Control-Canard

In the later control-canard, most of the weight of the aircraft is carried by the main wing and the
canard wing is used primarily for longitudinal control during manoeuvring. Thus, a control-
canard mostly operates only as a control surface and is usually at zero angle of attack, carrying
no aircraft weight in normal flight. Combat aircraft of canard configuration typically have a
control-canard. In combat aircraft, the canard is usually driven by a computerized flight control
system.

One benefit obtainable from a control-canard is avoidance of pitch-up. An all-moving canard

capable of a significant nose-down deflection will protect against pitch-up. As a result, the
aspect ratio and wing-sweep of the main wing can be optimized without having to guard against
pitch-up.

Figure 1.61: Control-canard configuration

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Close-Coupled Canard
In the close-coupled canard, the foreplane is located just above and forward of the main wing.
At high angles of attack the canard surface directs airflow downwards over the wing, reducing
turbulence which results in reduced drag and increased lift.

A close-coupled canard is very useful for a supersonic delta wing design which gains lift in both
transonic flight (such as for cruise) and also in low speed flight (such as take offs and landings).

A “moustache” is a small, high aspect ratio foreplane of close-coupled configuration. The

surface is typically retractable at high speed and is deployed only for low-speed flight. First seen
on the Dassault Milan, and later on the Tupolev Tu-144.

Active Vibration Damping

A large aircraft flying fast at low altitude can experience significant aerodynamic buffeting,
leading to crew fatigue and reduced airframe life. Aircraft such as the B-1 Lancer incorporate
small canard surfaces as part of an active vibration damping system that reduces these adverse
effects.

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 High Lift Devices
The lift on a wing is dependent upon creating a difference in pressure between the upper and
lower surfaces. For example, a difference of just 2PSI, when calculated over a large wing area
of say 5,000 square inches, will produce a lift force of 2PSI x 5,000 in2 = 10,000 lbs.

Increasing the camber of the wing is the easiest way to provide a greater pressure difference
between upper and lower wing surfaces, when increasing speed and/or angle of attack is not a
viable option (such as during landing and take-off).

Flaps and leading edge slats are designed primarily to increase the camber of a wing. On some
types however, the flap/slat deployment will also increase the wing surface area. Other features
such as slots and vortex generators are to help to control the airflow over the flaps/slats and to
counter some of the disadvantages associated with their use.

Flaps
The lift that is produced by an aerofoil section is determined by the shape of the section, the
amount of surface area, the speed it moves through the air, and the angle of attack as well as
the density of the air. Changing any one of these variables changes the amount of lift the
aerofoil produces.

We have already seen the way deflecting an aileron or an elevator changes the lift produced by
the surface to which it is attached, and lowering the flaps changes the shape of the wing in such
a way that it deflects more air for any given air density and airspeed. This greater air deflection
is actually the production of a greater amount of lift. Along with the production of a large amount
of lift, deflected flaps also produce a great amount of drag so the pilot can steepen his approach
path without increasing his approach speed.

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 Figure 1.62: Construction of the wing for the DC-10.

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 Figure 1.63: Typical wing flaps and slats

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Trailing Edge Flaps
Flaps are usually mounted on the trailing edge of the wing between the inboard end of the
ailerons and the fuselage. Depending upon the aeroplane, they may be lowered manually,
electrically or hydraulically, and usually have preset stops to allow them to be lowered in
increments. Normal flap settings are 10, 20, 30, and in some instances, 40 degrees. Usually a
deflection of up to about 20 degrees increases the lift more than the drag, and flap deflection in
this range is often used for takeoff. Deflection beyond 20 degrees normally produces more drag
than lift, and these deflections are used primarily for landing to provide the steepest descent
path for a given speed.

There are a number of configurations of trailing edge flaps. The simplest is the plain flap. When
these flaps are lowered, the trailing edge of the wing moves down and the camber, or curvature,
of the wing is increased. This increases the downwash from the wing and increases both the lift
and the drag.

The split trailing-edge flap lowers a hinged section of the under surface of the trailing edge. The
very popular Douglas DC-3 transport aeroplane used this type of flap. Lowering a split trailing-
edge flap increases the drag enough to allow the aeroplane to have a much steeper descent
path for a given airspeed than it could have with the flaps up.

When most types of flaps are lowered to their full deflection, the airflow will break away from the
upper surface, or will burble. When this happens, the increased lift produced by the flap is lost
and only a great deal of drag results. In order to deflect the flaps the maximum amount without
this airflow breakaway, slotted flaps are often used.

The simplest type of slotted flap has its hinge located below its lower surface, so when the flap
is lowered a slot is formed between the high-pressure area below the wing and the low-pressure
area above the wing. High-energy air flows through this slot and over the deflected flap with
such a high velocity that it does not separate from the surface even at full flap deflection.

Figure 1.64: A plain flap.

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 Figure 1.65: A split trailing-edge flap.

The extremely large and heavy jet transport aeroplanes use double- and even triple-slotted
flaps. When these flaps are lowered from the wing, there are either two or three sections that
fold down. Between each section, there is a slot that allows high-energy air to flow over the
deflected surface. By using this type of flap, these large and heavy aeroplanes are able to lift off
and touch down at speeds that are not prohibitive.

Figure 1.66: A slotted flap.

Figure 1.67: A triple-slotted flap.

Figure 1.68: A Fowler flap increases both the camber and the area of
the wing.

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 Figure 1.69: Drooped leading edge flap.

Figure 1.70: Krueger-type leading edge flap, as sometimes fitted to the inboard of a swept wing.

