCH PROBLEM AND
HYPOTHESIS FORMULATION
2. Introduction

One of the most difficult phases of any research project is the choice of a suitable
problem. The beginner is likely to take a very long time in making his choice. In this first
step of any research the research worker should not take a hasty decision. Every problem
which comes to his/her mind, or even that suggest by a more experienced person may not
be a fit research problem. The identification of a good research problem should be
considered a discovery in itself.
Identification of a research problem is the first step in scientific inquiry. A problem in
simple words is some difficulty experienced by the researcher in a theoretical or
practical situation solving this difficulty is the task of research.
The problem defines the goal of the researcher in clear terms. Thus, without a problem,
research cannot proceed because there is nothing to processed from and proceed toward.
In social sciences, quite a number of researchers may be faced with this problem, i.e., the
problem of not being able to see a problem.
Personal values play an important role in the selection of a topic for research. Social
scientists with different values tend to choose different topic for investigation. Of course,
personal values are not the only determinants in selecting a topic for inquiry. Social
conditions do often shape the preference of investigators in a subtle and imperceptible
way.

In research process, the first and foremost step happens to be that of selecting and
properly defining a research problem.* A researcher must find the problem and
formulate it so that it becomes susceptible to research. Like a medical doctor, a
researcher must examine all the symptoms (presented to him or observed by him)
concerning a problem before he can diagnose correctly. To define a problem correctly, a
researcher must know: what a problem is?

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Unit Objectives: - After completing this unit, students will be able to: -
 Define research problem;
 Identify Components of research problem;
 Formulate research Problem, hypothesis and research question;
 Identify Criteria for hypothesis formulation.

2.1. What Is A Research Problem?

Dear Learner, what does it mean Research Problem to you? (Specify your view
on the space provided below)
_____________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences
in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution
for the same.
Usually we say that a research problem does exist if the following conditions are met
with:
(i) There must be an individual (or a group or an organisation), let us call it „I,‟ to whom
the problem can be attributed. The individual or the organisation, as the case may be,
occupies an environment, say „N‟, which is defined by values of the uncontrolled
variables, Yj.
(ii) There must be at least two courses of action, say C1 and C2, to be pursued. A course
of action is defined by one or more values of the controlled variables. For example, the
number of items purchased at a specified time is said to be one course of action.
(iii) There must be at least two possible outcomes, say O1 and O2, of the course of
action, of which one should be preferable to the other. In other words, this means that
there must be at least one outcome that the researcher wants, i.e., an objective.
(iv)The courses of action available must provide some chance of obtaining the objective,
but they cannot provide the same chance, otherwise the choice would not matter. Thus, if
P (Oj | I, Cj, N) represents the probability that an outcome Oj will occur, if I select Cj in
N, then PbO1| I , C1, Ng ¹ PbO1| I , C2 , Ng . In simple words, we can say that the
choices must have unequal efficiencies for the desired outcomes.
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Over and above these conditions, the individual or the organization can be said to have
the problem only if „I‟ does not know what course of action is best, i.e., „I‟, must be in
doubt about the solution. Thus, an individual or a group of persons can be said to have a
problem which can be technically described as a research problem, if they (individual or
the group), having one or more desired outcomes, are confronted with two or more
courses of action that have some but not equal efficiency for the desired objective(s) and
are in doubt about which course of action is best.
We can, thus, state the components1 of a research problem as under:
(i) There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem.
(ii) There must be some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one cannot
have a problem.
(iii) There must be alternative means (or the courses of action) for obtaining the
objective(s) one wishes to attain. This means that there must be at least two means
available to a researcher for if he has no choice of means, he cannot have a problem.
(iv)There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the selection
of alternatives. This means that research must answer the question concerning the relative
efficiency of the possible alternatives.
(v) There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains.
Thus, a research problem is one which requires a researcher to find out the best solution
for the given problem, i.e., to find out by which course of action the objective can be
attained optimally in the context of a given environment. There are several factors which
may result in making the problem complicated. For instance, the environment may
change affecting the efficiencies of the courses of action or the values of the outcomes;
the number of alternative courses of action may be very large; persons not involved in
making the decision may be affected by it and react to it favorably or unfavorably, and
similar other factors. All such elements (or at least the important ones) may be thought of
in context of a research problem.
2.2. Selecting The Problem
The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected. The task is a
difficult one, although it may not appear to be so. Help may be taken from a research
guide in this connection.

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Nevertheless, every researcher must find out his own salvation for research problems
cannot be borrowed. A problem must spring from the researcher‟s mind like a plant
springing from its own seed. If our eyes need glasses, it is not the optician alone who
decides about the number of the lens we require. We have to see ourselves and enable
him to prescribe for us the right number by cooperating with him. Thus, a research guide
can at the most only help a researcher choose a subject. However, the following points
may be observed by a researcher in selecting a research problem or a subject for research:
(i) Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult task
to throw any new light in such a case.
(ii) Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher
(iii) Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
(iv) The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related
research material or sources of research are within one‟s reach. Even then it is quite
difficult to supply definitive ideas concerning how a researcher should obtain ideas for
his research.
For this purpose, a researcher should contact an expert or a professor in the University
who is already engaged in research. He may as well read articles published in current
literature available on the subject and may think how the techniques and ideas discussed
therein might be applied to the solution of other problems. He may discuss with others
what he has in mind concerning a problem. In this way he should make all possible
efforts in selecting a problem.
(v) The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a researcher, the
costs involved, and the time factor are few other criteria that must also be considered in
selecting a problem. In other words, before the final selection of a problem is done, a
researcher must ask himself the following questions:
(a) Whether he is well equipped in terms of his background to carry out the research?
(b) Whether the study falls within the budget he can afford?
(c) Whether the necessary cooperation can be obtained from those who must participate
in research as subjects?
If the answers to all these questions are in the affirmative, one may become sure so far as
the practicability of the study is concerned.

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(vi) The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study. This may not be
necessary when the problem requires the conduct of a research closely similar to one that
has already been done. But when the field of inquiry is relatively new and does not have
available a set of well developed techniques, a brief feasibility study must always be
undertaken.
If the subject for research is selected properly by observing the above mentioned points,
the research will not be a boring drudgery, rather it will be love‟s labour. In fact, zest for
work is a must. The subject or the problem selected must involve the researcher and must
have an upper most place in his mind so that he may undertake all pains needed for the
study.

2.3. Necessity Of Defining The Problem

Dear Learner, what do you think is the Necessity of Defining the Problem to you?
(Specify your view on the space provided below)
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Quite often we all hear that a problem clearly stated is a problem half solved. This
statement signifies the need for defining a research problem. The problem to be
investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help to discriminate relevant
data from the irrelevant ones. A proper definition of research problem will enable the
researcher to be on the track whereas an ill-defined problem may create hurdles.
Questions like: What data are to be collected? What characteristics of data are relevant
and need to be studied? What relations are to be explored? What techniques are to be
used for the purpose? And similar other questions crop up in the mind of the researcher
who can well plan his strategy and find answers to all such questions only when the
research problem has been well defined. Thus, defining a research problem properly is a
prerequisite for any study and is a step of the highest importance. In fact, formulation of a
problem is often more essential than its solution. It is only on careful detailing the
research problem that we can work out the research design and can smoothly carry on all
the consequential steps involved while doing research.
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2.4. Technique Involved In Defining A Problem
Let us start with the question: What does one mean when he/she wants to define a
research problem? The answer may be that one wants to state the problem along with the
bounds within which it is to be studied. In other words, defining a problem involves the
task of laying down boundaries within which a researcher shall study the problem with a
pre-determined objective in view. How to define a research problem is undoubtedly a
herculean task. However, it is a task that must be tackled intelligently to avoid the
perplexity encountered in a research operation. The usual approach is that the researcher
should himself pose a question (or in case someone else wants the researcher to carry on
research, the concerned individual, organization or an authority should pose the question
to the researcher) and set-up techniques and procedures for throwing light on the question
concerned for formulating or defining the research problem. But such an approach
generally does not produce definitive results because the question phrased in such a
fashion is usually in broad general terms and as such may not be in a form suitable for
testing.
Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a crucial part of a research study and
must in no case be accomplished hurriedly. However, in practice this frequently
overlooked which causes a lot of problems later on. Hence, the research problem should
be defined in a systematic manner, giving due weight age to all relating points. The
technique for the purpose involves the undertaking of the following steps generally one
after the other:
a. statement of the problem in a general way;
b. understanding the nature of the problem;
c. surveying the available literature
d. developing the ideas through discussions; and
e. Rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition.
A brief description of all these points will be helpful.
(i) Statement of the problem in a general way: First of all the problem should be
stated in a broad general way, keeping in view either some practical concern or some
scientific or intellectual interest. For this purpose, the researcher must immerse
himself thoroughly in the subject matter concerning which he wishes to pose a

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 problem. In case of social research, it is considered advisable to do some field
observation and as such the researcher may undertake some sort of preliminary
survey or what is often called pilot survey. Then the researcher can himself state the
problem or he can seek the guidance of the guide or the subject expert in
accomplishing this task. Often, the guide puts forth the problem in general terms, and
it is then up to the researcher to narrow it down and phrase the problem in operational
terms. In case there is some directive from an organizational authority, the problem
then can be stated accordingly. The problem stated in a broad general way may
contain various ambiguities which must be resolved by cool thinking and rethinking
over the problem. At the same time the feasibility of a particular solution has to be
considered and the same should be kept in view while stating the problem.
(ii) Understanding the nature of the problem: The next step in defining the problem is
to understand its origin and nature clearly. The best way of understanding the problem is
to discuss it with those who first raised it in order to find out how the problem originally
came about and with what objectives in view. If the researcher has stated the problem
himself, he should consider once again all those points that induced him to make a
general statement concerning the problem. For a better understanding of the nature of the
problem involved, he can enter into discussion with those who have a good knowledge of
the problem concerned or similar other problems. The researcher should also keep in
view the environment within which the problem is to be studied and understood.
(iii) Surveying the available literature: All available literature concerning the problem
at hand must necessarily be surveyed and examined before a definition of the research
problem is given.
This means that the researcher must be well-conversant with relevant theories in the field,
reports and records as also all other relevant literature. He must devote sufficient time in
reviewing of research already undertaken on related problems. This is done to find out
what data and other materials, if any, are available for operational purposes. “Knowing
what data are available often
serves to narrow the problem itself as well as the technique that might be used.”2. This
would also help a researcher to know if there are certain gaps in the theories, or whether
the existing theories applicable to the problem under study are inconsistent with each
other, or whether the findings of the different studies do not follow a pattern consistent
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with the theoretical expectations and so on. All this will enable a researcher to take new
strides in the field for furtherance of knowledge i.e., he can move up starting from the
existing premise. Studies on related problems are useful for indicating the type of
difficulties that may be encountered in the present study as also the possible analytical
shortcomings. At times such studies may also suggest useful and even new lines of
approach to the present problem.
(iv) Developing the ideas through discussions: Discussion concerning a problem often
produces useful information. Various new ideas can be developed through such an
exercise. Hence, a researcher must discuss his problem with his colleagues and others
who have enough experience in the same area or in working on similar problems. This is
quite often known as an experience survey. People with rich experience are in a position
to enlighten the researcher on different aspects of his proposed study and their advice and
comments are usually invaluable to the researcher. They help him sharpen his focus of
attention on specific aspects within the field. Discussions with such persons should not
only be confined to the formulation of the specific problem at hand, but should also be
concerned with the general approach to the given problem, techniques that might be used,
possible solutions, etc.
(v) Rephrasing the research problem: Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the
research problem into a working proposition. Once the nature of the problem has been
clearly understood, the environment (within which the problem has got to be studied) has
been defined, discussions over the problem have taken place and the available literature
has been surveyed and examined, rephrasing the problem into analytical or operational
terms is not a difficult task. Through rephrasing, the researcher puts the research problem
in as specific terms as possible so that it may become operationally viable and may help
in the development of working hypotheses.*
In addition to what has been stated above, the following points must also be observed
while defining a research problem: (a) Technical terms and words or phrases, with special
meanings used in the statement of the problem, should be clearly defined.
(b) Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research problem should be
clearly stated.
(c) A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation (i.e., the criteria for the
selection of the problem) should be provided.
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(d) The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available must also be
considered by the researcher in defining the problem.
(e) The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to be studied
must be mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem.
2.5. Hypothesis and Hypothesis Testing
The entire investigation is carried out by the research team according to the hypothesis
formulated for the study. It is the basis for the statement of the objectives of the study. It
helps in the decision making with regard to the research design. Hypothesis formulation
is not an end itself. The researchers must test the hypothesis in appropriate manner viz,
by statistical techniques or by an in depth field enquires. In lay man‟s parlance,
hypothesis is a kind of assumption that motivates or guides the researcher to proceed with
the research design and its implementation.
Hypothesis is the statistical statement about the characteristics of population made on the
basis of sample evidence. A statistical hypothesis is some assumption or statement, which
may or may not be true, about a population or equivalently about the probability
distribution characterizing the given population which we want to test on the basis of the
evidence from a random sample. Hypothesis can be formulated in either of the following
two ways:
(i) Null Hypothesis (Ho): It states that there is no much (significant) difference
between the parameter and statistic. In other words, H states that the difference
between sample statistic and the claimed population parameter is due to chance
variation in sampling. Null hypothesis is normally preferred in testing process. It
enables the researcher to test it. The random selection of the samples from the
given population makes the tests of significance valid for us. For applying any test
of significance we first set up a hypothesis - a define statement about the
population parameter(s). Such a statistical hypothesis, which is under test, is
usually a hypothesis of no difference between statistical and parameter. Hence it
is called Null hypothesis. In the words of R.A. Fisher null hypothesis is the
hypothesis which is tested for possible rejection under the assumption that it is
true.

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 (ii) Alternative Hypothesis (H1): It is true when H is false. It is the statement about
the population that must be true if null hypothesis is false. Any hypothesis which
is complementary to the null hypothesis is called an alternative hypothesis. It is
important to explicitly state the alternative hypothesis in respect of any null
hypothesis, because the acceptance or rejection of H is meaningful only it is
being tested against a rival hypothesis

Some of the important sources are given below:

1. A hypothesis arises from intuition. These hypotheses have no clear connection
with the large body of theory. The intuition is associated with an individual, who
is influenced by environment.
2. A hypothesis also arises from other studies. The findings of our study may be
formulated as hypotheses. The hypotheses followed in one study previously can
be used in the present study.
3. Theory is a fertile seed-bed of hypotheses. For example, individuals who are
rising in status are likely to be favorably inclined towards individual and objects
that are helping their uplift in life.
4. Personal happiness provides scope for hypotheses. Happiness is correlated with
income, education, occupation, social class and so on.
The characteristics of good hypotheses are: (i) it should be empirically testable; (ii) it
should be possible to draw certain inferences, which in turn can be tested by observation
in the field; (iii) it should be conceptually clear; (iv) the hypothesis must be specific; and
(v) it must be related to a study of theory of some theoretical orientation.
2.6. Procedure for Hypothesis Testing
The first and foremost problem in any testing procedure is the setting up of the null
hypothesis. As the name suggests, it is always taken as a hypothesis of no difference. The
decision maker or researcher should always adopt the neutral or null attitude on the part
of the researcher before drawing the sample is the basis of the null hypothesis. The
following points may be borne in mind in setting the hypothesis.
1. If we want to test significance of the difference between a statistic and the
parameter or between two sample statistics then we set up the null hypothesis, that

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 the difference is not significant. This means that the difference is just due to
fluctuations of sampling.
2. Setting the level of significance: The hypothesis is examined on a predetermined
level of significance. In other words the level of significance can be either 5% or
1% depending upon the purpose, nature of enquiry and size of the sample.
In hypothesis testing, two kinds of errors are possible viz., Type I error and Type
II error.

