CHAPTER 5
WALL AND COLUMN
5.1. Introduction
In construction and structural engineering, walls and columns are essential
structural members that provide support, stability, and load-bearing capacity to
buildings. Both walls and columns are crucial components in the structural framework
of a building, working together to provide stability and support. The appropriate
design and construction of these elements are vital for ensuring the safety and
performance of a structure.
5.2. Reinforced Concrete Wall
Reinforced concrete (RC) structural walls have commonly been used as lateral
force-resisting elements in low-to-high-rise buildings in regions of moderate-to-high
seismic hazard because they provide substantial lateral strength and stiffness to
buildings when subjected to strong ground shaking.
Reinforced concrete wall is designed as a compression member. Reinforced
concrete wall is used in case where beam is not provided and load from the slab is
heavy or when the masonry wall thickness is restricted. Reinforced concrete wall is
classified as:
Plain concrete wall, when reinforcement < 0.4%
Reinforced concrete wall, when reinforcement > 0.4%
Load from slab is transferred as axial load to wall. When depth is large, it is called RC
wall. Design is similar to a RC column, breadth equal to thickness of wall and depth
equal to 1m. RCC Wall is designed as:
Axially loaded wall
Axially loaded with uniaxial bending
5.2.1. Classification of Concrete Wall
1. Plain concrete wall
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2. Reinforced concrete wall
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In plain concrete wall, the reinforcement provided is less than 0.4% of c/s. In
reinforced concrete wall, the percentage of steel provided is greater than 0.4% and is
designed similar to reinforced concrete columns. Slenderness ratio is equal to least of
(l/t or h/t), where, l is effective length of wall, h is effective height of wall, t is
thickness of wall If λ< 12, the wall is short and if λ> 12, the wall is slender.
5.2.2. Braced and Unbraced Concrete Wall
When cross walls are provided for the walls such that they can take lateral
load and 2.5% of vertical load, then the wall is braced. Otherwise, the wall is known
as unbraced wall.
Other walls under special cases are,
i. Cantilever wall,
ii. Shear walls – To take lateral loads.
Figure 5.1. A Reinforced Concrete Wall
5.3. Design of Reinforced Concrete Wall
1. The limiting slenderness ( λ lim ¿¿ ) if any for unbraced wall is 30 and for braced wall
is 45.
2. For short braced RC wall (λ< 12),
Pu = 0.4 x fck × Ac+ 0.67 × fy × Ast
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3. For short unbraced RC wall, along with the above axial load Pu, the moment due to
minimum eccentricity is checked for emin= t/20 or 20mm, where, M = P × e. For the
above axial load and moment, the RC wall is designed similar to RC column
subjected to axial load and uniaxial moment.
4. Slender braced wall (λ< 45): The additional moment due to additional eccentricity
as per Table 1 of SP16 is considered. Where the additional eccentricity,
2
Le
e a= , M a =P × e a
2000. t
The additional moment due to eccentricity is added with the moment on the column
and moment on the wall. The wall is designed for axial load with uniaxial moment.
5. For slender unbraced wall [λ limited to 30]: Similar procedure as in case 4 is
adopted.
5.4. Column
Columns are vertical or inclined compression members used for transferring
superstructure load to the foundation. The structural design of reinforced concrete
(R.C.) columns involves the provision of adequate compression reinforcement and
member size to guaranty the stability of the structure. In typical cases, columns are
usually rectangular, square, or circular in shape. Other sections such as elliptical,
octagonal, etc are also possible.
5.4.1. Classification of Column
Columns are usually classified as short or slender depending on
their slenderness ratio, and this in turn influences their mode of failure. In framed
structures, columns are either subjected to axial, uniaxial, or biaxial loads depending
on their location and/or loading condition.
5.4.2 Braced and Unbraced Concrete Wall
Lateral stability in braced reinforced concrete structures is provided by shear
walls, lift shafts, and stairwells. Therefore all lateral actions are transferred and
resisted by the stiff stabilizing members. In a braced column the axial load and the
bending moments at the ends of a column arise from the vertical loads acting on the
beams. The horizontal loads do not affect the forces or deformation of the column.
The columns do not contribute to the overall horizontal stability of the structure.
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In unbraced structures, resistance to lateral forces is provided by bending in
the columns and beams in that plane. The column ends can deflect laterally. In a
column in an unbraced structure, the axial force and moments in the column are
caused not only by the vertical load on the beams but also by the lateral loads acting
on the structure and additional moments due to the axial load being eccentric to the
deflected column.
However, most concrete buildings are designed as braced structures. Unbraced
structures are rare and are used only if there is a need for uninterrupted floor space.