Figure 1.71: The Krueger flap increases the camber and area of a wing and is normally
deployed only at high angles of attack

The Fowler flap that was used quite a bit on Lockheed aeroplanes during and soon after World
War II not only increased the camber of the wing, but actually added a considerable amount of
wing surface.

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 Fowler flaps ride out of the trailing edge of the wing on tracks, and when they are lowered, they
stick out quite a way behind the wing. Because of the complexity of the Fowler flap operating
mechanism, they have been largely replaced by slotted flaps.

Leading Edge Flaps

To augment the action of trailing edge flaps, many of the large jet transport aeroplanes also
have flaps on the leading edge as well.

The drooped leading edge flap uses a jackscrew arrangement to push the leading edge of the
wing against a hinge on its lower surface. This causes the leading edge to droop and increase
the camber of the wing so it will deflect more air.

The Krueger flap is similar to the drooped leading edge flap, except that a hinged linkage
extends out ahead of the leading edge arid produces a special high-lift leading edge shape.

Slots and Slats

A wing stalls when the smooth airflow over its upper surface breaks away, or burbles. The slot
is one expedient that has been used for many years to allow the wing to reach a high angle of
attack before this burble occurs.

Some aeroplanes have a fixed slot in the leading edge of the wing ahead of the aileron. At high
angles of attack, air flows through this slot from the high-pressure area below the wing to the
low-pressure area above. This air has enough energy that it will remain on the surface of the
wing and not break away, or burble, until an exceptionally high angle of attack is reached. Since
this slot is directly ahead of the aileron, it will maintain aileron effectiveness and therefore lateral
control throughout the stall.

A later development that has increased the performance of Short Take-off and Landing (STOL)
aeroplanes is the full-span retractable slat. Under normal flight conditions, the slat forms a part
of the leading edge of the wing, but when the angle of attack is increased enough, the low
pressure over the leading edge causes the slat to automatically move out of the wing on its
tracks, increase the wing camber, and form a full-length duct through which high-energy air from
below the wing blows back across the upper surface. This type of slat allows the aeroplane to
fly at an exceptionally high angle of attack without stalling.

Figure 1.72: A fixed slot in the leading edge of a wing.

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 Figure 1.73: This full-span slat is opened by aerodynamic forces at high
angles of attack.

Some large airliners use jackscrew-operated slats which are mechanically driven out of the
leading edge rather than being pulled out by aerodynamic forces.

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 Effect of Flaps and Slats on Stall Angle
Figure 1.71 shows the effect of slats and flaps on the stall angle. Notice that the stall angle
reduces with flaps only (however, the associated increase in CL will permit a lower stall speed).
The reason for the decrease in stall angle is the local increase in angle of attack at the location
of the flap, and the increased camber at the flap location moves the separation point forward.

Deploying the slats with the flaps restores the stall angle and actually increases it beyond the
no-flap position. This is due to the associated slot, and its effect of increasing the energy of the
airflow over the wing at that critical angle of attack and the approach to it, and also the
associated drooping of the leading edge on some slat designs, decreases the local angle of
attack slightly. This is why (on larger airliners) slats are always deployed with flaps, often
automatically, and usually begin deployment only after the first stage of flap deployment.

An associated increase in camber with the slat deployment also increases the camber
significantly, resulting in a large increase in lift coefficient. Thus the deployment of slats with
flaps is by far the preferred design configuration on large transport category aircraft.

Figure 1.74: Effect of deployment of slats and flaps on stall angle

Effect of Flap deployment on Pitch

When a flap is deployed, the bulk of the lift moves to the trailing edge of the wing, at the location
of the flap. This, in itself produces a nosedown moment on the wing. However, the overall
effect on the aircraft’s pitching moment is a little more complicated than that. For example, there
is an associated increase in drag at the wing position, and if the wing is mounted significantly
higher than the thrust line of the aircraft, there will be a nose-up moment, which may be
stronger than the previously mentioned nose-down moment.

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Secondly, when there is a flap deployment, there is a significant increase in the angle of
downwash of the airflow leaving the trailing edge of the wing. If the tailplane is positioned low
and close enough to the wing, there will be an increased negative angle of attack on the
tailplane as a result of the wind downwash, and thus an increase in the tail download and a
further nose-up moment. Mounting the tailplane high on the vertical fin will help to prevent this.

Consequently, the actual pitching effect of deployment of the flaps cannot be determined
without close analysis of the aircraft configuration, i.e. its relative wing position and tailplane
position

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 Summary of Flap Types

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Stall Strips
It is extremely important that an aeroplane wing stall progressively from the root out to the tip,
so the ailerons will be effective throughout the stall. If a wing does not naturally have this stall
progression characteristic, it is possible for the manufacturer to place a small triangular strip of
metal on the leading edge of the wing in the root area.

Figure 1.75: Stall strips such as this are located the on leading edge of
the wing in the root area.

When a high angle of attack is reached, this triangular stall strip will break the airflow over the
root section, and it will stall while the airflow is still smooth over the aileron. The loss of lift
caused by the turbulence over the root section will cause the nose of the aeroplane to drop and
restore the smooth flow of air over the entire wing.

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 Vortex Generators
A wing stalls whenever the smooth airflow over its surface breaks away and becomes turbulent.
And we generally associate stalls with high angle of attack flight conditions, but a special type of
stall called shock-induced separation can occur on the wing of a high-speed aeroplane when it
approaches its critical Mach number; that is, when it flies at a speed at which the airflow at any
portion of the surface reaches the speed of sound.

Figure 1.76: Operation of vortex generators.