Type I error means rejection the null hypothesis when it happens to be true. Type
II error means accepting null hypothesis when it is false.
The following tables being explain the type of error
Position of Hypothesis Null Hypothesis-Accept Null hypothesis-Reject
H TRUE Correct Decision Type: I Error
H FALSE Type II Error Correct Decision

For instance the level of significance is 5%. It means that five cases of out of 100 are
rejecting the H which is true. It is possible to reduce type I error by lowering down the
level of significance. Both the type of errors cannot be reduced simultaneously. We have
to balance between them.
3. The next step in the testing of hypothesis is calculation of Standard Error (SE).
The standard deviation of the sampling distribution of a statistic is known as
Standard Error. The concept of standard error (SE) is extremely useful in the
testing of statistical hypothesis. Note that the SE is calculated differently for
different statistical value.
4. Calculation of Significance ratio: Significance ratio is symbolically described
as„t‟. It is calculated by dividing the difference between parameter and statistic by
the standard error
5. Deriving the inference: Compare the calculated value with critical value (table
value). If the observed value is less it is insignificant and vice-versa.

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 Summery
A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences
in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution
for the same.

In research process, the first and foremost step happens to be that of selecting and
properly defining a research problem.* A researcher must find the problem and
formulate it so that it becomes susceptible to research. Like a medical doctor, a
researcher must examine all the symptoms (presented to him or observed by him)
concerning a problem before he can diagnose correctly. To define a problem correctly, a
researcher must know: what a problem is?
Identification of a research problem is the first step in scientific inquiry. A problem in
simple words is some difficulty experienced by the researcher in a theoretical or
practical situation solving this difficulty is the task of research.
The problem defines the goal of the researcher in clear terms. Thus, without a problem,
research cannot proceed because there is nothing to processed from and proceed toward.
In social sciences, quite a number of researchers may be faced with this problem, i.e., the
problem of not being able to see a problem.

 Self Test Exercise Two

Part I: Write “True” if the statement is correct and “False” if the statement is

incorrect.

1. One of the most difficult phases of any research project is the choice of a suitable
problem.

2. The identification of a good research problem should be considered a discovery in

itself.

3. Identification of a research problem is the last step in scientific inquiry.

4. The problem defines the goal of the researcher in clear terms.

5. Without a problem, research cannot proceed because there is nothing to processed

from and proceed toward.

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Part II: Choose the correct answer & encircle the letter of your choice.
1. _________ refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the context
of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the
same.

A. A research problem C. Problem creation

B. Problem solving D. All

2. The following points may be observed by a researcher in selecting a research

problem or a subject for research, except one;

A. Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult
task to throw any new light in such a case.

B. Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher

C. Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.

D. The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the
related research material or sources of research are within one‟s reach.

E. All

F. None

3. Identify the incorrect statement;

A. A proper definition of research problem will enable the researcher to be on the

track.

B. An ill-defined problem may create hurdles.

C. The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help
to discriminate relevant data from the irrelevant ones.

D. All

E. None

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 4. All are Points which must be observed while defining a research problem, except
one;

A. Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used in the
statement of the problem, should be clearly defined.

B. Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research problem

should be clearly stated.

C. A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation (i.e., the

criteria for the selection of the problem) should be provided.

D. The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available must
also be considered by the researcher in defining the problem.

E. None

5. The characteristics of good hypotheses are:

A. It should be empirically testable

B. it should be conceptually clear

C. the hypothesis must be specific

D. It must be related to a study of theory of some theoretical orientation

E. All

F. None

Part III: Fill the Blank spaces with the appropriate answer.
1. ______is the statistical statement about the characteristics of population made on
the basis of sample evidence.

2. In research process, the first and foremost step happens to be that of _______

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UNIT THREE: RESEARCH PROPOSAL
3. Introduction
Dear Learner, this is the third unit of the module research management for business.
In this unit you are going to deal about how to develop proposal and the different
components of research to be included in proposal.
Once research problems are defined and fruitful research hypotheses are formulated, the
researcher should plan his/her research design. The research questions and objectives
delineate the type of information to be collected and provide a framework for the scope of
the study of the research project. A research proposal is a written statement of the
research design that includes a statement explaining the purpose of the study and a
detailed, systematic outline of a particular research methodology (Zikmund, 2000). A
research proposal is often incorporated into the research program of an organization.

Unit Objectives: - At the end of this unit, students will be able to:-
 The definition of research proposal;
 Function of research proposal;
 General format of research proposal.

3.1. Research Proposal

Dear Learners, what do you mean Research Proposal to you? (Specify your
answer on the space provided below)
___________________________________________________________

A research proposal is a specific research investigation; a study that completes or is

planned to follow the stages in the research process (Zikmund, 2000). A research project
is basically part of a research program, which is an ongoing series of research projects
designed to supply an organization‟s continuing information needs.

A research design may be defined as a master plan specifying the methods and
procedures for collecting and analyzing needed information (Zikmund, 2000). It is the
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framework of the research plan of action. The objectives of the study that are determined
at the earlier stage of the research process are included in the research design. The
research design is often incorporated in a research proposal.

A Research Proposal is a written statement of the research design that includes a

statement explaining the purpose of the study and a detailed, systematic outline of a
particular research methodology (Zikmund, 2000). A research proposal is often
incorporated into the research program of an organization. A research program is an
overall plan of an organization to utilize business research. It is an ongoing series of
research projects designed to supply an organization‟s continuing information needs.

According to Emory (2000), the purpose of a research proposal is:

 To present the problem to be researched and its importance
 To discuss the research efforts of others who have worked on related problems.
 To set forth the data necessary for solving the problem
 To suggest how the data will be gathered, treated and interpreted

A proposal tells us:

What will be done?
Why it will be done?
How it will be done?
Where it will be done
To whom it will be done, and
What is the benefit of doing it?
Research proposal is valuable to both the researcher and the sponsor. The specific
values of proposals to both clients and researchers are described below.

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3.2. Value to the Sponsor
A research proposal allows the sponsor to assess the sincerity of your purpose, the clarity
of your design, the extent of your background material, and your fitness for undertaking
the project. The proposal demonstrates your discipline, organization and logic. A poorly
planned, poorly written, or poorly organized proposal damages your reputation more than
the decision to submit one.
Second, the proposal provides a basis for the sponsor to evaluate the results of a research
project
The third benefit of the proposal is the discipline it brings to the sponsor. It serves as a
catalyst for discussion between the researcher and the managers.

3.3. Value to the Researcher

A proposal is more beneficial for the beginning researcher to have a tentative work plan
that charts the logical steps to accomplish the stated objectives. The specific benefits of
proposals to the researcher include the following.

It allows the researcher to plan and review the project‟s steps. Literature review enables
the researcher to assess the various approaches to the problem and revise the plan
accordingly. It enables the researcher to critically think through each stage of the research
process.
After acceptance the research proposal serves as a guide for the researcher throughout the
investigation. Progress can be monitored and milestones noted.
A final benefit, particularly for the young researcher is that the proposal forces time and
budget estimates.

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3.4. Types of Research Proposals
Dear Learners, what do you think are the different types of research proposal?
___________________________________________________________

Depending on the type of project, the sponsoring individual or institution, and the cost of
the project, different levels of complexity are required for a proposal to be judged
complete. Government agencies demand the most complex proposals for their funding
analyses. On the other extreme, an exploratory study done within a firm's research
division or a student's term paper may need merely a one- to three-page memo outlining
the objectives, approach, and time allotted to the project.

In general, business proposals can be divided between those that are generated internally
and those generated externally. A third category is student proposals. An internal
proposal is done for the corporation by the research department of the firm or by staff
specialists. External proposals are either solicited or unsolicited. Sponsors can be
university grant committees, government agencies, government contractors, corporations,
and so forth. With few exception, the larger the project the more complex the proposal
will be. In public sector work, the complexity is generally greater than a comparable
private sector proposal.

In terms of complexity, there are three general levels. The exploratory study, which fits
between a student term paper and a master's thesis in complexity, is the first, most simple
business proposal. More complex and common in business is the small-scale study--
either an internal or external contract research project. The large-scale professional study,
worth up to several million amount of money, will be the highest level of proposals we
deal with. Government agency proposals, running several hundred pages, use the same
modules that we will discuss below. However, each agency has unique requirements,
making generalized coverage beyond the scope of this text.

Based on the type of proposal you are writing, you may choose the appropriate modules
for inclusion. This is a general guide, and sometimes more or less than what is shown
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here is appropriate for a specific purpose. (Your instructor will provide you with
requirements unique to your program.) For example, most small scale studies do not re-
quire' a glossary of terms. Terms are defined within the body of the proposal. However, if
the proposal deals with an esoteric subject that is not familiar to management, it is
appropriate to add a glossary.

Student Proposals
Although there are varying degrees of complexity represented in student proposals, the
difference between student and internal or external proposals is the emphasis placed upon
the literature review and bibliography.

For the most part, there are two reasons for requiring student research projects:
(1) to teach students how to do research and
(2) to develop students' knowledge in a specialized field.
These reasons affect the form and content of the student proposals. For example, the
section on qualifications of the researcher is not required. Professors know their students
and their educational level. Also, except for some doctoral projects, a time schedule is not
required. The time schedule is set by the professor or by the university's term. Other
sections not required from the student are budgets and project management. As beginning
researchers, it is important that students learn as much as possible from previous work;
therefore, the focus on related research. In addition, the research design and results
modules are particularly emphasized at the graduate level.

Internal Proposals
Internal proposals are more succinct than either student or external ones. At the least
complex end of the continuum, a memo from the researcher to management outlining the
problem statement, study objectives, research design, and schedule is enough to start an
exploratory study. Privately and publicly held firms are concerned with how to solve a
particular problem or improve an aspect of their business. Seldom do businesses begin
research studies for other reasons. In the small-scale proposal, the literature review and
bibliography are consequently not stressed and can often be stated briefly in the research

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design.

Since management insists on brevity, an executive summary or abstract is mandatory on

all but the most simple of proposals (projects that can be proposed in a two-page memo
do not need an executive summary). Schedules and budgets are necessary for funds to be
committed. For the smaller scale projects, descriptions are not required for facilities and
special resources nor is there a need for a glossary. Since small projects are sponsored by
managers familiar with the problem, the associated jargon, requirements, and definitions
would be included directly in the text. Also, the measuring instrument and project
management modules are not required. Managers will typically leave this detail for the
research department.

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 When to Include a Proposal Module
Proposal Student External
Internal
Types
Term Large- Explor Large Governme
Maste Doctor Explor Small- Small-
Paper Scale atory - nt Grant
Proposal rs ial atory Scale Scale
Study Study Scale or
Modules Thesis Thesis Study Study Study
Study Contract
Executive
summary
Problem
statement
Research
objectives
Literature review
Importance/
benefits of study
Research design
Data analysis
Nature and form
of results
Qualification of
researchers
Budget
Schedule
Facilities and
special resources
Project
management
Bibliography
Appendixes

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Glossary of
terms
Measurement
instrument

External Proposals
An external proposal is either solicited or unsolicited. The proposal is likely competing
against several others for a contract or grant. An unsolicited proposal has the advantage
of not competing against others but the disadvantage of having to speculate on the
ramifications of a problem facing the firm's management. Even more difficult, the writer
of an unsolicited proposal must determine to whom the document should be sent.

The most important sections of the external proposal are the objectives, design,
qualifications, schedule and budget. The executive summary of an external proposal may
be included within the letter of transmittal. As the complexity of the project increases,
more information is required about project management and the facilities and special
resources. In contract research, the results and objectives sections are the standards
against which the completed project is measured. To ignore or not meet any specification
is to disqualify automatically your proposal as "nonresponsive.

3.5. Major Components of the Research Proposal

Dear Learners, what do you think are the Major Components of the Research
Proposal?
_____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

You can put together a set of modules that tailor your proposal to the intended audience.
Each of the following modules is also flexible internally so that its content and length

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may be adapted to specific needs.

Abstract/ Executive Summary

The executive summary allows a busy manager or sponsor to understand quickly the
thrust of the proposal. It is essentially an informative abstract, giving executives the
chance to grasp the essentials of the proposal without having to read the details. The goal
of the summary is to secure a positive evaluation by the executive who will pass it on to
the staff for a full evaluation. As such, it should include a brief statement of the problem,
the objectives of the study, and the benefits of your approach. If it is an unsolicited
proposal, a brief description of your qualifications is also appropriate.

Problem Statement
This section convinces the sponsor to continue reading the proposal. You should capture
the reader's attention by stating the problem, its background, and consequences. As
discussed earlier, the problem can be represented by the management question. This is
the question that starts the research task. The importance of the problem should be
emphasized here if a separate module on the importance/benefits of study is not included
later in the proposal. In addition, the problem statement will include any restrictions or
areas of the problem that will not be addressed.

A problem too broadly stated cannot be addressed adequately by one study. It is

important that the problem is distinct from related problems and that the sponsor can see
the delimitations clearly. Be sure that your problem is clearly stated without the use of
idioms or cliches. After reading this section, the potential sponsor should know the
problem, its significance, and why something should be done to change the status quo.

Research Objectives
The research objectives module addresses the purpose of the investigation. It is here that
you layout exactly what is being planned by the proposed research. In a descriptive study,
the objectives can be stated as the research question(s). Recall that the research question
can be further broken down into investigative questions. If the proposal is for a causal
study, then the objectives can be restated as a hypothesis.
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The objectives module flows naturally from the problem statement, giving the sponsor
specific, concrete, and achievable goals. It is best to list the objectives either in order of
importance or in general terms first, moving to specific terms (i.e., research question
followed by underlying investigative questions). The research questions (or hypotheses, if
appropriate) should be set off from the flow of the text so that they can be found easily.

The research objectives section is the basis for judging the remainder of the proposal and,
ultimately, the final report. Verify the internal consistency of the proposal by checking to
see that each objective is discussed in the research design, data analysis, and results
sections.