Figure 5.2. Reinforced Concrete Columns
5.5. Design of Reinforced Column
To design reinforced column, the following steps are needed to be considered;
1. Determine design life
2. Assess actions on the column
3. Determine which combinations of actions apply
4. Assess durability requirements and determine concrete strength
5. Check cover requirements for appropriate fire resistance period
6. Calculate min. cover for durability, fire, and bond requirements
7. Analyze structure to obtain critical moments and axial forces
8. Check slenderness
9. Determine area of reinforcement required
10. Check spacing of bars
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5.6. Detailing of Reinforcement for Wall and Column
The reinforcement of walls and columns involves the incorporation of steel
bars or mesh within the concrete structure to enhance their strength, durability, and
ability to withstand various loads.
5.6.1. Wall Reinforcement (ACI 318-05)
Minimum ratio of vertical reinforcement area to gross concrete area, ρl , shall
be:
a) 0.0012 for deformed bars not larger than No. 5 with f y not less than 60,000 psi;
or
b) 0.0015 for other deformed bars; or
c) 0.0012 for welded wire reinforcement not larger than W31 or D31.
Minimum ratio of horizontal reinforcement area to gross concrete area, ρl ,
shall be:
a) 0.0020 for deformed bars not larger than No. 5 with f y not less than 60,000 psi;
or
b) 0.0025 for other deformed bars; or
c) 0.0020 for welded wire reinforcement not larger than W31 or D31.
Walls more than 10 in. thick, except basement walls, shall have reinforcement
for each direction placed in two layers parallel with faces of wall in accordance with
the following:
a) One layer consisting of not less than one-half and not more than two-thirds of
total reinforcement required for each direction shall be placed not less than 2
in. nor more than one-third the thickness of wall from the exterior surface;
b) The other layer, consisting of the balance of required reinforcement in that
direction, shall be placed not less than 3/4 in. nor more than one-third the
thickness of wall from the interior surface.
Vertical and horizontal reinforcement shall not be spaced farther apart than
three times the wall thickness, nor farther apart than 18 in.
Vertical reinforcement need not be enclosed by lateral ties if vertical
reinforcement area is not greater than 0.01 times gross concrete area, or where vertical
reinforcement is not required as compression reinforcement.
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5.6.2. Column Reinforcement (ACI 318-05)
The term standard hook as used in this code shall mean one of the following:
a) 180-deg bend plus 4db extension, but not less than 2-1/2 in. at free end of bar.
b) 90-deg bend plus 12db extension at free end of bar.
Figure 5.3. Standard Hooks for Primary Reinforcement
For stirrup and tie hooks:
a) No. 5 bar and smaller, 90-deg bend plus 6db extension at free end of bar; or
b) No. 6, No. 7, and No. 8 bar, 90-deg bend plus 12db extension at free end of
bar; or
c) No. 8 bar and smaller, 135-deg bend plus 6db extension at free end of bar.
Figure 5.4. Standard Hooks for Stirrup and Tie Reinforcement
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5.7. Wall and Column Reinforcement of Our Intern Project
Walls and column in our study are designed according to ACI 318-05 and
MNBC 2020. The numbers of bar in wall and column are varying from 6, 10 and 12
etc of varying diameters. Main bars are mostly diameter of 20mm and 16mm. Stirrup
are 10mm in diameter and 8 mm diameter bars are used for hooks. The clear cover is
not to be taken less than 40mm for walls and columns which do not exposed to
weather or in contact with ground. It is essential for protecting the reinforcement from
corrosion and fire hazards.
The sizes and shapes of our studied project are vary from rectangular to other
irregular shapes. The following figures show the various types of walls and columns
reinforcement in our study.
Figure 5.5. Wall and Column Reinforcement Type One
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Figure 5.6. Wall and Column Reinforcement Type Two
Figure 5.7. Wall and Column Reinforcement Type Three
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Figure 5.8. Wall and Column Reinforcement Type Four
5.8. Formwork for Walls and Columns
Formwork is a temporary mold to provide support to fresh concrete when
placed in structural member until the concrete has set. This helps the structural
member to gain sufficient strength to carry its self-load and load from other members.
Plywood, timber, metal, or plastic sheets are common materials for forming vertical
walls and columns. The selection depends on factors like project requirements, cost,
and reusability.
Reinforced concrete column forms are subjected to lateral pressure because of
their small cross section, large heights and relatively high rates of concrete placement.
Thus It is necessary to provide tight joints and strong tie support to the formwork. As
the sizes of concrete column increases, the stiffness of the formwork must be
increased by either increasing thickness of sheathing or vertical stiffeners must be
added to prevent sheathing deflection.
Formwork for wall construction are subjected to relatively lower lateral
pressure than column forms due to their large cross-sectional area. The components of
wall form are:
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Panel sheathing – It is used to shape the wall and retain the concrete until it
sets.
Studs - to support the sheathing or Wales by forming a framework to keep the
forms aligned and support the studs.