Figure 1.77: Vortex generators bring high-energy air to the surface of the
wing to prevent shock-induced separation.

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When an aerofoil approaches its critical Mach number, a shock wave begins to form just behind
the point at which the air is moving the fastest. This shock wave does not immediately attach to
the trailing edge of the wing, but it moves back and forth and causes the air to separate from the
upper surface of the wing. This separation causes a buffeting of the controls. To prevent this
separation, vortex generators may be installed onto the top of the wing at the point where this
separation is most likely to occur. Vortex generators are short, low-aspect-ratio aerofoils
arranged in pairs. The tip vortices of these aerofoils pull high-energy air down into the boundary
layer and prevent the separation.

Figure 1.78: Vortex generators are usually mounted in pairs

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 Spoilers, Lift Dumps and Speed Brakes

Spoilers and Lift Dumps

Spoilers are used to disrupt airflow over the wing and greatly reduce the amount of lift. This
allows a pilot to lose altitude without gaining excessive airspeed. Spoilers are sometimes called
"lift dumps". Spoiler deployment causes a large increase in drag and a large decrease in lift.

On most airliners, spoiler panels mixed with aileron inputs to enhance roll control. For example,
a left bank will engage the ailerons as well as deploy certain spoiler panels on the down-going
wing.

Ground spoilers are essentially similar to flight spoilers, except that they deploy upon
touchdown on the runway, and include all spoiler panels for maximum "lift dump." After
touchdown, the ground spoilers deploy, and "dump" the lift generated by the wings, thus placing
the aircraft's weight on the wheels, which accomplish the vast majority of braking after
touchdown.

Figure 1.79: Spoilers

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Speed Brakes (Air Brakes)
Air brakes are a type of flight control used to reduce speed during landing.

Speed brakes differ from spoilers in that speed brakes are designed to increase drag while
making little change to lift, whereas spoilers greatly reduce the lift-to-drag ratio and a higher
angle of attack required to maintain lift, resulting in a higher stall speed.

Often, characteristics of both spoilers and speed brakes are desirable and are combined - most
modern airliners feature combined spoiler and speed brake controls. On landing, the
deployment of these spoilers causes a dramatic loss of lift and hence the weight of the aircraft is
transferred from the wings to the undercarriage, allowing the wheels to be mechanically braked
with much less chance of skidding. In addition, the form drag created by the spoilers directly
assists the braking effect. Reverse thrust is also used to help slow the aircraft after landing.

Note: Sometimes, spoilers, as described above, are referred to as “air brakes” when used in
flight for the purpose of slowing down the aircraft.

Figure 1.80: [Link].146. Speed Brake deployment

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 Secondary Control Surfaces

For an aeroplane to be efficient, it must be able to be flown hands-off at any airspeed, and since
many of the forces that enter into the stability and control of an aeroplane are a function of the
airspeed, it is essential that the balancing forces be variable and be controllable by the pilot in
flight.

The three primary controls of an aeroplane, the ailerons, the elevators, and the rudder, actually
does nothing more than rotate the aeroplane about one of its three axes, and to aid these
controls, most aeroplanes have one or more auxiliary controls. These are usually in the form of
tabs on the trailing edge of the controls.

Fixed Trim Tab

It is very seldom that a lightweight simple aeroplane can be assembled and rigged so that it will
fly at cruise speed without there being a need to hold some pressure on the controls to keep the
wings level. This out-of-trim condition is usually corrected by the use of a small sheet-metal tab
on the trailing edge of the rudder. This tab is bent so it will deflect the rudder just enough to
counteract the unbalanced condition at the desired cruising speed.

Figure 1.81: Fixed trim tab on the trailing edge of the

rudder is used to compensate for out-of-trim rigging.

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A tab on the rudder corrects a wing-heavy flight condition by forcing the aeroplane to fly in just
enough of a yaw to create the lift difference between the wings that is needed to maintain
straight and level flight. Naturally, this is an out-of-trim flight, but its purpose is to compensate
for an already existing out-of-trim condition.

Note that the tab is designed to aerodynamically deflect the control surface. The control surface
then aerodynamically corrects the aircraft. For example, if an aircraft has a tendency to yaw to
the left, the rudder trim tab would be positioned to the left, which would deflect the rudder to the
right, which would yaw the aircraft nose to right and thus straighten the aircraft.

Aeroplanes with wing flaps can have a wing-heavy flight condition corrected by rigging the flaps
so the flap on the side with the heavy wing extends down far enough in flaps-up flight to create
the extra lift needed to correct the wing heavy condition. The amount the flap must be extended
is seldom enough even to notice.

Adjustable Trim Tab

The longitudinal balance of an aeroplane is the one that is most affected by the airspeed
variations in normal flight, so almost all aeroplanes have some method of adjusting the
downward tail load as the airspeed is changed in flight to allow for hands-off flight at any
airspeed.

Figure 1.82: An adjustable trim tab on the elevator can trim the
aeroplane so it will fly hands-off at any airspeed

Figure 1.83: A balance tab aids the pilot in moving the control surface

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 Figure 1.84: Adjustable trim tab.

The simple adjustable trim tab is hinged to the trailing edge of the elevator and has a jackscrew
mechanism inside the elevator by which the length of the actuating rod to the tab horn may be
varied in flight. When the length of this rod is adjusted, the relationship between the tab and the
elevator remains fixed for all positions of the elevator.

Balance Tab
The adjustable trim tab may be modified so it will aid the pilot in moving the control against the
aerodynamic air loads, as well as trimming for hands-off flight at any airspeed, by moving the
location of the jack screw attachment from inside the movable control to a location on the fixed
surface. Adjusting the length of the actuating rod will still move the tab relative to the movable
surface, but it will also cause the angular relationship between the elevator and the tab to
change as the elevator is moved.