Literature Review
The literature review section should examine recent (or historically significant) research
studies, company data, or industry reports that act as a basis for the proposed study.
Begin your discussion of the related literature and relevant secondary data from a
comprehensive perspective, moving to more specific studies that are associated with your
problem. If the problem has a historical background, begin with the earliest references.

Avoid the extraneous details of the literature; do a brief review of the information, not a
comprehensive report. Emphasize the important results and conclusions of other studies,
the relevant data and trends from previous research, and particular methods or designs
that could be duplicated or should be avoided. Discuss how the literature applies to the
study you are proposing; show the weaknesses or faults in the design, discussing how you
would avoid similar problems. If your proposal deals solely with secondary data, discuss
the relevance of the data and the bias or lack of bias inherent in it.

Always refer to the original source. If you find something of interest in a quotation, find
the original publication and ensure you understand it. In this way, you will avoid any
errors of interpretation or transcription.

Close the literature review section by summarizing the important aspects of the literature
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and interpreting them in terms of your problem. Refine the problem as necessary in light
of your findings.

Importance/Benefits of the Study

This section allows you to describe explicit benefits that will accrue from your study. The
importance of "doing the study now" should be emphasized. Usually, this section is not
more than a few paragraphs. If you find it difficult to write, then you have probably not
understood the problem adequately. Return to the analysis of the problem and ensure,
through additional discussions with your sponsor, your research team, or by a re-
examination of the literature, that you have captured the essence of the problem. .

This section also requires you to understand what is most troubling to your sponsor. If it
is a potential union activity, you cannot promise that an employee survey will prevent
unionization. You can, however, note the importance of knowing what the employees
think and the implications that may have. This benefit may allow management to respond
to employee concerns and forge their own linkage between those concerns and
unionization.

The importance/benefits section is particularly important to the unsolicited external

proposal. It is here that you must convince the potential sponsor that the data you plan to
collect will completely meet its needs.

 Summery
A research proposal is a written statement of the research design that includes a
statement explaining the purpose of the study and a detailed, systematic outline of a
particular research methodology (Zikmund, 2000). A research proposal is often
incorporated into the research program of an organization. Once research problems are
defined and fruitful research hypotheses are formulated, the researcher should plan
his/her research design. The research questions and objectives delineate the type of
information to be collected and provide a framework for the scope of the study of the
research project. According to Emory (2000), the purpose of a research proposal is: To

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present the problem to be researched and its importance, To discuss the research efforts
of others who have worked on related problems, To set forth the data necessary for
solving the problem, To suggest how the data will be gathered, treated and interpreted.

 Self Test Exercise Three

Part I: Write “True” if the statement is correct and “False” if the statement is

incorrect.

1. A research project is basically part of a research program, which is an ongoing

series of research projects designed to supply an organization‟s continuing
information needs.

2. A research program is an overall plan of an organization to utilize business

research.

3. Research proposal is valuable only to the researcher.

4. A poorly planned, poorly written, or poorly organized proposal damages your

reputation more than the decision to submit.

5. The importance of proposal is it serves as a catalyst for discussion between the

researcher and the managers.

Part II: Choose the correct answer & encircle the letter of your choice.
1. Once research problems are defined and fruitful research hypotheses are
formulated, the researcher should plan his/her ______

A. Research Design

B. Problem Design

C. Data Design

D. All

E. None

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 2. All are the purpose of a research proposal except one;

A. To present the problem to be researched and its importance

B. To discuss the research efforts of others who have worked on related
problems.
C. To set forth the data necessary for solving the problem
D. To suggest how the data will be gathered, treated and interpreted
E. All
F. None

3. A proposal tells us:

A. What will be done?

B. Why it will be done?

C. How it will be done?

D. Where it will be done and To whom it will be done,

E. All

4. A research proposal allows the sponsor to;

A. Assess the sincerity of your purpose

B. Assess the clarity of your design

C. See the extent of your background material, and your fitness for
undertaking the project.

D. All

E. None

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 5. The specific benefits of proposals to the researcher is ____

A. It allows the researcher to plan and review the project‟s steps

B. It enables the researcher to critically think through each stage of the

research process.

C. It serves as a guide for the researcher throughout the investigation.

D. All

E. None

Part III: Fill the Blank spaces with the appropriate answer.
1. ______ is a written statement of the research design that includes a statement
explaining the purpose of the study and a detailed, systematic outline of a
particular research methodology.

2. _______ is a careful inquiry or Examination to discover new information or

relationship and to expand to and to verify the existing knowledge.

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 UNIT FOUR: RESEARCH DESIGN
4. Introduction
Dear Learner, this is the fourth unit of the module research in management for
business. In this unit you are going to told the meaning of research design, type,
importance etc. The research design section should include as many subsections as
needed to show the phases of the project. Provide information on your proposed design
for such tasks as sample selection and size, data collection method, instrumentation,
procedures, and ethical requirements. When more than one way exists to approach the
design, discuss the methods you rejected and why your selected approach is superior.
Up to now, you have told the sponsor what the problem is, what your study goals are and
why it is important for you to do the study. The proposal has presented the value and
benefits of the study for the sponsor. This module lays out exactly what you are going to
do in technical terms. It is here that the sponsor understands exactly what it is "buying."
Formally defined, decision making is the process of resolving a problem or choosing
among alternative opportunities. The key to decision making is to recognize the nature
the problem/opportunity, to identify how much information is available, and to recognize
what information is needed. Every business problem or decision-making situation can be
classified on a continuum ranging from complete certainty to absolute ambiguity.

Unit Objectives: - At the end of this unit, students will be able to:
 Understand the Meaning of research design;
 Identify the features and forms of research design;
 Characteristics of a good research design.
4.1. Research Design
Dear Learners, what do you mean Research Design to you? (Use the space provided
below to write your answer)
___________________________________________________________

Research Design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it

constitutes the blue print for the collection measurement and analysis of data. Decisions
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regarding what, when, how much, by what means concerning an inquiry or a research
study constitute a research design “A research design is the arrangement of conditions for
collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to research
purpose with economy in procedure”. In fact, the research design is the conceptual
structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes the blue print for the
collection measurement and analysis of data. As such design includes an outline of what
the researcher will do from writing the hypothesis and operational implications to the
final analysis of data. More specifically the design decisions happen to be in respect of:
1. What is the study about? (Type of the study-exploratory or experimental etc)
2. Why is the study being made? (The purpose of the study)
3. Where will the stud be carried out? (The location of the study or the places to
be covered by the study)
4. What type of data is required? (Primary or secondary or both)
5. Where can the required data are found? (The sources of data)
6. What periods of time will the study include? (Time frame)
7. What will be the sample design? (Method of sampling and size of sample)
8. What techniques of data collection will be used? (Questionnaire method,
personal interviews, schedules etc.
9. How will the data be analyzed? (Analysis of data)
10. In what style will the report be prepared?

Keeping in view the above stated decisions, one may split the overall research design in
to the following parts.

a) The Sampling Design: which deals with the methods of selecting items to be
observed for a given study?
b) The Observational Design: This relates to the conditions under which the
observations are to be made.
c) The Statistical Design: which concerns with the question of how many items
are to be observed and how the information and data gathered are to be
analyzed.

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 d) The Operational Design: which deals with the techniques by which the
procedures specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs
can be carried out.

4.2. Important Features of Research Design

1. It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the
research problem.
2. It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and
analyzing data.
3. It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under these
two constraints.
4. In brief a research design, at least contain:
(a) A clear statement of research problem.
(b) Procedures and techniques used for gathering information.
(c) The population to be studied.
(d) Methods to be used in processing and analyzing data.

4.3. Criteria of a Good Research Design

Dear Learners, what do you think are the Criteria of a Good Research Design to
you?
___________________________________________________________

A good design is often characterized by factors like flexibility, appropriateness,

efficiency and economy. Of course, there are many other features which make the
design better but the following are the minimum requirements. Generally the
design which minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data collected
analyzed is considered as good design. The design which gives smallest
experimental error is supposed to be best design in many investigations. Thus the
question of good design is related to the purpose or objective of the research
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 problem and also with the nature of problem to be studied. A design may be quite
suitable in one case, but may be found waiting in one respect or the other in the
context of some other research problem. One single design cannot serve the
purpose of all types of research problems.

A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves

the consideration of the following facts:

1. The ways and means of obtaining information.

2. The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff.
3. The objectives of the problem to be studied.
4. The nature of the problem to be studied.
5. The availability of time and money for the research work.

Design Strategies:

Design strategies is concerned with the arrangement of the conditions and

preparing blue print, plan and a road map for conducting research in scientific and
systematic manner. Design Strategies mean a grand plan which helps the
researcher to develop an appropriate plan or type of research to be conducted in a
given environment. The most important aspect of research design is that, the
newly developed design may not conform to the originally prepared research
proposal out the basics of the research should not be stifled. In other words, the
important aspect of research design such as objective, hypothesis, statement of
problem should not be altered. Decisions to construct a suitable research design is
not easy as there are a number of methods of scientific research, methods of
collection of data, and methods of sampling are accessible to the researcher.
Among them, a suitable design he has to c chooses and proceeds to implement.

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4.4. Classification of Research Designs

Early in any research study, one faces the task of selecting a specific design to
use. A number of design approaches exist but, unfortunately, no simple
classification system define all the variations that must be considered. Here the
research designs are classified using different descriptors. A brief discussion of
these descriptors illustrates their nature and contribution to research.

(1) Based up on the Degree of research Question crystallization: a study may be

viewed as exploratory or formal based up on the degree of structure and the
immediate objective of the study.

Exploratory: tends toward loose of structure with the objective of discovering

future research tasks .Its immediate purpose is to develop hypotheses or questions
for the future.
Formal study: beings where the exploration leaves-off. It begins which research
hypotheses and involve precise procedures and data source specifications. Its goal
or immediate purpose is to test hypotheses or to answer research questions.

(2) Based on the Researchers control over the variables: In terms of the researchers
ability to manipulate variables we differentiate between experimental and ex post
facto design.

Experimental design: the researcher attempt to control and manipulate the

variables in the study. It is enough that we can cause variables to be changed or
held constant in keeping with our resear5ch objective. It is appropriate when one
wish to discover whether certain variables produce effect on other variables.
Ex post facto design: the investigators have no control over the variables on the
sense of being able to manipulate them. The can only report what has happened or
what is happening.

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 (3) Based on the purpose of the study: The essential difference between descriptive
and casual research designs lie in their purpose /objective.
Descriptive: it is concerned with finding out who, what, where, when, how much.
The purpose is to describe.
Casual: it is concerned with why and how one variable produce changing in
another. The purpose is to explain causal relation among variables under
investigation.
(4) Based up on the time dimensions: based on the time dimension of the research
design can be classified as longitudinal and cross- sectional.
Longitudinal: if the data collection for the research taken place in multiple time
points and the research is undertaken in several time periods. The advantage of
longitudinal design is that it can track changes over time and comparison of data
across time is possible.
Cross- sectional: if the data collection is taken place in single time point are
research is undertaken in single time period (i.e., carried out once and represent a
snapshoot one point in the time)

Descriptors of Research Designs

Category Options (Type of design)

[Link] degree to which the research a)Exploratory
question has been crystallized b)Formal
2. The researchers control over the a) Experimental
variable b) Ex post facto
3. Based on the purpose of the study a) Descriptive
b) Casual
4. Based up on the time dimension a) Longitudinal
b) Cross sectional.

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  Summery
Many definitions of research design" have been advanced, but no one definition imparts
the full range of important aspects. Several examples from leading authors can be cited:
The research design constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and
analysis of data. It aids 'the scientist in the allocation of his limited resources by posing
crucial choices: Is the blueprint to include experiments, interviews, observation, and the
analysis of records, simulation, or some combination of these? Are the methods of data
collection and the research situation to be highly structured? Is an intensive study of a
small sample more effective than a less intensive study of a large sample? Should the
analysis be primarily quantitative or qualitative? Research design is the plan and
structure of investigation so conceived as to obtain answers to research questions. The
plan is the overall scheme or program of the research. It includes an outline of what the
Investigator will do from writing hypotheses and their operational implications to the
'final analysis of data. A structure is the framework, organization, or configuration of . . .
the relations among variables of a study. A research design expresses both the structure
of the research problem and the plan of investigation used to obtain empirical evidence
on relation of the problem."

These definitions differ in detail, but together they give the essentials of a good
research design. First, the design is a plan for selecting the sources and types of
information relevant to the research question. Second, it is a framework for specifying
the relationships among the study's variables. Third, it is a blueprint for outlining all of
the procedures from the hypotheses to the analysis of data. The design provides for
answers to such questions as: What techniques will be used to gather data? What kind
of sampling will be used? How will time and cost constraints be dealt with?

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  Self Test Exercise Four
Part I: Write “True” if the statement is correct and “False” if the statement is

incorrect.

1. A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of

data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to research purpose with
economy in procedure.

2. The design which minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data
collected analyzed is considered as good design.

3. The design which gives smallest experimental error is supposed to be best design
in many investigations.

4. The question of good design is related to the purpose or objective of the research
problem.

Part II: Choose the correct answer & encircle the letter of your choice.
1. One is not true about Research Design;

A. It is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted.

B. It constitutes the blue print for the collection measurement and analysis of
data.

C. Decisions regarding what, when, how much, by what means concerning an

inquiry or a research study constitute a research design

D. All

E. None

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 2. Which of the following is Important Features of Research Design?
A. It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant
to the research problem.
B. It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and
analyzing data.
C. It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done
under these two constraints.
D. All
E. None
3. a research design, at least contain:
A. A clear statement of research problem.
B. Procedures and techniques used for gathering information.
C. The population to be studied.
D. Methods to be used in processing and analyzing data
E. All
F. None
4. A good design is often characterized by ___

A. Flexibility

B. Appropriateness

C. efficiency

D. Economy

E. All

F. None

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 5. A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves
the consideration but not one;

A. The ways and means of obtaining information.

B. The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff.
C. The objectives of the problem to be studied.
D. The nature of the problem to be studied.
E. All
F. None

Part III: Fill the Blank spaces with the appropriate answer.
1. ______is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted.

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 UNIT FIVE: METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

5. Introduction
Dear learner, this is the fifth unit of the module research management for business. In
this unit you are going to deal about the different methods of data collection. The two
major sources of data are primary & secondary. Primary data is data collected from the
original sources and are collected especially for the task at hand by the researcher.
Studies made by others including books for another purpose represent secondary data.
Most of the time, both of them are used together to complement each other. Sometimes
research may be conducted based on secondary data only and the research is known as
documentary research. Primary data loses its originality when used for purposes other
than for which they are collected.

The choice between primary and secondary data mainly depends upon the nature,
objectives, and scope of enquiry, availability of time & money; degree of accuracy
desired the status of the investigator.