Braces – It is used to prevent deflection of forms under lateral pressure and
keep the formwork erect.
Ties and spreaders – These are used to hold the sides of the forms at the
correct spacing.
Figure 5.9. Components of a Wall Formwork
5.9. Concrete Casting of Walls and Columns
Steps involved in concreting process are as follows.
1. Batching
2. Mixing
3. Transportation
4. Compaction
5. Curing
1. Batching
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The process of measuring different concrete materials such as cement, coarse
aggregate, sand, water for the making of concrete is known as batching. Batching can
be done in two ways: volume batching and weight batching. In volume batching, the
measurements of concrete materials are taken by volume and in weight batching, the
measurements are taken by weight.
2. Mixing
In this process, all the materials are thoroughly mixed in required proportions
until the paste shows uniform color and consistency. The two different methods of
mixing are hand mixing and machine mixing. To achieve optimum quality, the
materials should be mixed first in dry condition and then in wet condition.
3. Transportation
When the mixing is done properly, the freshly made concrete is then
transported to the construction site, this process is known as transportation. After that,
the concrete is correctly placed on the formworks. Concrete can be transported to the
site location in two ways; manual transportation and mechanical transportation.
4. Compaction
Compaction is the process in which the air bubbles are eliminated from the
freshly placed concrete. It is required to increase the ultimate strength of concrete by
enhancing the bond with reinforcement.
5. Curing of concrete
Curing may be defined as the operation of maintaining humidity and
temperature of freshly placed concrete during some definite period following placing,
casting or finishing to assure satisfactory hydration of cement and proper hardening of
the concrete.
If the curing is neglected in early period of hydration, the quality of concrete
will experience some irreparable loss. Its durability, strength and abrasive resistance
are affected. Due to inadequate curing, concrete develops plastic shrinkage cracks,
thermal cracks, along with a considerable loss in the strength of the surface layer. The
minimum period for curing concrete to attain maximum strength is 28 days.
For most concrete structures, the curing period at temperatures above 5'C
should be a minimum of 7 Days or until 70% of the specified compressive or flexural
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strength is attained. The period could be reduced to 3 days if high early strength
concrete is used and the temperature is above 10˚C. The following methods of curing
of concrete are generally adopted.
i. Shading of Concrete
ii. Covering concrete surfaces with Hessian or gunny bugs
iii. Sprinkling of water
iv. Ponding Method Membrane Curing
v. Steam Curing
i. Shading of Concrete
The object of shading concrete work is to prevent the evaporation of water
from the surface even before setting. This is adopted mainly in case of large concrete
surfaces such as road slabs. This is essential in dry weather to protect the concrete
from heat, direct sun rays and wind. It also protects the surface from rain. In cold
weather shading helps in preserving the heat of hydration of cement thereby
preventing freezing of concrete under mild frost conditions. Shading may be achieved
by using canvas stretched on frames. This method has a limited application only.
ii. Covering concrete surfaces with Hessian or gunny bags
This is a widely used method of curing, particularly for structural concrete.
Thus, exposed surface of concrete is prevented from drying out by covering it with
hessian, canvas or empty cement bags. The covering over vertical and sloping
surfaces should be secured properly. These are periodically wetted. The interval of
wetting will depend upon the rate of evaporation of water. It should be ensured that
the surface of concrete is not allowed to dry even for a short time during the curing
period. Special arrangements for keeping the surface wet must be made at nights and
on holidays.
ii. Sprinkling of water
Sprinkling of water continuously on the concrete surface provides an efficient
curing. It is mostly used for curing floor slabs. The concrete should be allowed to set
sufficiently before sprinkling is started. The spray can be obtained from a perforated
plastic box. On small jobs sprinkling of water may be done by hand. Vertical and
sloping surfaces can be kept continuously wet by sprinkling water on top surfaces and
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allowing it to run down between the forms and the concrete. For this method of curing
the water requirement is higher.
iv. Ponding Method
This is the best method of curing. It is suitable for curing horizontal surfaces
such as floors, roof slabs, road and air field pavements. The horizontal top surfaces of
beams can also be ponded. After placing the concrete, its exposed surface is first
covered with moist hessian or canvas. After 24 hours, these covers are removed and
small ponds of clay or sand are built across and along the pavements. The area is thus
divided into a number of rectangles. The water is filled between the ponds. The filling
of water in these ponds is done twice or thrice a day, depending upon the atmospheric
conditions. Though this method is very efficient, the water requirement is very heavy.
Ponds easily break and water flows out. After curing it is difficult to clean the clay.
v. Membrane Curing
The method of curing described above come under the category of moist
curing. Another method of curing is to cover the wetted concrete surface by a layer of
waterproof material, which is kept in contact with the concrete surface of seven days.