The actuator rod may be adjusted for a given deflection of the tab when the elevator is
streamlined. When the control wheel is moved back, the trailing edge of the elevator will move
up, and the horn on the trim tab will try to move away from the hinge point of the jackscrew.
Since the actuator rod fixes this length, however, the trim tab is pulled down. In the same way,
when the trailing edge of the elevator moves down, the actuator rod pushes on the control horn
of the tab and forces the tab up.

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When the tab moves in the direction opposite the control, a pressure differential is set up across
the mi-face that aids the pilot in moving the control against the aerodynamic loads. The trim
adjustment in the cockpit allows the pilot to change the length of the actuating rod to provide a
deflection of the tab, enough to allow the aeroplane to be flown hands-off at any airspeed the
pilot chooses.

Servo Tab
Many of the larger high-speed aeroplanes do not have control systems connected directly to
their large control surfaces, but rather use a servo tab to generate aerodynamic forces that
move the large surfaces.

Figure 1.85: A servo tab creates an aerodynamic force that

moves the control surface to which it is attached.

A servo tab is deflected by an actuator connected to the fixed structure, to vary the pressure
between the two sides of the control surface. When the pilot wants to turn to the right, they
deflect the servo tab up on the left aileron and down on the right aileron. The left tab deflects the
air over the aileron upward, which creates a pressure differential that moves the left aileron
down. A pressure differential is also created over the right aileron that moves it up so that the
aeroplane will bank to the right.

Anti-servo Tab
Rather than requiring help to move a stabilator against the air loads, the area ahead of the
hinge line makes the stabilator overly sensitive, and to decrease this sensitivity, most stabilators
have an anti-servo tab extending across their entire trailing edge. These tabs move in the same
direction as the surface.

Figure 1.86: Anti-servo tab on an all-movable tail surface.

When the control wheel is pulled back, the trailing edge of the stabilator moves up, increasing
the tail load and bringing the nose of the aeroplane up. As the trailing edge of the stabilator
moves up, the anti-servo tab also moves up, producing an aerodynamic force in the direction
needed to move the trailing edge of the stabilator down. In other words, the anti-servo tab
counteracts the extreme sensitivity caused by the location of the hinge line of the stabilator.

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 Anti-servo tabs are also constructed to serve as trim tabs by making the length of the actuating
rod adjustable in flight. If the pilot needs to trim the aeroplane slightly nose-up, (s)he lengthens
the actuating rod which brings the trailing edge of the anti-servo tab down, relative to the
stabilator. This deflects the air downward over the stabilator, raising its trailing edge for this
flight condition. Raising the trailing edge aerodynamically has the same effect on flight as the
pilot holding a slight back pressure on the control wheel.

Spring Tab
The aileron control forces on some high-speed aircraft are low enough at low speeds that the
pilot does not need any help in moving them, but at high speeds the force required to move the
surface becomes excessive. The need for a varying amount of control assistance has been
solved by the spring tab.

The aileron is connected into the control system through either a torsion bar or a spring capsule
in such a way that for control movement requiring a relatively small amount of force, the surface
is moved directly by the control rod. At high airspeeds, however, when the control forces
become high, the torsion bar twists or the spring capsule collapses and the tab is deflected, as
well as the surface. The tab moves in the direction opposite the aileron so it provides an
aerodynamic boost to help the pilot move the control.

Figure 1.87: A spring tab deflects only when the control forces
are great enough to distort the torsion rod or collapse the spring
capsule.

Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 1.89

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 Figure 1.88: The overhang on the control surface ahead of the
hinge line aids the pilot in the movement of the surface.

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 Other Control Surface Features

Balanced Control Surface

Even on small, light aeroplanes, aerodynamic assistance in the movement of the controls has
been used. The simplest form of this assistance is the balanced control surface. In the case of
the rudder, the balance portion, or overhang, deflects to the opposite side of the fuselage from
the main rudder surface to produce an aerodynamic force that aids the pilot in moving the
surface.

Aerodynamic Balance Panel

The aerodynamic boost provided by the overhanging balance surface does not provide an
increasing amount of assistance as the need increases. But an aerodynamic balance panel
connected to the leading edge of the control surface may be built in such a way that it will
provide very little help when the surface is deflected a small amount, but will increase the
amount of assistance that it gives as the surface deflection is increased.

The compartment ahead of the aileron is divided by a hinged lightweight, rigid balance panel
which has a relatively large area. The panel divides this space into two smaller compartments,
with one connected through a vent to the gap in the upper surface between the wing and the
aileron, and the other through a vent to the same gap in the lower surface.

When the aileron is deflected upward, the high velocity air over the lower vent gap decreases
the air pressure under the balance panel and pulls it down.

Figure 1.89: An aerodynamic balance panel aids the pilot in the

movement of the control. The amount of aid increases as the deflection
of the surface increases.

This downward force on the leading edge of the aileron causes the trailing edge to move up.
The greater the deflection, the lower the pressure, and the more assistance will be provided by
the balance panel. When the aileron is moved downward, the high-velocity air over the top of
the aileron will produce a pressure drop that will cause the balance panel to assist in moving the
aileron down.

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Control Surface Mass Balance
A phenomenon known as control surface flutter occurs at specific speeds (usually high speeds)
and can cause vibration of the airframe and in severe conditions can lead to structural
divergence and catastrophic failure of the structure.