Unit Objectives: - At the end of this unit, students will be able to:
 Understand and distinguish between primary and secondary data and their
characteristics;
 Describe secondary data and their sources;
 Understand and apply the methods for collecting primary data;
 Design and apply questionnaires and focus group discussions;
 Describe the characteristics of a good research;
 Apply personal interviews for collecting primary data.

5.1. Methods of Data Collection

Dear Learners, what do you think are the Methods of Data Collection?
___________________________________________________________

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The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and research
design plan chalked out. While deciding about the method of data collection to be used
for the study the researcher should keep in mind two types of data, primary and
secondary. The primary data are those which are collected a fresh and for the first time
and thus happen to be original character. The secondary data, on the other hand, are those
which have already been collected by passed though the statistical process. The
researcher would have to decide which sort of data he would be using for the study and
accordingly he will have to select one or other methods of data collection. There are
several methods of data collection, researches. The most important one are: (1)
Questionnaires (2) Interview and schedules (3) Observations (4) Focus groups and other
methods like test and existing files/data sets for the secondary data. The methods are
briefly explained in the following parts.

1. Questionnaires

A questionnaire is a self- report data collection instrument/ method that are filled out by
research participants. This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly incase
of big enquires. In this method a questionnaire is sent to the person concerned with a
request to the answer the questions and return the questionnaire. Questionnaires are
usually paper are pencil instruments, but they can also be placed on the web for
participants to go to are “fill out”, which contains a series of questions a providing space
for the replies to be filled by the respondent him/herself.

Questionnaires are sometimes called survey instruments, which are fine, but the actual
questionnaire should not be called “the survey”. The word survey refers to the process of
using questionnaire or interview protocol to collect data.

In short, Questionnaire is a data collection method, which contain a series of questions,

which will be filled by the respondent/ participant themselves without any direct oral
explanation/interpretation from the investigator.

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 Types of Questionnaires
There are two important dimensions along which questionnaires generally vary. That is
the degree of structure is the number of response possibilities.

1. Based up on the degree of Structure: from the point of view of degree of structure
questionnaires may be of two types:

a. Structured Questionnaire: are those Questionnaires, in which there are

defined, concrete and pre-determined Questions. The questions are presented
with exactly in the same wording and in the same order to all respondents. In
other word structured questionnaire presents questions with exactly the same
wording and order to all respondents, and consist definite, concrete and
predetermine items. Generally structured questionnaire is characterized by the
following points:
 Resort is taking to this sort of standardization to ensure that all
respondents replay to the same set of questions.
 The form of the question may be either closed or open, but should be
stated in advance and NOT constructed during questioning.
 It may also have fixed alternative questions in which response of the
informants /participants are limited to the stated alternative.
 Comments in the respondents own words are held to the minimum.
 Help to maximize standardization.
 Simple to administer are relatively in expensive to analysis.
b. Unstructured Questionnaires: are those which specify only the broad areas of
a subject and not the form and sequence of questions. The interviewer is
provided with the general guide on the type of information to be obtained.
Formulation of questions is left to the wisdom of the interviewer themselves
who are free to question respondents in their own way and the replies are to
be taken down in the respondent‟s own words to the possible extent; in the
same situation tape recorders may be used to achieve this goal. Unstructured

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 questionnaire suffer from two important limitations: one the replies gathered
though unstructured questionnaires can not be compared with each other and
this makes it difficult to judge the reliability of information. Two unstructured
questionnaires can be used by only trained interviewers who can frame
questions at the time of interview itself based on the response of the
participants.
2. Based on the number of response Possibilities: Questionnaires also vary in respect of
the number of response possibilities provided to the subject/respondents.
- If the question provides the subject with only two response possibilities it is
known as a dichotomous questionnaire
- If it provide with more than two possibilities it is called multiple-choice
questions/questionnaire.
- If it provide with complete freedom to select his most appropriate answer it is
known as an open ended questionnaire.

Designing a Questionnaire

Much labor and care are needed in designing a good questionnaire, which must possess
two qualities: Brevity and Accuracy.
 By Brevity is meant that the number of questions should not more than necessary.
The rule is gathering the data you need but not more than what is needed.
 By Accuracy is meant that the question should be able to evoke accurate response.
Accurate response is obtained if the replies form the respondents contain the
information sought.

In order to design a good questionnaire there are 15 principles of questionnaire

construction that we should follow:

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 (1) The questionnaire must intimately relate to the final objective of investigation:
One should make sure that the questionnaire items match with the research
objectives.

(2) Understand your research participant: Your participant (Not you) will be
filling out the questionnaire. We should consider the demographic and cultural
characteristics of our potential participants, so we can make it understandable
to them. Respondent knowledge of the subject, ability and willingness should
be property weighted.

(3) Use Natural and familiar language: “Familiar language is comforting; Jargon is
not”. If a questionnaire is to be translated for use in to several districts/local
dialects, the translated version of a questionnaire should be retranslated in to
the original language to check its fidelity.

(4) Write items that are clear, precise and relatively short: If your
respondent/participant didn‟t understand the items, your data will be invalid
(i.e. your research study will have the garbage in, garbage out, syndrome), the
items should be short; short items are more easily understood and less stressful
than long items.

(5) Do not use “Leading “or” Loading” questions: Leading questions always lead
the participant to where you want him or her to be. Loading questions include
loaded words (i.e., words that create an emotional reaction or response by the
participant). Always remember that you don‟t want the participant‟s response
to be the result of how you worded the questions. Always use natural wording.

(6) Avoid double- barreled questions: a double –barreled question combines two
or more issues in a single question and answer to double barreled questions are
ambiguous because two or more idea are confounded.

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 (7) Avoid double negatives: Does the answer provided by the participants required
combining two negatives? (Ex: I disagree that promoters should not be
required to supervise the cooperatives during audit time if yes, rewrite it)

(8) Determine whether an open- ended or a closed ended question is needed :

 Open ended question provides qualitative data in the participants‟ own
words. Here is an open ended question: How can your representatives
improve the moral/ your participation at your cooperatives?
 Closed ended question provides quantitative data based on the
researcher‟s response categories. Here is an example of closed ended
question:
How difficult do you find learning about research method to be?
1. very difficult
2. somewhat difficult
3. Not very difficult
4. Not at all difficult
5. Don‟t know

Generally, in closed ended response categories should be inclusive and mutually

exclusive. Open ended questions are common in exploratory research and closed
ended question is common in confirmatory research.

(9) Use mutually exclusive and exhaustive/inclusive response categories for

closed ended questions.
- Mutually exclusive categories: are those categories do not over lap (e.g. age 0-
10,10-20,20-30 are NOT mutually exclusive and should be write as; less than
10,10-19,20-29, 30-39,…).
- Exhaustive /Inclusive categories : means that the categories should include all
possible responses (e.g. If you are doing a national survey of adult citizens
(i.e. 18 or older) then this categories (18-19,20-29, 30-39,40-49.50-59, 60-69)

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 are NOT exhaustive because there is no where to put some one who is 70
years old or older.

(10) Consider the different types of response Categories available for closed
ended questionnaires items (i.e. Rating scale, Ranking, semantic deferential,
checklist).

Rating scale: are the most commonly used, including:

(a) Numerical rating scale: where the end points are anchored/labeled,
sometimes the center point also labeled.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Very low very high
(b) Full anchored rating scale: Where all the points on the scale are
labeled/anchored.
1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly
Agree disagree

1 2 3 4
Strongly Agree Disagree strongly
Agree disagree

- Omitting the center point on rating scale doesn‟t applicably affect the
response pattern.
- You should use some where form4-11 point in your rating scale. 1-10 is not
recommended, because many respondents mistakenly view the 5 as a center
point.

(b) Ranking: where participant put their responses in to rank order, such as most
important, second most important and third most important.

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 (c) Semantic differential: Where one item stem and multiple scales, there are
anchored/ labeled with polar opposite or antonyms, are included and are rated by
the participants.

(d) Checklists: Where participants “check all the responses in a list that apply to
them.

(11) Use multiple items to measure Abstract constructs: This is required if you
want your measure to have high reliability and validity. One approach is to use a
summated rating scale. Another name for a summated rating scale is a Likert
scale because the summated rating scale was pretty much invented by the famous
social psychologist named Rensis Likert.

(12) Consider using multiple methods when measuring abstract constructs: The
idea here is that if you only use one method of measurement, then your
measurement may be an artifact of the method of measurement. On the other
hand, if you use two or more methods of measurement you will be able to see
whether depend on the method.

(13) Use caution if you reverse the wording in some of items to prevent response
sets: (A response set is tendency of a participant to respond in a specific direction
to items regardless of the item content). Reversing the words of some items can
help ensure that participant don‟t just “speed through” the instrument, checking
“yes” or “strongly agree” for all the items. On the other hand, you may want to
avoid reverse wording if it create a double negative. Also recent research suggests
that the use of reverse wording reduce the reliability and validity of scales.
Therefore, you should generally use reverse wording sparingly, if at all.

(14) Develop a questionnaire that is easy for a participant to use: The participant
must not get confused or lost anywhere in the questionnaire. Make sure that the
direction(s) are clear and that any filter questions used is easy to follow.

(15) Always Pilot tests your questionnaire: in pilot testing your questionnaire, you
will always get/find some problems that you have overlooked. The best pilot test
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 is with people similar to the ones to be included in your research study. After pilot
testing your questionnaire revise it and pilot test it again, until it works correctly.

- to decide the proper form and structure

- to understood questions the will be misunderstood or which a rouse

defensiveness.

- To improve the questionnaire design in terms of format, quality of instruction,

need for filter or screening question, and amount of spacing required.

- It gives firm estimates of the amount of time, money, personal and equipment
required.

Strength and Weakness of Questionnaires

Strength: Good for measuring attitudes and eliciting other content from research
participants, in expensive, can provide information about the participants internal
meaning and ways of thinking, can be administered to probability samples, quick turn
round, can be administered to groups, Moderately high measurement validity for well
constructed and validated questionnaire, provide exact information needed by researcher
(especially the closed ended questions ), ease of data analysis ( for closed ended) , useful
for exploration as well as confirmation, free from bias of the interviewer, give adequate
time to give well thought out answers, and large sample can be made use of and thus the
results can be made more dependable and reliable.

Weaknesses: usually must be kept short, reactive effect may occur (e.g. interviewees may
try to show only what is socially desirable), non response to selective items, low
response rate, open ended items may reflect differences in verbal ability, obscuring the
issue of interest, measures need validation, used only when the respondents are educated
and cooperating, and slowest of all.

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Interview and schedules

2. Interview

The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral verbal stimuli and
replay in terms of oral verbal response. This method can be used through personal (face-
to-face) interviews and if possible through telephone interviews.

 Interview may be in the form of direct personal investigation or it may be indirect

oral investigation. Personal investigation: In this case the interviewer has to collect
the information personally form the sources concerned. He has to be on the spot and
has to meet people from whom data have to be collected. Indirect oral Investigation:
In this case the interviewer has to cross- examined other persons who are supposed to
have knowledge about the problem under investigation and the information obtained
is recorded.

Interview can be also two type based up on the degree of structure that is:
(1) Structured interview and (2) Unstructured interview

(1) Structured interview

- Such interview involves the use of a set of predetermined questions and of

highly standardized techniques of recording.
- The interviewer usually follows a rigid procedure laid down, asking questions
in a form and order prescribed.

(2) Unstructured interview

- Characterized by a flexibility of approach to questioning.
- Don‟t follow a system of pre-determined questions and standardize techniques
of recording information.
- The interviewer is allowed much greater freedom to ask, in case of need,
supplementary questions or at times he may omit certain questions if the
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 situation so requires.(?) However, this may result in lack of comparability of
one interview with another and analysis of unstructured response becomes
much more difficult and time consuming.

- Demand deep knowledge and grater skill on the part of the interviewer.
- It is a central technique of collecting information in the case of exploratory
research studies. Generally, in this method of data collection trust and rapport
are important and probing is available and is used to reach clarity or gain
additional information. (Examples of probing, anything else? Any other
reason? What do you mean?)

Strength and Weakness of interview

Strength: Good for measuring attitudes and most other content of interest, Allow probing
and posing of follow up questions by the interviewer, Can provide information‟s about
participant‟s internal meaning and ways of thinking, Closed-ended/ structured interview
provide exact information needed by researcher, Can use with probability samples,
Relatively high response rate are often attainable (sample can be controlled more
effectively), Useful for exploration as well as for confirmation, There is a greater
flexibility, Ease to obtain personal information, and Useful to collect supplementary
information and language the interview can be adapted to the ability/education level of
the person interviewed.

Weaknesses: In person interview usually are expensive and time consuming, Reactive
effect (e.g. interviews may try to show only what is socially desirable), Investigators
effect may occur (e.g. untrained personal biases and poor interviewing skills),
Interviewees may not recall important information‟s and may lack self-awareness, Data
analysis is time consuming, and Measure needs validation.

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 Schedules

This method of data collection is very is much like the collection of data through
questionnaire with little difference which lies in the fact that schedules are being filled in
by the enumerators who are specially appointed for this purpose. Schedule is noting but
like a Performa containing a set of questions. This enumerator along with the schedule
goes to respondents, put to them the question from the Performa in the order the
questions are listed and record the replies in the space meant for the same in the
Performa.

- In certain situation, schedule may be handed over to respondents and

enumerator may help them in recording their answer to various questions in
the side schedules.
- This method requires selection of intelligent enumerators, which possess the
capacity of cross- examination in order to find out the truth.
- Schedules are useful in extensive enquires (e.g. population census) and can
lead to fairly reliable results.
- It is, however, very expensive.

The Difference between schedule and Questionnaire

Questionnaires Schedules
1. filled by the respondent themselves with 1. 1filled by the enumerators or by
out any assistant. themselves with assistant from
research worker.
2. Cheap an economical 2. Expensive
3. High rate of Non-response 3. Low rate of Non-response
4. Very slow since many respondents do 4. The information is collected well in
not return the questionnaire in time (lack times as they are filled by the

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 of control over the samples). enumerators.
5. Used only when respondents are 5. Can be used even happen to be illiterate
literate & cooperative

6. Wider and more representative 6. Difficult to spend a relatively over wider

distribution of sample is possible area in this respect.

7. The success lies on the quality of the 7. The success much depends up on the
questionnaire itself. Honesty & competence of the enumerator.

8. No room for using other methods of data 8. Observation method can also be used as
collection complementary. a complementary data collection method.

FOCUS GROUPS

The Focus Groups Discussions had its origin in the evolution of audience responses to radio
programs in 1941 by Robert Metron, prominent social scientists. Metron applied these
techniques to the analysis of army training and moral films during World War II.