This method of curing is termed as membrane curing. A membrane will prevent the
evaporation of water from the concrete. The membrane can be cither in solid or liquid
form. They are also known as scaling compounds. Bituminized waterproof papers,
wax emulsions, bitumen emulsions and plastic films are the common types of
membrane used.
Whenever bitumen is applied over the surface for curing, it should be done
only after 24 hours curing with gunny bags. The surface is allowed to dry out so that
loose water is not visible and then the liquid asphalt sprayed throughout. The moisture
in the concrete is thus preserved. It is quite enough for curing.
This method of curing does not need constant supervision. It is adopted with
advantage at places where water is not available in sufficient quantity for wet curing.
This method of curing is not efficient as compared with wet curing because rate of
hydration is less. Moreover the strength of concrete cured by any membrane is less
than the concrete which is moist cured. When membrane is damaged the curing is
badly affected.
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vi. Steam Curing
Steam curing and hot water curing is sometimes adopted. With these methods
of curing, the strength development of concrete is very rapid. These methods can best
be used in pre-cast concrete work. In steam curing the temperature of steam should be
restricted to a maximum of 75'C as in the absence of proper humidity (about 90%)the
concrete may dry too soon. In case of hot water curing, temperature may be raised to
any limit, ay 100'[Link] this temperature, the development of strength is about 70% of
28 days strength after 4 to 5 hours. In both cases, the temperature should be fully
controlled to avoid non-uniformity. The concrete should be prevented from rapid
drying and cooling which would form cracks.
One of the most common methods for curing concrete is to hose it down
frequently with water five to ten times per day, or often for the first seven days. This
allows the moisture in the concrete to evaporate slowly.
5.10. Concrete Slump Test for Workability
Concrete slump test or slump cone test is to determine the workability or
consistency of concrete mix prepared at the laboratory or the construction site during
the progress of the work. Concrete slump test is carried out from batch to batch t0
check the uniform quality of concrete during construction. The slump test is the most
simple workability test for concrete. Generally, concrete slump value is used to find
the workability, which indicates water-cement ratio, but there are various factors
including properties of materials, mixing methods, dosage, admixtures also affect the
concrete slump value.
Factors which influence the concrete slump test:
1. Materials properties like chemistry, fineness, particle size distribution,
moisture content and temperature of cementitious materials, size,
texture, combined grading, cleanliness and moisture content of the
aggregates
2. Chemical admixtures dosage, type, combination, interaction, sequence
of addition and its effectiveness
3. Air content of concrete
4. Concrete batching, mixing and transporting methods and equipment
5. Temperature of the concrete
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6. Sampling of concrete, slump-testing technique and the condition of test
equipment
7. The amount of free water in the concrete and
8. Time since mixing of concrete at the time of testing.
(1) Equipments Required for Concrete Slump Test
Equipments required for concrete slump test are as follows;
i. Mold for slump test (ie, slump cone) is in the form of the frustum of a cone
having height 30 cm, bottom diameter 20 cm and top diameter 10 cm,
ii. Non-porous base plate
iii. Measuring scale
iv. Temping rod (steel 16 mm diameter and 60 cm long and rounded at one end).
(2) Procedure for Concrete Slump Cone Test
Procedure for concrete slump cone test are as follows;
i. Clean the internal surface of the mold and apply oil.
ii. Place the mold on a smooth horizontal non-porous base plate.
iii. Fill the mold with the prepared concrete mix in 4 approximately equal layers.
iv. Tamp each layer with 25 strokes of the rounded end of the tamping rod in a
uniform manner over the cross section of the mold. For the subsequent layers,
the tamping should penetrate into the underlying layer.
v. Remove the excess concrete and level the surface with a trowel.
vi. Clean away the mortar or water leaked out between the mold and the base
plate.
vii. Raise the mould from the concrete immediately and slowly in vertical
[Link].
viii. Measure the slump as the difference between the height of the mold and that
of height point of the specimen being tested.
ix. The above operation should be carried out at a place free from Vibrations or
shock and within a period of 2 minutes after sampling.
Concrete slump test procedure is shown in Figure 5.10.
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Figure 5.10. Concrete Slump Test Procedure
When the slump test is carried out, the following are the shape of the concrete
slump that can be observed:
1. True Slump - Tre slump is the only slump that can be measured in the test.
The measurement is taken between the top of the cone and the top of the
concrete after the cone has removed as shown in figure.
2. Zero Slump -Zero slump is the indication of very low water-cement ratio,
which results in dry mixes. These type of concrete is generally used for road
construction.
3. Collapsed Slump -This is an indication that the water-cement ratio is too high,
i.e, concrete mix is too wet or it is a high workability mix, for which a slump
test is not appropriate.
4. Shear Slump- The shear slump indicates that the result is incomplete, and
concrete to be retested.
Types of concrete slump test results are shown in figure 5.11.
Figure 5.11. Type of Concrete Slump Test Results