The remedy for this is to set a specific mass some distance ahead of the control surface hinge-
line, such that its moment about the control surface hinge is equal and opposite to the mass-
moment of the control surface itself.

Figure 1.90: The control surface mass balance can be seen on the Britten Norman Islander’s
aileron, on the end of a rod projecting forward of the hinge line. Most other manufacturers hide
the mass balance within the wing structure.

Figure 1.91: The overhang on this rudder houses a lead weight to move
the centre of gravity of the surface ahead of its hinge line to prevent
flutter

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 Intentionally Blank

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V Speeds
In aviation, V-speeds or Velocity-speeds are standard terms used to define airspeeds important
or useful to the operation of aircraft These speeds are derived from data obtained by aircraft
designers and manufacturers during flight testing and verified in most countries by government
flight inspectors during aircraft type-certification testing. Using them is considered a best
practice to maximize aviation safety, aircraft performance or both.

The actual speeds represented by these designators are true airspeeds specific to a particular
model of aircraft, and are expressed in terms of the aircraft's indicated airspeed, so that pilots
may use them directly, without having to apply correction factors.

In general aviation aircraft, the most commonly-used and most safety-critical airspeeds are
displayed as colour-coded arcs and lines located on the face of an aircraft's airspeed indicator.
The lower ends of the green arc and the white arc are the stalling speed with wing flaps
retracted, and stalling speed with wing flaps fully extended, respectively. These are the stalling
speeds for the aircraft at its maximum weight.

Having V speeds properly displayed is an airworthiness requirement for type-certificated aircraft

in most parts of the world.

V-speed
Description
designator
V1 Critical engine failure recognition speed. (See V1 definitions below)
Takeoff safety speed. The speed at which the aircraft may safely become airborne
V2
with one engine inoperative.
V2min Minimum takeoff safety speed.
V3 Flap retraction speed.
Steady initial climb speed. The all engines operating take-off climb speed used to
V4 the point where acceleration to flap retraction speed is initiated. Should be attained
by a gross height of 400 feet.
Design manoeuvring speed, also known as the "Speed for maximum control
deflection." This is the speed above which it is unwise to make full application of
VA any single flight control (or "pull to the stops") as it may generate a force greater
than the aircraft's structural limitations. The heavier an aircraft is loaded the faster
this speed.
VB Design speed for maximum gust intensity.
Design cruising speed, also known as the optimum cruise speed, is the most
VC
efficient speed in terms of distance, speed and fuel usage.
VD Design diving speed.
VDF Demonstrated flight diving speed.
VEF The speed at which the Critical engine is assumed to fail during takeoff.
VF Designed flap speed.
VFC Maximum speed for stability characteristics.
VFE Maximum flap extended speed.
VFTO Final takeoff speed.

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 VH Maximum speed in level flight at maximum continuous power.
Maximum landing gear extended speed. This is the maximum speed at which it is
VLE
safe to fly a retractable gear aircraft with the landing gear extended.
Maximum landing gear operating speed. This is the maximum speed at which it is
VLO
safe to extend or retract the landing gear on a retractable gear aircraft.
VLOF Lift-off speed.
VMC Minimum control speed with Critical engine inoperative.
Minimum control speed in the take-off configuration – the minimum calibrated
Vmca airspeed at which the aircraft is directionally controllable in flight with a sudden
Critical engine failure and takeoff power on the operative engine(s).
Minimum control speed on the ground - the minimum airspeed at which the aircraft
is directionally controllable during acceleration along the runway with one engine
Vmcg
inoperative, takeoff power on the operative engine(s), and with nose wheel steering
assumed inoperative.
VMO Maximum operating limit speed.
VMU Minimum unstick speed.
VNE Never exceed speed.
VNO Maximum structural cruising speed or maximum speed for normal operations.
VR Rotation speed. The speed at which the aircraft's nosewheel leaves the ground.
VRef Landing reference speed or threshold crossing speed.
VS Stall speed or minimum steady flight speed for which the aircraft is still controllable.
VS0 Stall speed or minimum flight speed in landing configuration.
Stall speed or minimum steady flight speed for which the aircraft is still controllable
VS1
in a specific configuration.
VSR Reference stall speed.
VSR0 Reference stall speed in landing configuration.
VSR1 Reference stall speed in a specific configuration .
VSW Speed at which the stall warning will occur.
VTOSS Category A rotorcraft takeoff safety speed
VX Speed that will allow for best angle of climb.
VY Speed that will allow for the best rate of climb.

Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 1.95

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
11.1.2 High Speed Flight
Introduction
Low speed aerodynamics is based on the assumption that air is incompressible; the attendant
errors are negligible since at low speeds the amount of compression is negligible. At speeds
approaching that of sound, however, compression and expansion in the vicinity of the aircraft
are sufficiently marked to affect the streamline pattern about the aircraft. At low subsonic
speeds a flow pattern is established about the aircraft, but at high subsonic and supersonic
speeds the flow around a given wing can be controlled, and its behaviour predicted. In the
transonic range where a mixture of subsonic and supersonic flow exists, marked problems of
control and stability arise, necessitating special design features to minimize the effects of
compressibility.

Terminology

(a) Speed of Sound - The speed at which a very small pressure disturbance is propagated in
a fluid under certain conditions. Speed of sound is proportional to the absolute
temperature (K) and can be calculated from the formula:

Local speed of sound (LSS) = 39 x Absolute Temperatur e

Therefore, the higher the temperature, the higher the LSS. In fact, at MSL at ISA LSS =
661 kts, and at 30,000 ft LSS = 589 kts.