Definitions

 Focus Groups Discussion defined as “a group of individuals selected and assembled

by researchers to discuss and comment on, from personal experience, on the topic that
is the subject of the research.
 It is careful planned discussion designed to obtain perceptions in a defined area of
interest in a permissive, non- threatening environments.
 It is a form of group interviewing but it is important to distinguish between the two.
Group interviewing: involve interviewing a number of people at the same time, the
emphasis being on question and response between the researcher and participants

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 (i.e., limited to those situations where the assembled group is small enough to permit
genuine discussion among all its members and researchers). Focus Groups: A
method relay on interaction with in the group based on topics that are supplied by the
researchers, to obtain perceptions, attitudes, feelings of respondents in a defined area
of interests.

The Purpose /Roles of Focus Groups

- Help to draw up on respondent‟s attitudes, feelings, beliefs, experiences and reaction in a
way in which would not be feasible using other methods.
- Enable the researcher to gain large amount of information in a short period of time, since it is
organized events, not depend on a natural event to be happen like observation.
- Elicit a multiplicity of view and emotional processes within a group context.
- Help to explore the degree of consensus on a given topic.
- Useful at the preliminary/ exploratory stage of a study and after a program has been
completed;
To explore/generate hypothesis and develop question concepts for questionnaire and
interview guide at preliminary stage.
To asses its impact or to generate further a venues of research after program has
been completed, and
To evaluate or develop a particular program of activities during the time of a study.

Participant Selection and Size of the Group

Participant Selection

- Selection participant is carefully important. Generally, participants are chosen on the basis of
their experience related to the research topic. Participant selections depend up on the
purposes of the study.

- When developing a recruitment/ selection strategies, it can be helpful to contact /consult with
local people who are active in/connect to the study population. They may be able to after

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 ideas about how to gain access to the population, how best to approach peoples, and possible
obstacles to recruitment.

Size of the Group

- Most of the Focus Groups consist of between 6-12 people. The size of the group should
manifestly be governed by two considerations; One – is should not be as large as to be
unwieldy or to preclude adequate participation by most members. Two- nor should it be so
small that it fails to provide substantially greater coverage than that of an interview with one
individual. Number of groups - if there are different distinct sub groups the need arise to run
separate groups. One group is never enough to observe dynamism.

How Long Should the Focus Group Last? (Duration)

- Focus groups sessions generally last between one and two hours and recorded using audio
and/ or video tapes. And it is a good idea to record the start and end times of each focus
group.
The Moderator / facilitator

The techniques of moderating a focus group is a skill it self where the moderator may have to
wear many hats and assume deferent roles throughout the course of the discussion. Moderator is
responsible for leading the focus group discussion, posing all questions specified in the focus
group question guide, keeping the discussion on track, and encouraging all participant to
contribute. The role of the moderator/facilitator includes.

(1) Recruiting/selecting participants

(2) Reminding recruits of the focus group time and place
(3) Answering any Advance questions
(4) Being reliable – demonstrate commitment to the discussion
(5) Encouraging exploration of an idea
(6) Moving on to a different topic
(7) Keeping on track
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 (8) Inviting agreement
(9) Clarifying
(10) Curbing a talkative person
(11) Encouraging a very quite person

Strengths and Weaknesses of FGDs

Strength: Useful for exploring ideas and concepts, Provides window in to participants internal
thinking, Help to obtain in- depth information, Can examine how participants react to each other,
Allows probing, Most content can be tapped, and Allows quick turnaround.

Weaknesses: Sometimes expensive, May be difficult to find a focus group moderator with good
facilitative and rapport building skills, Reactive and investigator effects may occur if participants
feel they are being watched or studied, Difficult to generalize results if small, unrepresentative
samples of participants are used, May included large amount of extra or unnecessary
information, Measurement validity may be low, Usually should not be the only data collection
methods used in a study, and Data analysis can be time consuming because of the open-ended
nature of the data.

Observation

Observation is a very important technique of data collection in use in experimental and non-
experimental, social and anthropological research. In the strict sense it implies the use of the eyes
rather than the ears and the voice in scrutinizing collective behaviors. In this method, the
researcher observes participants in natural and/or structured environment. The investigators
obtain the data by watching and noting the phenomena as they occur with regard to their cause
and effect or mutual relations.

Definition
1. A systematic description of events, behaviors and artifacts in the social setting chosen for
study. ( Marsall a Rossman)
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 2. The process of learning through exposure to or involve in the day to day or routine
activities of participants in the research setting.
3. Is the process of enabling the researcher to learn about the activities of the people under
study in the natural setting through observing and participating in those activities.

Observation can be carried out in two types of environment in laboratory observation (which is
done in a lab set up by the researcher) and Naturalistic observation (which is done in real world
setting).

Types of Observation

(1) Simple/ uncontrolled: Simple/ uncontrolled observation is those which do not make use of
any standardized observational techniques such as carefully draw out schedules,
questionnaire, test etc. With the result there are no checks on the observer‟s biases, his
selection perception, his prejudices and desire become concisely woven with the fabric of his
conclusions. Also there is no check on the reliability of information. The data collected by
any two observers can not be compared. To the intent that each observers record of
experience is uniquely his own, the data gathered by him cannot be compared with those
gathered by any other observer. The gives rise to the problem of standardization. However,
despite its weaknesses, the use of this method is common in exploratory social investigations.
Uncontrolled/ simple observation may be of three types:

(a) Participant Observation: This method followed in the investigation where there is
need to penetrate deep in to the inner chamber of the group which is studied. In
participant observation the researcher becomes a part of the community, while
observing their behaviors and activities. The observer generally lives in the group
which he is studying without revealing his identity. In this approach the researcher is
interactively involved with the observed group as a member. Ex: to study the secret
rituals of a tribe. The success of this method depends up on two factors: First: The
investigator must have the skill to gain the confidence of the persons being studied so
that his presence does not disrupt or in any way interfere with the natural course of
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 events and they provide him with honest answer to his questions and not hide
important activities from his view. Second: The investigator should have the ability to
prevent his own preconceptions from distorting his interpretations. He should collect
a wide range of facts as is possible and should not begin shifting and interpretations
them until he has gained enough familiarity about the general life pattern of the
people begin studied.

(b) Non-participant observation

In some/many research situation it is almost impossible for the observer to himself

participate in all ways. For example a researcher cannot become a criminal in order
to study a criminal or a female social scientist cannot become prostitute in order to
study prostitutes. In all such cases the researcher may collect data as a non
participant observer. In this approach, type of uncontrolled observation the
researcher is isolated from the observed group. The observer either asks questions
and records the answer or observes the group from a distance.

Advantage: Beneficial to observe a group from an external point of view where

personal involvement plays no obstructive roles.

Disadvantage: - lack reliability/consistency

- time consuming
- Restricted by the amount of people that can be observed at one time.

(C) Quasi-Participant Observation

Purely participant and non participant observation is difficult. In the absence of

any standard set of relationships or role patterns for the outsider who is always
present but never participating, both the group and the outsider are likely to feel
uncomfortable. Therefore, in much social survey quasi-participant observation is
preferred.

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 In this method the observer assumes several roles. Sometimes he is in the role of a
participant taking part in the activities of the group. At other time in the role of an
interviewer a stranger or a listener. Nevertheless, he makes it clear to the group
that purpose is to gather-facts.

Generally: if the observation taken place in the natural setting, it may be termed as
uncontrolled/simple observation. In such type of observation no attempt is made to use precision
instruments. The major aim of this type of observation is to get spontaneous picture of life and
person. It has a tendency to supply naturalness and completeness of behavior, allowing sufficient
time for observing it.

(2) Systematic/Uncontrolled Observation

The observer bias is the crucial weakness of simple/uncontrolled observation. Systematic or

controlled observation tries to overcome this weakness by using various control techniques
ranging from sample testing and scoring device elaborate laboratory set ups. In the case of
controlled observation the observation takes place according to definite pre-arranged plans,
involving procedures. It requires use of precision/mechanical instruments as aid to accuracy and
standardization. Such observation has a tendency to supply formalized data upon which
generalization can be built with some degree of assurance.

Very often, an exhaustive list of mutually exclusive categories of behavior with a description of
each category is prepared and the job of observer is to assign observed behaviors to different
labeled categories.

In should be noted, however, the use of controlled observation does not completely eliminate
observer‟s bias. Many times if the categories are vague and the specification is inadequate,
different observer can easily put different interpretations on the same behavior. On the other
hand to specific categories, while they cut down ambiguity and uncertainty, may tend to be too

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rigid and inflexible. But such lists definitely enable the observer to tell how he made his
observation, under what conditions, when and so on.

(3) Mass observation

This method is used to record mass/ collective behavior of people in public place on the basis of
observation and interview. Its objective is to record the collective behavior of people in public
places.

Sampling methods in observation (sample of behavior)

There are three sampling methods involved with data capturing in observation.

(1) Event sampling: Here an event is observed every time it occurs. The observer selects
for his observation integral behavioral occurrence of events.
(2) Time sampling: In time sampling the observer selects for his observation at different
point in time, say, and three one hour observation (at specified/random time) on each
day. In short in time sampling the data is captured over certain period of time.
(3) Point sampling: in point sampling. The data is captured in away, say, each
individual‟s current category of behavior is captured before moving on to observe an
other person.

When to use observation?

- Observation is most effective when one is conducting social research, and is interested in
researching people‟s behavior.

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 Strength and weakness of observation

Strength: Flexible techniques: it doesn‟t necessary have to be structured around a

hypothesis, it can be used before obtaining a researcher questions, It can examine
simultaneous issue at once, Enable the researcher to examine the people‟s behavior
directly rather than relaying on self-reports in questionnaire/interview, Provide firsthand
experience, especially if the observer participates in activities, Can provide relatively
objective measurement of behavior, Observer can determine what does not occur, and
Good for description and provide moderate degree of realism.

Weakness: In observation the researcher might faced with values and beliefs that lack
any behavioral reference, In line with the above, paid fall, reasons for observed behavior
may be unclear, Observation sometimes result multiplication of explanations to given
problem/ behavior, Inhabited by situational constraints, Reactive effects may occur when
respondents know they are being observed, Investigators effect (ex: personal biases and
selective perceptions of observers), Observer may „go Native‟ (over identifying with the
groups being studied), Expensive than other methods, and Time consuming- especially
during the data Analysis.

 Summery
In large organizations consisting of many divisions, it is not unusual for one division to
conduct research that proves useful to another division. One department usually does not
know what another department is doing or has done so, to avoid duplicate efforts, re-
searchers should exhaust all sources within the company before searching elsewhere. Too
often, secondary data analysis of internal data is ignored because research practitioners are
inclined to design a new study every time management is in a quandary. The primary source
gives data in greater details compared to secondary source, In the secondary source there is
possibility of mistake due to errors in transcription made in copying from the primary
source, The primary source includes definition of terms and units used, The primary source
includes a prescription of the procedure used in selecting the sample, determining the sample
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 size, and collection the data. This all affect the accuracy, validity, reliability and
representativeness of the information. A Survey is only as Good as the Questions It Asks.
Each stage of the business research process is important because of its interdependent na-
ture. However, a research survey is only as good as the questions it asks. The importance of
wording questions is easily overlooked, but questionnaire design is one of the most critical
stages in the survey research process.

"A good questionnaire appears as easy to compose as does a good poem. The end product
should look as if effortlessly written by an inspired child-but it is usually the result of long,
painstaking work

 Self Test Exercise Five

Part I: Write “True” if the statement is correct and “False” if the statement is incorrect.

1. Primary data is data collected from the original sources and are collected especially for
the task at hand by the researcher.

2. Studies made by others including books for another purpose represent secondary data.

3. The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and research
design plan chalked out.

4. A questionnaire is a self- report data collection instrument/ method that are filled out by
research participants.

5. The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral verbal stimuli and
replay in terms of oral verbal response.

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Part II: Choose the correct answer & encircle the letter of your choice.
1. The choice between primary and secondary data mainly depends upon

A. The Nature and Objectives

B. Scope of Enquiry

C. Availability of Time & Money

D. Degree of Accuracy Desired The Status Of The Investigator

E. All

F. None

2. One is not methods of data collection;

A. Questionnaires

B. Interview and schedules

C. Observations

D. Focus groups

E. All

F. None

3. The _____method of collecting data involves presentation of oral verbal stimuli and
replay in terms of oral verbal response.

A. Interview

B. Questionnaire

C. Observation

D. None

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 4. All are true about Unstructured interview, except one;
A. Characterized by a flexibility of approach to questioning.
B. Don‟t follow a system of pre-determined questions and standardize techniques
of recording information.
C. The interviewer is allowed much greater freedom to ask, in case of need
D. All
E. None
5. All are the strength of interview, except one;

A. Good for measuring attitudes and most other content of interest

B. Allow probing and posing of follow up questions by the interviewer

C. Can provide information‟s about participant‟s internal meaning and ways of

thinking

D. Closed-ended/ structured interview provide exact information needed by

researcher

E. All

F. None

Part III: Fill the Blank spaces with the appropriate answer.
1. Sometimes research may be conducted based on secondary data only and the research
is known as _______

2. While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for the study the
researcher should keep in mind two types of data called _______ and _______

3. ________are those Questionnaires, in which there are defined, concrete and pre-
determined Questions.

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 UNIT SIX: SAMPLING
6. Introduction
Dear Learner, this is the sixth unit of the module research management for business. In this
unit you will be able to deal about what is the meaning of sampling, the difference between
sampling and census etc. Sampling also refers to choosing a smaller, more tangible number of
people to take part in the research. Sampling should not be regarded as necessary evil. Although
it is not generally recognized surveys are more accurate then census results because they may
require large number of skilled staff, more, time, and more money would make census very
difficult to ensure accuracy. The quality of data collection may be compromised because of
difficulties in administering the process of the research. However survey methods suffer from
serious consequences related to errors in survey research such as sample bias, vague questions,
administrative errors, and processing errors.

Unit Objectives: - At the end of this unit, students will be able to:
 Understand what sampling is;
 Differentiate between sampling and census;
 Specify sampling frame;
 Discuss how to select a sample.