Derivation of the formula for ISA conditions is as follows:

LSS = C x 288K = 661

Therefore

661
C= = 38.95°
288K

For practical purposes, the figure of 39 may be used.

(b) Mach Number (M) - The ratio of True Airspeed (TAS) to the local speed of sound
applicable to air temperature. Thus

TAS
Mach No (M) = therefore at sea level temperature 15°C TAS = 529 kt.
LSS
529
LSS = 661kt, M = = 0.80
661

1.96 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight

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Rev.01 - 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 (c) Free Stream Mach No (MFS): The Mach number of the flow at a point unaffected by the
presence of the aircraft.

(d) Local Mach Number (ML): When an aerofoil is placed in a subsonic airflow, the flow is
accelerated in some places, and slowed down in others. The local Mach number is the
speed at some specified region of flow, and may be greater than, the same as, or lower
than MFS.

(e) Critical Mach Number (Mcrit): This is the lowest MFS which for a given aerofoil and
angle of attack, gives rise to a ML of 1.0 on the aerofoil. As will be seen, Mcrit for a wing
varies with angle of attack.

(f) Compressibility Mach Number: The Mach number at which, because of

compressibility effects, control of an aircraft becomes difficult, and beyond which loss of
control is probable.

(g) Critical Drag Rise Mach Number: This relates the Mach number to an appreciable
increase of drag associated with compressibility effects, usually 10 -15% higher than
Mcrit

(h) Subsonic Region: Aircraft speeds where flow everywhere around the aircraft is
subsonic. Aircraft speeds up to Mach 0.75.

(i) Transonic Region: Aircraft speeds where flow around the aircraft is mixed; some
subsonic, some supersonic. Aircraft speeds from Mach 0.75 to Mach 1.2.

(j) Supersonic Region: Aircraft speeds where flow everywhere around the aircraft is
supersonic. Aircraft speeds Mach 1.2.

(h) Hypersonic flow: Aircraft speeds greater than Mach 5.0.

Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 1.97

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
Speed of Sound
Anything which moves through the air creates pressure waves and, what may not be generally
realized, these waves not only travel out in all directions from the object but they radiate at the
speed of sound. If the object is moving at a speed less than the speed of sound these pressure
waves will be able to move away from the object. When considering aircraft moving at very high
speed it is possible that the sound wave cannot get away from it, because the aircraft’s speed is
close to the radiation speed of the waves. It is this which gives rise to the problems of high
speed flight.

Figure 1.92 illustrates the situation of an aircraft flying at less than the speed of sound. If its
starting point is A, then the pressure waves set out in all directions from the aircraft are moving
steadily away and by the time point B is reached they will be well clear of the aircraft. This
should be contrasted with the situation illustrated in Figure 1.93 where the aircraft is traveling
just at the speed of sound. The pressure waves are also traveling at the speed of sound with
the result that they pile up ahead of the aircraft and form into a pressure wave, also called a
shock wave.

Figure 1.92: Pressure waves formed by object moving forward at less

than local speed of sound.

Figure 1.93: Pressure waves formed by object moving forward at local

speed of sound

1.98 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight

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Rev.01 - 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Figure 1.94: Pressure waves forming Mach cone with object moving
forward at speed greater than the local speed of sound

Figure 1.95: Mach angle becoming more acute as speed increases

An aircraft traveling substantially faster than the speed of sound will leave its own pressure
waves behind and form a cone of pressure waves as illustrated in Figure 1.95.

Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 1.99

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
Shock Waves
When a shock wave is formed the pressure distribution over the wings is materially altered,
causing considerable alterations in the values of lift and drag and also affecting control
operation. It could be argued that few civil passenger transport aircraft are capable of reaching
the speed of sound, however, the air over the upper surface of the wing is deliberately
accelerated in order to produce lift and even though the aircraft itself may be flying below the
speed of sound, some of the air flowing over the wings may be accelerated to Mach 1.0. When
the airflow over the upper surfaces of the wing reaches Mach 1.0, the actual speed of the
aircraft is called the critical Mach Number or Mcrit. When this point is reached a shock wave
forms over the upper surface of the wing because the pressure waves from the rear of the wing
that are trying to move forward are meeting air traveling at exactly the same speed flowing
backward. This is similar to trying to move along a moving walkway in the wrong direction at the
same speed as the walkway is traveling. The point at which this shock wave usually forms is
just aft of the point of maximum camber of the wing where the acceleration of the air is greatest.
In front of the shock wave the flow is at or higher than Mach 1 whilst behind the flow it is still
subsonic.

At the shock wave, the normal laws of physics seem to break down and as the air pass through
the shock wave the pressure increases and the temperature increases. If the speed of the
aircraft is increased still further the region of supersonic flow on top of the wing also increases
and the shock wave will start to move back towards the trailing edge. On the undersurface the
curvature of the wing is usually less than on the upper surface and the shock wave will form
later. However, once having formed, if the actual speed of the aircraft is further increased, this
shock wave will also move rearward and when the actual speed of the aircraft reaches Mach 1
both shock waves will have migrated to the trailing edge of the wing. At the same time another
shock wave will form close to the leading edge of the wing, this is called the bow wave. If speed
is further increased this bow wave will actually touch the leading edge of the wing and is then
termed an ‘attached bow wave’. This is illustrated in Figure 1.96 and further speed increases
will not change the relative positions of these two shock waves, but will just bend them
backwards.

Figure 1.96: Shock wave development

Figure 1.97 illustrates the behaviour of the shock waves from a speed below Mach 1 to one well
in excess of the speed of sound.

1.100 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight

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Rev.01 - 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Figure 1.97: Shock wave development

Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 1.101

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
Shock waves can be:

 Normal: at 90° (perpendicular) to the shock medium's flow direction.

 Oblique: at an angle to the direction of flow.
 Bow: Occurs upstream of the front (bow) of a blunt object when the upstream velocity
exceeds Mach 1.

Normal Shock
A Normal Shock is created by a blunt body in supersonic flow. The same body in a subsonic
flow produces waves of sound that propagate ahead of the body, basically “warning” the
approaching air stream of the approaching body. These sound waves cause the molecules in
the air stream to begin to diverge around the body well in advance of the actual body. When
the object is traveling supersonically, however, these sound waves cannot outrun the object,
and they pile up a short distance in front of the object. This stacking of sound waves is a
Normal shock wave, and it serves to instantaneously force the air to change direction around
the body. This effect is also referred to as a Bow Shock, and is shown in the Figure 1.98 and
Figure 1.99, depicting a supersonic bullet.
This image cannot currently be displayed.

Figure 1.98: Formation of a bow shock

As a unit of air passes through the Normal shock wave, its temperature, pressure, and density
dramatically rise as its velocity falls. In the case of the Normal Shock, the air flow downstream
of the shock (and therefore seen by the bullet) is always subsonic.

Figure 1.99: Bow wave and oblique waves on a bullet

1.102 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight

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Rev.01 - 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
Wave Drag
For aircraft not designed for transonic and supersonic flight, the formation of these shock waves
will have a marked effect on lift, drag and also on the general stability of the aircraft and its
control. The basic cause of the problems is the separation of the airflow behind the shock wave
due to the rise in pressure. This causes the boundary layer to separate, reducing the amount of
lift produced by the wing and an increase in drag. This increase in drag is very marked at Mcrit
and produces ‘wave drag’ - as previously mentioned in the chapter on total drag. If speed can
be increased further against this drag force the shock waves will move towards the trailing
edge, thus reducing the amount of separated air and, in fact, the lift will start to increase again
and the drag decrease. However, this will only occur in aircraft which are designed for transonic
flight but the total developed lift at higher speeds is less than at subsonic speeds for the same
angle of attack. This is because CL is less for any given wing section and angle of attack at
supersonic speeds. The change in both lift and drag are illustrated in the following graphs. It
should be noted that this loss of lift which occurs as a result of the shock wave is not dissimilar
in effect to that produced by a low speed stall. For this reason it is sometimes called a ‘high
speed stall’ and gives rise to the first of the control difficulties encountered in flying an aircraft at
or above Mcrit.

Figure 1.102: Wave Drag

Wave drag arises from two sources, viz: energy drag and boundary layer separation.
Energy drag stems from the nature of changes occurring as a flow crosses a shock wave.
Energy lost due to temperature rise across the shock wave becomes drag on the aerofoil. The
more oblique the shock way the less energy they absorb, but since they become more
extensive laterally and affect more air, energy drag rises as MFS increases.

Boundary layer separation; at certain stages of shock wave movement there is considerable
flow separation. The turbulence represents lost energy and contributes to the drag. As MFS
increases through the transonic range the shock waves move to the trailing edge and
separation decreases, thus drag decreases.

The total effect on drag is shown Figure 1.102, the hump in the curve being caused by drag
associated with the trailing edge shock arising from energy loss, separation of the boundary
layer and the formation of the bow shock wave above M 1.0.

1.104 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight

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Rev.01 - 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Reduction of Wave Drag
To reduce the effect of wave drag, shock waves must be as weak as possible. Therefore, wings
must have a sharp leading edge as well as a thin section to keep the deflection angle to a
minimum so producing a weak bow shock wave. The thin wing will have a reduced camber,
thus the adverse pressure gradient across the wing shock waves will be smaller, and the
strength of the shock waves will be reduced. Fuselages may be treated in a similar manner, for
a given minimum cross section, an increase in length (within reason) will reduce wave drag.

Effects of Compressibility on Lift

To consider this aspect it is necessary to start at a speed where compressibility effects become
significant and see how they vary with increasing Mach No.

(a) Subsonic Rise in CL - An increase in velocity is always accompanied by a decrease in

pressure, and since the velocity increase in a compressible flow is greater than that in an
incompressible flow for the same wing, the pressure will be lower, thus lift is greater for a
wing in a compressible flow. At low speed, where air can be considered incompressible,
lift is proportional to V2, i.e. CL can be assumed constant for the same angle of attack. At
moderately high speeds density changes become significant, lift increases at a rate
higher than indicated by V2. i.e. CL increases for the same angle of attack.

Another factor affecting CL is the amount of warning the air gets of the wing’s approach.
As speed increases compressibility effects increase and the reduced upstream warning
causes flow displacement to start closer to the wing. This effectively increases the angle
of attack, so increasing CL. There is a slight loss of lift due to movement of the stagnation
point forward, but overall there is an increase in CL.

(b) Transonic Variations in CL - In considering this aspect, five significant speeds are
selected, A, B, C, D and E (Figure 1.103), and are used in the graph.

Figure 1.103: Variation in CL with Mach No.

At A, MFS = 0.75, the flow accelerates rapidly from the stagnation point along both upper
and lower surfaces, giving a sharp drop in pressure, and the wing is above Mcrit. Over the

Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 1.105

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
 top surface of the wing, as yet there is no shock wave, and CL has risen by 60% of its low
speed value for the same angle of attack. Over the bottom surface flow is still subsonic.