6.1. Meaning of Sampling

Dear learner, what do you think of the term Sampling? (You can write your response on the
space left below):

Sampling refers to drawing a sample (subset) from a population (the fullest). The theory of
sampling has been developed recently but this is not new. In our everyday life we have been
using sampling theory. In all cases we believe that the sample gives a correct idea about the
population.
In research it also refers to choosing a smaller, more tangible number of people to take part in the
research. The usual goal of sampling is to produce a representative sample (i.e. a sample that is
similar to the population on all characteristics, except that it includes fewer people because it is a
sample rather than a complete population).
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The foremost purpose of sampling is to gather maximum information about the population under
consideration at minimum cost, time and human power. This is best achieved when the sample
contains all the properties of the population.
6.2. Terminology Used in Sampling
Here are some important terms used in sampling:
A sample: A set of element taken from a population (i.e. a finite subset of individuals defined in
a population.)
Sampling unit: - The constituents of a population, which are individuals to be sampled from the
population and cannot be further, subdivided for the purpose of sampling at a time.
Ex: to know the average income per family the head of the family is the sampling
unit. To know the average yield of wheat each farmer owner‟s yield of wheat is the
sampling unit.
Population: the full set of elements or people you are sampling. Technically known as Universe
The universe can be finite or infinite; in earlier case the number of items is certain.
Sampling Design: - A definite plan for obtaining a sample from the sampling frame. It refers to
technique / Procedure adopted by the researcher.
Census: A measurement of all the units in the population.
Statistics Vs Parameter
Statistics: a numerical characteristics of as ample (i.e. is a number that result from measuring all
the units in the sample.)
Parameter: a numerical characteristic of a population (i.e., is a number that result from
measuring all the units in the claimed population)
 Statistics derived from samples are used to estimate population
Sampling error Vs. Non- sampling error
Sampling error: Although the sample is the part of the population it cannot be expected generally
to supply full information about the population. So there may be in most cases difference
between statistics and parameters. The discrepancy between a parameter and its estimate
(statistics) due to sampling process is known as sampling error (i.e., the difference between the
value of a sample statistics (such as the sample mean) and the true value of the population
parameter (such as the population mean).
Non- sampling error: In all research /survey some errors may occur during collection of actual
information. These errors are called non- sampling error.
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6.3. Reasons for selecting sample: Why sample?
Sampling is inevitable in the following situations:
 Complete enumeration are practically impossible when the population is infinite,
 When the results are required in short time - it would be too time consuming to study the
whole units in the population.
 When the area of survey is wide - it would to expensive and time consuming as will to
study the whole units in the population
 When resource (Money, time and trained persons) are limited.
 When the items or units are destroyed under investigation for example a company to
demonstrate that their car can survive certain crash tests. Obviously, the company cannot
expected to crash every car, to see if it survives, the company crash only the sample of
cars
Principles of sampling
Samples have to provide good estimate. The following principle tells us that the sample methods
provide such good estimate.
1. Principle of statistical regularity: A moderately large number of units chosen at random
form large groups are almost sure on the average to possess the characteristics of the
large group.
2. Principle of Inertia of large number: Other things being equal, as the sample size increase
the result tend to be more accurate and reliable.
3. Principle of validity: This states that the sampling methods provide valid estimate a bout
the population units (parameters).
4. Principle of Optimization: The principle takes in to account the desirability of obtaining a
sampling design which gives optimum result. This minimizes the risk/ loss of the
sampling design.
6.4. Types of sample Design
There are different types of sample design based on two factors viz. the representation basis and
the Element Selection Technique. On the representation basis the sample may be probability
sampling or it may be non- probability sampling. Probability sampling is based on the concept of
random selection. Whereas non-probability is non-probability is non-rand sampling.
On the element selection basis the sample may be restricted or unrestricted. When each sample
element is drawn individually from the population at large, then the sample so drawn is known as
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unrestricted sample, where as all other forms of sampling are covered under the term restricted
sampling. However, Sample design is basically of two types: probability and non- probability
sampling
Basics sample Design
Element selection Representation Basis
Technique Probability Non-probability
Random Sampling Haphazard/
Unrestricted (simple ) convenience
sampling
Restrict Cluster sampling Purposive sampling
Systematic sampling (Quota, judgment sampling)
Stratified sampling

Probability Sampling
A probability sampling is on where the selection of the units from the population is made
according to known probability. The sample is based on probability theory. Every unit of the
population of interest must have a know non-zero chance of being selected in to the sample.
- Assigns equal probability/ chance to each units of the population (Every element has
equal (non zero) chance of being selected.
- Error of estimation/significance of results obtained can be measured.
- Best technique for representative sample (i.e., produce representative sample).
- Ensure the law of statistical regularity (i.e., on an average, sample chosen will have the
same composition and structure as the universe/ population.)
- Even each combination (possible) of sample will have equal probability of being picked.
- All choices are independent of one another.
Types of probability sampling
(1) Simple Random sampling: A simple random sample from finite population is a sample
selected such that each possible sample combination has equal probability of being
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 chosen. It is also called unrestricted random sampling. In this type of probability
sampling each unit in the population is identified, and each unit has an equal chance of
being in the sample. The selection of each unit is independent of the selection of every
other unit. Selection of one unit doesn‟t affect the chance of any other unit
Methods of selection of simple random sampling
(a) Lottery method: This is the most simple and popular method. In this method all the items of
the population are assigned a number on a separate slip of paper of same size, shape and
color. They are folded and mixed in a container. The required number of slip is selected at
random for the desire sample size. If the universe/population is infinite this method is
inapplicable.
(b) Table of Random Numbers: As the lottery method cannot be used, when the population is
infinite, the alternative method is that of using the table of random numbers. A random
number table is so constructed that all digits 0 to 9 appear independent of each other with
equal frequency. If we have to select sample from population of size N= 100, then the
numbers from 001 to 100.

Procedures: Units of the population from which a sample is required are assigned with
equal number of digits. When the size of the population is less than thousand, three digit
numbers 000, 001, 002, --- 999 are assigned. We may start at any place and may go on in
any direction such as a column wise or row-wise in a random number table. But
consecutive numbers are to be used. If any random number is greater than the population
size N the N can be subtracted from the random number drawn. This can be repeatedly
until the number is less than N or equal to N.
Example: In an area there are 500 families. Using the following extract from a table of
random number select a simple of 15 families to find out the standard of living of the
families in that area.

4652 3819 8431 2150 2352 2472 0043 3488

9031 7617 1220 4129 7148 1943 4890 1749
2030 2327 7353 6007 9410 9179 2722 8445
0641 1489 0328 0385 8488 0422 7209 4950

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 In the above random number table we can start from any row/column and read three digit
numbers continuously row-wise or column-wise.
Now we start from the third row, the numbers are:
203 023 277 353 600 794 109
179 272 284 450 641 148 908
280.
Since some numbers are greater than 500 we subtract 500 from those numbers and we rewrite
the selected numbers as follow.
203 023 277 353 100 294 109
179 272 284 450 641 141 408
280.

(2) Systematic Random sampling: each unit in the population is identified and each unit
has an equal chance of being in the sample. It is also called Quasi- random sampling.
Selection procedures: systematic sampling involves three steps:
1st: Determine the sampling interval, which is symbolized by “K” (i.e., it is the
population size divided by the desired sample size).
2nd: Randomly select a number between 1 and k and include that person/unit in your
sample.
3rd: Include all kth elements in your sample. For example if K is10 and your random
selected number between 1 and 10, for instance 5, then you will select persons 5,15,25----
etc. When you get to the end of your sampling frame you will have all the people to be
included in your sample.

(3) Stratified Random sampling :

All of the methods of sampling the procedure commonly used in surveys are stratified
sampling. This technique is mainly used to reduce the population Heterogeneity and to
increase the efficiency of estimate.

Stratification means division in to groups. In this method the population is divided in to a

number of sub-groups/strata. The strata should be so formed that each stratum is
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 homogeneous as far as possible. Then from each stratum a simple random sample may be
selected and these are combined together to form the required sample from the population.

There are two types of stratified sampling. They are Proportional and Non- proportional. In
the proportional sampling equal and proportional representation is given to subgroups or
strata. If the number of items is large the sample will have a higher size and vice versa.
The population size denoted by N and the sample size is denoted by „n‟ the sample size is
allocated to each stratum. That is given by n/N =C. so in this method each stratum is
represented according to its size.

In Non-proportional sample, equal representation is given to all the sub-strata regardless of

their existence in the population.

Example: A sample of 50 students is to be drawn from a population consisting of 500

students belonging to two institutions A and B. The number of student in the institution A
is 200 and the institution B is 300. How will you draw the sample using proportional
allocation? There are two strata in this case with sizes N1=200 and N2 =300 and the total
population N= N1 + N2 = 500.

The sample size is 50.

If n1 and n2 are the sample size:
n1= n x N1 = 50 x 200 =20
N 500
n2 = n x N2 = 50 x 300 = 30
N 500
The sample size is 20 from A and 30 from B. then the unit from each institution is to be
selected by simple random sampling.

(4) Cluster Sampling: cluster sampling views the units in the population as not only being
members of the total population but as members also of naturally occurring in a cluster

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 within the population. Cluster sampling is used in a large geographic sample where No
list is available of all units in the population but the population boundaries can be well-
defined.

Example: To obtain information about the drug habit of all high school students in a state:
You could obtain the list of all school districts in the state and select a
set of school districts.

Then with in each selected school district list all the high schools and
select a SRS of classes.

Within each selected high school list all the high school of classes

Then use the high school students in that class as your sample.

Cluster sampling must use a random sampling method at each stage. Generally it divides
area of interest in to a number of smaller non-overlapping areas /cluster.

Non- Probability/ sampling

It is the one where discretion is used to select representative units from the population (or)
to infer that a sample is representative of the population. This method is also called Non-
Random/judgment / purposive sampling. It mainly used for opinion survey.

Focus on volunteers, easily available units, or those just happen to be present when the
researcher is done. It is useful for quick and cheap studies, case studies, for qualitative
research, for pilot studies, and for developing hypotheses for further research.
There are FOUR main types of Non-probability methods/procedures:

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 (1) Convenience sampling: also called accidental /Haphazard /man in the street sampling.
The researcher selects units that are convenient, close at hand, and easy to reach.

(2) Purposive sampling: The researchers select the units with some purpose in mind. The
researcher specifies the characteristics of the population of interest and then locates
individuals who match those characteristics. Ex: Experts on coops, students who lives
in dorm on campus.

(3) Quota sampling: The researcher constructs quotas for different types of units. It also
often involves setting quotas and then use convenience sampling to obtain those
Quotas.

(4) Snowball sampling: Each research participant is asked to identify other potential
research participants who have a certain characteristics. You start with one or few
participants, ask them for more, find those, ask them for some and continue until you
have a sufficient sample size. It usually used where no sampling frame exist.

 Summery
In research it also refers to choosing a smaller, more tangible number of people to take part
in the research. The usual goal of sampling is to produce a representative sample (i.e. a
sample that is similar to the population on all characteristics, except that it includes fewer
people because it is a sample rather than a complete population).
The foremost purpose of sampling is to gather maximum information about the population
under consideration at minimum cost, time and human power. This is best achieved when the
sample contains all the properties of the population.
Sampling is inevitable in the following situations: Complete enumeration are practically
impossible when the population is infinite, When the results are required in short time - it
would be too time consuming to study the whole units in the population, When the area of
survey is wide - it would too expensive and time consuming as will to study the whole
units in the population, When resource (Money, time and trained persons) are limited,
When the items or units are destroyed under investigation for example a company to
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 demonstrate that their car can survive certain crash tests. Obviously, the company cannot
expect to crash every car, to see if it survives, the company crash only the sample of cars.
A probability sampling is on where the selection of the units from the population is made
according to known probability. Non- Probability sampling is the one where discretion
is used to select representative units from the population (or) to infer that a sample is
representative of the population. This method is also called Non-Random/judgment /
purposive sampling. It mainly used for opinion survey.

 Self Test Exercise Six

Part I: Write “True” if the statement is correct and “False” if the statement is incorrect.

1. Sampling should be regarded as necessary evil.

2. Although it is not generally recognized surveys are more accurate then census results.

3. In our everyday life we have been using sampling theory.

4. In all cases we believe that the sample gives a correct idea about the population.

5. The usual goal of sampling is to produce a representative sample.

Part II: Choose the correct answer & encircle the letter of your choice.
1. All are serious consequences related to errors in survey research except one;

A. Sample Bias

B. Vague Questions

C. Administrative Errors

D. Processing Errors

E. All

F. None

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 2. _______ refers to drawing a sample (subset) from a population (the fullest).

A. Sampling

B. Census

C. Both

3. The foremost purpose of sampling is to gather maximum information about the

population under consideration at____

A. Minimum Cost

B. Minimum Time

C. Minimum Human Power

D. All

E. None

4. ______ is the full set of elements or people you are sampling.

A. Population

B. Sample design

C. Sample unit

D. All

5. Sampling is inevitable in the following situations, except under one condition;

A. Complete enumeration are practically impossible when the population is infinite

B. When the results are required in short time
C. When the area of survey is wide
D. When resource (Money, time and trained persons) are limited
E. All
F. None

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Part III: Fill the Blank spaces with the appropriate answer.
1. _______ refers to choosing a smaller, more tangible number of people to take part in the
research.

2. ________ is a numerical characteristics of as ample (i.e. is a number that result from

measuring all the units in the sample.)

3. _________ is on where the selection of the units from the population is made according to
known probability.

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UNIT SEVEN: DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

7. Introduction

Dear learner, this is the seventh unit of the module research method for business. In this unit
you are going to see about data analysis and presentation. Analysis is the application of
reasoning to understand and interpret the data that have been collected about a subject. In
simple description, analysis may involve determining consistent patterns and summarizing the
appropriate details revealed in the investigation. The appropriate analytical technique for data
analysis will be determined by management, information requirements, the characteristics of the
research design, and the nature of the data collected. Statistical analysis may range from
portraying a simple frequency distribution to very complex multivariate analysis, such as
multiple regressions. There are three general categories of statistical analysis: univariate
analysis, bi-variate analysis, and multivariate analysis.

Unit Objectives: - At the end of this unit, students will be able to:-

 Describe concept of data presentation;

 Explain data analysis and its elements;
 Discuss types of data analysis.

7.1. Data Analysis

After collecting data from the field, the researcher has to process and analyze them in order to
arrive at certain conclusions which may or may not support the hypothesis which he had
formulated towards the beginning of his research work. Planning for data processing must be
done well in advance of field work as an integral part of the research design. Following are the
stages through which the raw data must be processed in order ultimately to deliver the final
products.
1. Editing: Editing means to look for and remove any errors, incompleteness or in consistency
in the data, if the raw data are erroneous in compete, or inconsistent, these deficiencies will
be carried through all subsequent stages of processing and will greatly distort the results of

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 any inquiry. Therefore, at this stage, certain questions are specified for 100 percent editing
because they are known to be especially troublesome or particularly critical to study
objectives. The editor is responsible for seeing that the data are: As accurate as possible;
Consistent with other facts secured; uniformly entered; as complete as possible; Acceptable
for tabulation; and Arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation. With regard to points or
stages at which editing should be done one can talk of field editing and control editing.
a. Field Editing: It consists in the review of the reporting forms by the investigator for
completing (translating or rewriting) what the later written in abbreviated and/or in
illegible from at the time of recording the respondent‟s responses. This type of editing
is necessary in view of the fact that individual writing styles often can be difficult for
other to decipher. This sort of editing should be done as soon as possible after the
interview, preferable on the very day or on next day. While doing field auditing, the
investigator must restrain himself and must not correct errors of omissions by simply
guessing what the informant would have said if the question had been asked.

b. Central Editing: This should take place when all forms or schedules have been
completed and returned to the office. This type of editing implies that all forms
should get although editing by a single editing by a single editing a small study and
by a team of editors in case of a large enquiry. Editors must keep in view several
points while performing their work.
(i) They should be familiar with instructions given to the interviewers and coders
as well as with the editing instructions supplied to them for the purpose.
(ii) While crossing out an original entry for one reason or another, they should draw
a single line on it so that same may remain legible.
(iii) They most make entries (if any) on the form in some distinctive color and that
too in a standard form
(iv) They should initial all answers which they change or supply
(v) Editor‟s initials and date of the editing should be pace on each completed form
or schedule.
2. Coding: Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers so
that responses can be put in to a limited number of categories or classes. Coding is necessary
for classes which contain the critical information required for analysis. Coding decisions
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 should usually be taken at the designing stage of the questionnaire. Following are important
guidelines for coding:
i. Coding should be mutually excusive
ii. Set of categories should be collectively exhaustive so that all responses should be
classified in one or the other category.
iii. Separate categories should be created for recording „non-response‟ and no knowledge
response.
iv. Inter coder and intera-coder agreement tests should be conducted through out the
entire coding process to check its reliability.
v. To help ensure that responses are being coded systematically.
3. Classification: Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data which must
reduced in to homogenous groups for getting meaningful relationships. In this step data
having common characteristic are placed in one class and in this way the entire data get
divided in to a number of groups or classes. Classification can be of like following two types,
depending upon the nature of the phenomenon involved:

(i) Classification according to Attributes: Data are classified on the basis of common
characteristics which can either be descriptive or numerical. Descriptive characteristics
refer to qualitative phenomenon, which can not be measured quantitatively; only their
presence or absence in an individual item can be noticed. Data obtained this way on the
basis of certain attributes are known as statistics of attributes and their classification is
said to be classification according to attributes. Such classifications can be simple or
manifold classification: In simple classifications we consider only one attribute and
divided the universe in to two classes- one consisting of items possessing attributes and
the other class consisting of items which do not possess the given attribute. Manifold
classification we consider two or more attributes simultaneously, and divided the data
in to number of classes.
(ii) Classification according to class-intervals: Unlike descriptive characteristics, the
numerical characteristics refer to quantitative phenomena which can be measured
through some statistical units. Data relating to income production, age, weight etc.
Come under this Category. Such data are known as statistics of variables and are
classified on the basis of class intervals.
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4. Tabulation: When a mass data has been assembled, it becomes necessary for the researcher
to arrange the same in some kind of concise and logical order. This process of summarizing
raw data and displaying the same in compact form for the further analysis. In the broader
sense, tabulation is the process of summarizing data and displaying the same in compact
from for the further analysis. In the broader sense, tabulation is an orderly arrangement of
data in columns and rows. Tabulation is essential because of the following reasons: It
conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to a minimum; It
facilitates the process of comparison; It facilitates the summation of items and the detection
of errors and omissions; and It provides a basis for various statistical computations.

Tabulation can be done by hand or by mechanical or electronic devices. The choice depends
on the size and type of study, study, cost conditions time pressures and the availability of
tabulating machines or computers. Generally accepted principles of tabulation are:
(i) Every table should have clear concise and adequate title so as to make the table
intelligible with out reference to the text.
(ii) Every table should be given distinct number to facilitate easy reference
(iii) The column heading s and roe headings of the table should be clear and brief
(iv) Units of measurement under each heading or sub heading must always be indicated
(v) Explanatory foot notes, if any, concerning the table should be placed directly beneath
the table.
(vi) Source of data must be indicated below the table.
(vii) It is generally consider better to approximate figures before tabulation as the same
would reduce unnecessary details in the table it self.
(viii) In order to emphasize the relative significance of certain categories, different kinds of
type, spacing and indentations may be used.
(ix) Abbreviations should be avoided to the extent possible and ditto marks should not be
used in the table.
(x) Miscellaneous and exceptional items, if any should be usually placed in the last row
of the table.
(xi) Table should be made as logical clear, accurate and simple as possible, very large
data should not be crowded in a single table.

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 (xii) The arrangement of the categories in the table may be chronological, geographical,
and alphabetical or according to must suit the need and requirements of an
investigation.
7.2. Elements/Types of Analysis
Dear Learner, what types of analysis do you know? (Specify your answer on the space
left below)
__________________________________________________
The manner in which data can be analyzed depends to a great extent up on the measurement and
sampling procedure followed in their collection. Depending up on these two components the
analysis is always more precise and objective. It also enables the readers of the study to evaluate
the quality of the research. This is not possible in the case of non statistical analysis which is
always qualitative and therefore less accurate. Analysis may therefore be categorized as
descriptive analysis and inferential analysis.

I. Descriptive Analysis: is largely the study of distributions of one variable. This study provides
us with profile of companies work group, persons and other subjects on any of a multitude of
characteristics such as size composition, efficiency, preferences etc. This sort of analysis may be
in respect of one variable (Uni-dimensional analysis) or in respect of the two variables (bivariate
analysis) or in respect of move than two variables (multivariate analysis)
Statistical Measures for single variate Analysis: Where the data consists of measurement of
only one variable, they are often presented either in the form of a frequency table or a time
series. In a frequency table one column gives observed values of a random variable X and the
other gives the frequency of each value. In a time series one column gives certain units of time
and the other gives observed values of a variable as it varies from one time period to anther.
Frequency table is commonly analyzed in commonly analyzed in terms of its four important
characteristics viz Central tendency, dispersion, skew ness and kurtosis. Time series is analyzed
in terms of four important components Viz, Trend, seasonal variations, cyclical variations and
irregular variations.
1. Measures of central Tenancy or Averages: These measures are so called because they
show a tendency of the distribution to concentrate at certain values, some where in the

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 center of the distribution. These include mean, mode, G.M, H.M, Quadratic mean index
number.
2. Measures of Dispersion: How the items in a series are distributed and how they scatter.
Measures of Dispersion are:
a. Range as a measure of dispersion represents a difference between the values of
entrée items i.e., largest and like smallest items of the data under review.
b. Semi-inter quartile range is the difference between the upper and lower quarrel
divided by 2.
c. Mean Deviation is the average distance of the items in a series from their average
d. Standard Devaluation
3. Measures of Skew ness: The data in a frequency distribution may fall in to symmetrical
and asymmetrical patterns. The measures of the direction and degree of asymmetry are
called measures of skew ness. In a symmetrical distribution the mean medium and mode
between any two of these values indicates the extent of skew ness. Thus the measures of
skew ness are: Mean- Mode; Mean-Median; and Median- Mode.
4. Measure of Kurtosis: These measure show the extent to which the distribution (when
method and graph) is more peaked or less peaked than the normal curve. If the terms are
more closely bunched around the mode than normal, making the curve unusually peaked,
we say that curve is lep to kurtic. If on the other hand, the curve is more flat-topped than
normal, we say it is platy Kurtic. The condition of peaked ness or of flat topped ness
itself is known as kutosis or excess.
II. Statistical measures for Bivariate Analysis: If we have the data on two variables i.e. for
every measurement of a variable x, we have corresponding value of a second variable Y, the
resulting pairs of values are called a bivariate population.
i. Correction techniques
a, karl person‟s coefficient of correlation
(simple linear correlation)
b, Partial correlation
c, Charles superman‟s coefficient of correlation
ii, Association of Attributes
iii. Simply Regression

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III. Statistical Measures for Multivariate Analysis: Much behavioral research is multivariate
nature and cannot be done with a bivariat approach. The determinants of phenomena like
achievement, learning aggression, intelligence, certainly, risk taking organizational productivity,
group cohesiveness etc. is complex. Many variables influence such phenomena, and multi-
variables on one or more dependents variables.

 Summery
Once the fieldwork has been completed, the data must be converted into a format that
answers the decision maker's questions. Data processing generally begins with the
editing and coding of the data. Editing involves checking the data collection forms for
omission legibility, and consistency in classification. The editing process corrects
problems like interviewer errors (e.g., an answer recorded on the wrong portion of a
questionnaire) before the data are transferred to a computer or readied for tabulation.

Before data can be tabulated, meaningful categories and character symbols must be
established for groups of responses. The rules for interpreting, categorizing, and
recording the data are called codes. This coding process facilitates computer or hand
tabulation of course, if computer analysis is to be utilized; the data are entered into the
computer and verified. Computer-assisted (on-line) interviewing illustrates the impact of
technological change on the research process. Telephone interviewers are seated at a
compute terminal. Survey questions are printed out on the screen. The interviewer asks
the questions and then types the respondents' answers on the keyboard. Thus answers are
collected and processed into the computer at the same time, eliminating intermediate
steps where errors could creep in.

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  Self Test Exercise Seven
Part I: Write “True” if the statement is correct and “False” if the statement is incorrect.

1. Analysis may involve determining consistent patterns and summarizing the appropriate
details revealed in the investigation.

2. After collecting data from the field, the researcher has to process and analyze them in
order to arrive at certain conclusions.

3. Planning for data processing must be done well in advance of field work as an integral
part of the research design.

4. Tabulation can be done only by hand.

5. The manner in which data can be analyzed depends to a great extent up on the
measurement and sampling procedure followed in their collection.

Part II: Choose the correct answer & encircle the letter of your choice.
1. The appropriate analytical technique for data analysis will be determined by;

A. Management

B. Information Requirements

C. The Characteristics Of The Research Design

D. The Nature Of The Data Collected.

E. All

F. None

2. ______means to look for and remove any errors, incompleteness or in consistency in the
data.

A. Editing

B. Coding

C. Analysis
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 3. _______ refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers so that
responses can be put in to a limited number of categories or classes.

A. Coding

B. Editing

C. Analysis

4. Following are important guidelines for coding, but one is not;

A. Coding should be mutually excusive
B. Set of categories should be collectively exhaustive so that all responses should
be classified in one or the other category
C. Separate categories should be created for recording „non-response‟ and no
knowledge response
D. All
E. None
5. ______ measure show the extent to which the distribution (when method and graph) is
more peaked or less peaked than the normal curve.

A. Measures of Skew ness

B. Measure of Kurtosis

C. Measures of Dispersion

Part III: Fill the Blank spaces with the appropriate answer.
1. ______is the application of reasoning to understand and interpret the data that have been
collected about a subject.

2. _______, ________ and_______ are three general categories of statistical analysis:

3. The rules for interpreting, categorizing, and recording the data are called_____

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 UNIT EIGHT: RESEARCH REPORT WRITING

8. Introduction
Dear Learner, The final product of the research process is present the findings in a report
form. It is the means of making the findings available to the readers with varies interests. Some
readers may be concerned with ascertaining the problem highlighted by the researcher. A few
may be interested only with the conclusions arrived at by the researcher. If readers themselves
are researchers, they may wish to study the techniques used in the study and the analysis made to
arrive the conclusions. Some may be searching for the suggestions, recommendations for solving
the problems identified by the researchers. Still some others may be interested to know the
library source (bibliography) of information used in the study. Though the process of research
may be scientific, but if it is not reported systematically, it gains no recognition. The researcher
should be cautious since it is the one way of communicating the results of his research efforts.
Hence, the researcher should follow the seven principles of communication scrupulously, viz.,
completeness, concise, correct, clarity, consideration, concrete, and courtesy.

Unit Objectives: - At the end of this unit, students will be able to: -
 Describe research report writing;
 Discuss guidelines for writing research report;
 Elaborate different steps in report writing;
 Discuss presentation of statistics in research report.

8.1. General Principles Related to Writing the Research Report

Dear learner, what do you think of the term Writing the Research Report? (You can write
your response on the space left below):

We begin this section with some general writing tips with regard to language and editorial styles.
Simple, clear, and direct communication should be your most important goal when you write a
research report.
Language The following three guidelines will help you select appropriate language in your
report: Choose accurate and clear words that are free from bias. One way to do this is to be very
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specific rather than less specific; avoid labeling people whenever possible; Write about your
research participants in a way that acknowledges their participation. For example, avoid the
impersonal term "subject" or subjects; words such as “research participants” or children or adults
are preferable.
Keeping in mind the above guidelines, you should give special attention to the following issues:
- Gender. The bottom line is to avoid sexist language.
- Sexual Orientation. Terms such as homosexual should be replaced with terms such as
lesbians, gay men, and bisexual women or men. Specific instances of sexual behavior
should be referred to with terms such as same gender, male-male, female-female, and
male-female.
- Racial and Ethnic Identity. Ask participants about their preferred designations and use
them. When writing this term, capitalize it (e.g., African American).
- Disabilities. Do not to equate people with their disability. For example, refer to a
participant as a person who has cancer rather than as a cancer victim.
- Age. Acceptable terms are boy and girl, young man and young woman, male
adolescent and female adolescent. Older person is preferred to elderly. Call people
eighteen and older men and women.
Editorial Style
Italics: As a general rule, use italics infrequently. If you are submitting a paper for
publication, you can now use italics directly rather than using underlines to signal what is
to be italicized.
Abbreviations: Use abbreviations sparingly, and try to use conventional abbreviations
(such as IQ, e.g., c.f., i.e., etc.).
Headings: Specifies five different levels of headings and the combinations in which they
are to be used in your report. If you are using two levels of headings, center the first
level and use upper- and lowercase letters (i.e., do not use all caps), and place the second
heading on the left side in upper- and lowercase letters and in italics. If you are using
three levels of headings, do the first two levels as just shown for two levels. The third
level should be in upper- and lowercase letters, italicized, indented, and ending with a
period.
Quotations: Quotations of fewer than 40 words should be inserted into the text and
enclosed in double quotation marks. Quotations of 40 or more words should be displayed
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 in a free standing block of lines without quotation marks. The author, year, and specific
page from which the quote is taken should always be included.
Numbers: Use words for numbers that begin a sentence and for numbers that are below
ten.
Reference Citations in the Text
• Here is one example: "Smith (1999) found that . . ."
• Frequently you will put references at the end of sentences. Here is an example,
“Mastery motivation has been found to affect achievement with very young children
(Turner & Johnson, 2003).”

8.2. Types of Research Reports

The research reports are of many types depending upon the way of preference to present,
sponsor, size, and purpose.
Depending upon the sponsor there may be Government Reports, business reports, and private
organizations reports. The Government Report must have a brief executive summary so as to
enable the decision makers to grasp it easily and quickly. Most of the reports submitted to the
board of directors of companies or the sponsor may be classified as research reports for private
use. Their findings should be kept confidential as per the research work contract. They are also
called as business research reports.
In terms of size, the short reports may be of five to ten pages. It must be brief and to the point. It
may take a form of business letter, a memorandum type report. It must be written in an informal
way using first person. If the user is a non-professional, relevant and meaningful charts, graphs
etc. can also be sued. At the end of the short report, a brief summary with most important points
can also be added.
Long written Report: may be in the form of an elaborate description or discussion about the
subject under enquiry. Depending upon the user and sponsor these reports may be of three types‟
viz., Academic Research Reports, Government Sponsored research reports, and Business
Research reports, Technical Reports are for particular group of audience with expert knowledge
about the topic of research. The style communication will always be different from the
management reports.

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8.3. Report Format
Research Report is a product in the sense that it must satisfy the parties concerned viz., sponsor
(user), researcher himself to get recognition and for fetching further assignments, and the general
public or academicians interested in the acquisition of knowledge. A standard format cannot be
conceived as the user needs may be different and also difficult to guess. However, an attempt is
made to understand the basic minimum requirements of a research report. The mechanical format
of a research report consists of three parts viz., the preliminaries (including introduction,
methodology, and design), the text (the relevant data, interpretations, inferences etc.) and the
reference materials. The following sequence is generally accepted.
The Preliminaries:
- Title Page (inside the hard cover)
- Preface including acknowledgements (if desired or necessary)
- Table of contents
- List of Tables
- List of Abbreviations uses in the report
- List of Figures or illustrations,
- Abstract

The Text:
- Introduction
- Methodology
- Main body of the report (presented in appropriate modules or chapter form)
- Conclusions
Reference Material:
- Bibliography
- Appendix or appendices
- Index (if necessary)
A brief explanation of each item is given below:
Title Page: It should be as brief as possible but self-explanatory. It should contain basically the
name (title) of the subject investigated, date of submission (sometimes moth is sufficient and
they year), name of the author(s), and the name of the agency to whom it is submitted. The font
of the above should be appropriately set to attract the reader.
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Preface: The preface (often used synonymously with foreword) may include the purpose in
conducting the study, a brief resume of the background, scope, purpose, general nature of the
research upon which the report is being based and acknowledgement.
„Acknowledgements‟ recognize the persons to whom the writer is indebted for guidance and
assistance during the study and the funding institutions for providing finances to implements the
study. If the list of acknowledgements is short, the heading „acknowledgements; is omitted and a
brief statement containing the acknowledgments is placed slightly above the centre of the page.
The word, preface and Acknowledgements should be printed in capital letters. This entire
preface is not necessary if the project is sponsored and where letter of transmittal is considered as
necessary.

Table of Contents: The purpose of a table of contents is to provide an analytical overview of the
material included in the study or report. Any report of more than six to ten pages should have
contents page. It must indicate the pate numbers (from and to or only from page) for each of the
items like acknowledgement (Arabic numerals), list of tables, list of figures, list of abbreviations,
and list of illustrations.
The Text: Among all the three parts of research report, the Text is the most important part of the
report. In this section the researcher presents the facts observed or the basic aspects of argument.
Introduction: It should be prepared with considerable care with two major aims introducing the
problem in a suitable context and arousing and stimulating the reader‟s interest. If the
introduction is dull, aimless, confused and lacking precision, direct and specificity, there is a
litter interest for the reader to continue perusal. The reader should gauge the material inside with
a cursory reading of the first few pages. An introductory chapter should contain the following:
a) A lucid, complete and concise statement of the problem being investigated.
b) A description of the scope of the study
c) An explanation of the need for the study and its importance
d) A preview of the organization of the thesis
e) A resume of the historical background and present importance of the problem
f) Preliminary results of the exploration
g) A brief statement regarding the sources of data, the techniques used for analyzing the
data, the assumptions used in the analysis and the technical terminology used.
h) An analytical review of literature should also be an important part of introduction.
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Methodology: In both technical and management reports and explanation of methodology is
necessary. Of course, some of the researchers opine that in management a mention about
methodology is not important. It is the core aspect of the report to evaluate the scientific nature
of the study. The reliability and validity of research process depends upon the strength of
methodology. A scientific methodology is composed of an explanation about sampling design,
data collection design, experimental design, tools of data analysis, limitations, time frame,
techno format etc.

Main Body of the Report: The chapters constituting the main body of the report will vary in
number and length according to the nature of the evidence to be presented. The arguments and
findings should be presented in a logical or orderly way. Every bit of evidence should be
supported by logical reasoning and empirical facts. Materials should be organized systematically
and presented under appropriate headings. The following order may be adopted:
a) Statement of specific question or hypothesis under study
b) Presentation of relevant data
c) Interpretation of data
d) Conclusions and interpretations for each specific question.
In the body of the report, according to the necessary charts, graphs, tables and diagrams can be
employed. They must be appropriately numbered. At the end of each chapter, a summary of the
arguments, findings and relevant data may be given in clear and concise terms.
Conclusions; serve the important function of the research report, i.e., informing the user of the
report the results and the possible interpretations of the information and data. The researcher
incorporates the findings of his investigation along with the conclusions what he thinks fit. The
researcher may also list out unanswered questions, which require further research. If the
recommendations for future action grow out of the conclusion, they should be clearly stated in
the report. The conclusions, recommendations, and possible problems that could be further
researched must be presented in a classified manner. Each conclusion must be supported by
empirical data and evidence.
Appendix: It includes such matters as original data, tables that present supporting evidence, tests
that have been constructed by the research student, parts of document or any supportive evidence
that would detract from the major line of argument and would make the body of the thesis

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unduly large and any extract from official document. Usually the copy of the questionnaire and
the interview schedule used for collecting the primary data are included in the appendix.
Bibliography: is a source of the major information concerning the dissertation. Thus it is the
main body of the text and is separate but integral part of a thesis. It must focus on subject books,
and central theme of the research process. In comprehensive listing, bibliography should follow a
logical arrangement in alphabetical (dictionary) style of presentation) order. Again it should be
noted that reference notes are different from bibliography. The essential information for each
book or journal article should be shown as under:

(a) In case of books; this order is to be followed: name of the author(s) year of
publication; Title of the book; edition number preferably in brackets; place of
publication; and name of the publisher.
Example: Guildford, J. P., (1995) Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and
Education (4th ed.), New York: McGraw Hill.
(b) In case of a journal the place of publication and the publisher‟s name are not
included. But the volume number and the inclusive pages which contain the article
are given.
Example: Turner, L.C.F. (1998). The Russian Mobilization in 1914. Journal of
Contemporary History, 3, 65-68
(c) In case of Reports the name of the authority for whom the report is prepared followed
by the title of the Report, place and year of publication.
Example: Ministry of Information and Publications, Government of Ethiopia,
Statistical Abstract of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, 1995
Oral Presentation
Often the researchers are asked make oral presentation of his research process and findings
which is also called as „Briefing‟. This presentation exercise is unique for the following factors:
1. A small group is to be addressed
2. Statistical Tables constitute major aspect of the topic
3. The audience is a core group interested in learning, knowing, analyzing and evaluating.
4. The speaking time may vary from 10 to 20 minutes or 20n minutes to 1 hour 30 minutes
depending upon the purpose and the audience
5. Presentation is normally followed by questions and answers.
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Preparation: The presenter has to carefully jot down the outline of critical aspects of the research
study. While preparing for the presentation the presenter has to bear in mind: (a) the purpose of
the presentation (for instance, is it to inform about the problem? Or is it to solve the problem? Or
is it to give conclusions and recommendations) ands (b) what is the time given for presentation?
The oral presentation should cover the following major points:
1. Opening remarks to explain the nature of the project, problem, found, and how it is
processed to solve
2. Findings and conclusions should be the basis of presentation. They must be brief and
comprehensive. And
3. Presentation of recommendation. They must have relevance to the conclusions and
findings stated earlier.
There are mainly three types of presentations. They are (a) Memorized speech. As a matte of
fact, it is not preferable method of presentation. It is highly self centered or speaker centered (b)
Reading manuscript. This is also not advisable because over the time it becomes dull, lifeless and
fails to evoke interest in the audience (c) Extemporaneous Presentation. It is an oral presentation
based on minimal notes or an outline of the subject matter. This speech appears natural,
conversational and flexible. It is the best choice in organizational setting. The outlines or
important deliverable points can be noted on Cards of 5 x 8 inches or 3 x 5 inches size.
An inexperience speaker or novice resorts, compulsorily, make a rehearsal quiet in advance of
the presentation. The rehearsal makes the presentation an artistic and dramatic exercise. The
presenter can achieve mastery over ht presentable information. He can find out the weak areas
and they can be rectified, revised and reformed during rehearsal period. If necessary a video tape
recorder can be used as a diagnostic tool. The delivery should be couched in sophisticated
phrases and terms so that it increases receptiveness. The delivery of the research exercise should
be in a good demeanor, postures, in terms of dress, total appearance befitting for the occasion.
There is no chance of using anecdotes and other rapport developing techniques.
If the audience requires, and / or the occasion demands, audio visuals can also be used. It gives
good results. Visual aids decision depends upon several factors because there are a number of
lecture-aids such as chalk boards, white boards, handouts, flip charts, overhead transparencies,
slides of 35 mm and computer drawn visuals.

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  Summery
Simple, clear, and direct communication should be your most important goal when you
write a research report. One of the most important ethical considerations for the
researcher and the client is the client’s right to quality researcher. From the proposal
through the design to data analysis and final reporting, the researcher advises the client
on the proper techniques and interpretations. Ethical researchers provide the client with
the type of study her or she needs to solve the managerial question. Often clients will
have heard about a sophisticated data handling technique and will want it used even
when it is inappropriate for the problem at hand. The researcher should guide the client
so that this does not occur. The design of the project should be suitable for the problem;
it should not be designed in such a way that maximum revenue is achieved at the client’s
expense. The second aspect of quality research lies in the reporting techniques. We have
all heard the phrase, ‘you can lie with statistics.” It is the researcher’s tasks to prevent
that from occurring. As you learn about research design, sampling, statistics, and
reporting techniques, you’ll see that various conditions must be met for results to be
valid. The ethical researcher always follows the rules and meets these conditions. The
ethical researcher reports results in ways that minimize the drawing of false conclusions.
The ethical researcher also uses charts, graphs, and tables to show the data objectively,
regardless of the client’s preferred outcomes.

 Self Test Exercise Eight

Part I: Write “True” if the statement is correct and “False” if the statement is incorrect.

1. The final product of the research process is present the findings in a report form.

2. Though the process of research may be scientific, but if it is not reported systematically,
it gains no recognition.

3. In research report writing, Quotations of fewer than 40 words should be inserted into the
text and enclosed in double quotation marks.
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 4. The Government Report must have a brief executive summary so as to enable the
decision makers to grasp it easily and quickly.

5. Most of the reports submitted to the board of directors of companies or the sponsor may
be classified as research reports for private use.

Part II: Choose the correct answer & encircle the letter of your choice.
1. your most important goal when you write a research report should be;

A. Simple D. All

B. Clear E. None

C. Direct Communication

2. The following guidelines will help you select appropriate language in your report except
one;

A. Choose accurate and clear words that are free from bias.

B. Avoid labeling people whenever possible

C. Write about your research participants in a way that acknowledges their participation.

D. All

E. None

3. Research Report is a product in the sense that it must satisfy the parties concerned

A. Sponsor (user)

B. Researcher himself to get recognition and for fetching further assignments

C. the general public or academicians interested in the acquisition of knowledge

D. All

E. None

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 4. Of the following, one is not true about table of content;

A. The purpose of a table of contents is to provide an analytical overview of the

material included in the study or report

B. Any report of more than six to ten pages should have contents page.

C. It must indicate the pate numbers (from and to or only from page) for each of the
items.

D. All

E. None

5. An introductory chapter should contain:

A. A lucid, complete and concise statement of the problem being investigated.

B. A description of the scope of the study
C. An explanation of the need for the study and its importance
D. A preview of the organization of the thesis
E. All
F. None
Part III: Fill the Blank spaces with the appropriate answer.
1. ______is the means of making the findings available to the readers with varies interests.

2. _______ is a source of the major information concerning the dissertation.

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Answer Key for Self Test Exercise
Self Test Exercise One
True/False
1. True 4. False

2. True 5. True

3. True 6. True

Multiple Choices
1. E 4. E

2. F 5. D

3. A 6. F

Fill In the Blank Space

1. Research method

2. Research methodology

Self Test Exercise Two

True/False
1. True 4. True

2. True 5. True

3. False

Multiple Choices
1. A 4. E

2. F 5. E

3. E

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Fill In the Blank Space
1. Hypothesis

2. Selecting and properly defining a research problem.

Self Test Exercise Three

True/False
1. True 4. True

2. True 5. True

3. False

Multiple Choices
1. A 4. D

2. F 5. D

3. E

Fill In the Blank Space

1. A research proposal

2. Research

Self Test Exercise Four

True/False
1. True 3. True

2. True 4. True

Multiple Choices
1. E 4. E

2. D 5. F

3. E

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Fill In the Blank Space
1. Research Design

Self Test Exercise Five

True/False
1. True 4. True

2. True 5. True

3. True

Multiple Choices
1. F 4. E

2. F 5. F

3. A

Fill In the Blank Space

1. Documentary Research

2. Primary and Secondary

3. Structured Questionnaire

Self Test Exercise Six

True/False
1. False 4. True

2. True 5. True

3. True

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© RADA College Distance Education Division April, 2015 Addis Ababa
Multiple Choices
1. F 4. A

2. A 5. F

3. D

Fill In the Blank Space

1. Sampling

2. Statistics

3. A probability sampling

Self Test Exercise Seven

True/False
1. True 4. False

2. True 5. True

3. True

Multiple Choices
1. E 4. E

2. A 5. B

3. A

Fill In the Blank Space

1. Analysis

2. Uni-variate analysis, bi-variate analysis, and multivariate analysis.

3. Codes

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Self Test Exercise Eight
True/False
1. True 4. True

2. True 5. True

3. True

Multiple Choices
1. D 4. E

2. E 5. E

3. D

Fill In the Blank Space

1. Report

2. Bibliography

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References:

 Anderson, T.R. & Zelditch. Basic Cause in Statistical Methods. NewYork: Halt. Rinchart &

Winston, 1968.

 Bajpai, S.R. Methods of social survey and Research. NewDdhi Ramputr Rampur,.

KitabGhar, 1960.

 Connolly, T.G. & Sluckin, W. Introduction to social Research and Statistical Method.

London: Cleave, 1957.

 Dasputa, Sugate. Methodology of Social Science Research New De(hi)1987

 Indian Council of Social Science l Research. Training Research Methodology in Social

Science. New Delhi:1971

 Ggupta,S. Research Methodology and Statistical Techniques. NewDelhi: Indian Commerce

Association, 1982.

 Kaufinan, Felix. Methodology of the Social Sciences. Humanities Press-1988

 Lundberg, G.A. Socials Research: Study in Methods of Gathering Data. NewYork :1979

 Pande, G.C. Research Methodology in Social Sciences. Delhi: Anmol Publications.1989.

 Pellur, V.V. Marketing Research theory and practice. NewYork: McGraw Hill

Book company. Lowis, 1987

 Tandon, B.C. Research Methodology in Social Sciences Allahabad: Chaitanya publishing

House. University Road, 1992

 Westfall Boyd and Stasch. Marketing Research. Bombay: Himalayas Publishing House.

1989.

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