At B, MFS = 0.81. With the acceleration to this speed, the shock wave has formed and is
strengthened, and will be approximately 60% chord; there is no shock wave on the
undersurface. Behind the shock wave on the rear part of the wing there is no real change
in pressure differential between upper and lower surfaces; ahead of it and behind the
40% (approximately) chord, pressure differential has increased considerably due to
supersonic acceleration up to the shock wave. This effectively increases the CL to
roughly double its incompressible value. It also causes the CP to move rearward to
approximately 30% chord. Flow under the bottom surface becomes sonic.

At C, MFS = 0.89. A shock wave has formed on the undersurface and moved to the
trailing edge, while the upper shock wave has remained virtually stationary. The reason
for the differing behaviour is the effect each shock wave has on the boundary layer. Such
an arrangement of shock waves leads to a pressure distribution such that the wing
behind the upper shock wave is producing negative lift, which has to be subtracted from
the positive lift producing area. Lift coefficient has dropped to approximately 30% below
its incompressible value and centre of pressure moves forward to approximately 30%
chord. The reason for the slope between B and C is the relative movement between
upper and lower shock waves.

At D, MFS = 0.98. The top surface shock wave is forced to the trailing edge; the area of
negative lift is replaced by the orthodox pressure differential. The CL is approximately
10% above basic value, and the CP has moved rearward to approximately 45% chord;
this movement of the CP is experienced by all aircraft going through the transonic range.
At E, MFS = 1.4. Above M 1.0 the bow shock wave forms, and at M 1.4 is almost attached
to the leading edge. The whole of the wing is producing lift, and the CP is at
approximately mid-chord position. The CL is reduced to a value of 30% less than its
incompressible value due to the stagnation point moving to the most forward point on the
leading edge, and to the loss of pressure energy through the bow shock wave.

1.106 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight

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Rev.01 - 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 The shock wave positions for each station considered above are shown in Figure 1.104.

Figure 1.104: Shock wave positions

Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 1.107

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
Supersonic Fall in CL
The full explanation of this aspect is beyond the scope of these notes, but suffice it here to point
out that in practice, any decrease in lift between the upper limit of the transonic range and MFS
1.4 would be masked by trim changes resulting from passing through the transonic range. The
practical result is that the lift curve slope becomes progressively gentler with an increase in MFS
in the supersonic range. The variations in CL at supersonic speeds depend mainly on attendant
compressibility problems with increase of speed, and adverse pressure gradient increases with
speed increase.

Aerodynamic Heating
The heating of a body produced by passage of air or other gases over the body. It is caused by
friction and compression processes and is significant chiefly at high speeds. The increase in
surface temperature is approximately proportional to the square of speed. This heating is
prominent at supersonic speeds. The rise in temperature is the maximum at a point where the
gaseous mass comes to rest on the surface. The aircraft skin temperature is about 120°C at
Mach 2 and about 315°C at Mach 3, and it can rise to above 3000°C at hypersonic speeds.

Aerodynamic heating is a concern for supersonic and hypersonic aircraft. The Concorde dealt
with the increased heat loads at its leading edges by the use of high temperature materials and
the design of heat sinks into the aircraft structure at the leading edges. Higher speed aircraft
such as the SR-71 deal with the issue by the use of insulating material and material selection on
the exterior of the vehicles. Some designs for hypersonic missiles would employ liquid cooling
of the leading edges (usually the fuel en route to the engine).

It can have an effect on the metals used for the skin of the aeroplane, by making them brittle,
and causing thermal stress concentrations as the structure expands due to their increase in
temperature.

Area Rule
The Whitcomb area rule, also called the transonic area rule, is a design technique used to
reduce an aircraft's drag at transonic and supersonic speeds, particularly between Mach 0.8
and 1.2.

The "perfect" aerodynamic shape is known as the

Sears-Haack body, and is roughly shaped like a cigar
but pointed at both ends.

Figure 1.105: Sears-Haack body shape

1.108 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight

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Rev.01 - 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 The area rule says that an aeroplane designed with the same cross-sectional area distribution
in the longitudinal direction as the Sears-Haack body generates the same wave drag as this
body, largely independent of the actual shape. As a result, aircraft have to be carefully arranged
so that large volumes like wings are positioned at the widest area of the equivalent Sears-
Haack body, and that the cockpit, tailplane, intakes and other "bumps" are spread out along the
fuselage and or that the rest of the fuselage along these "bumps" is correspondingly
thinned.

Figure 1.106: The F106 Delta Dart (left) shows how Area Rule is used to “waist” the fuselage at
the wing position. The underside of an A-380 (right). Several area rule-dictated features are
visible

The area rule also holds true at speeds higher than the speed of sound, but in this case the
body arrangement is in respect to the Mach line for the design speed. For instance, at Mach 1.3
the angle of the Mach cone formed off the body of the aircraft will be at about μ = arcsin (1/M) =
50.3 deg (μ is the sweep angle of the Mach cone). In this case the "perfect shape" is biased
rearward, which is why aircraft designed for high speed cruise tend to be arranged with the
wings at the rear. A classic example of such a design is Concorde.

Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 1.109

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016
Supersonic Intakes
It is required that the airflow onto the compressor face is subsonic regardless of the aircraft
speed, (Normally mach 0.4) if the rotating aerofoils are to remain free of shock wave
accumulation which would be detrimental to the compression process.

Additional to this, it is often necessary to restrict the amount of airflow entering the compressor
at supersonic speeds since the amount of airflow at this speed is simply not required.

At supersonic speeds, a Convergent-Divergent intake is found to be most effective, but at

subsonic speeds this type of intake is inefficient. The usual method of overcoming this is to use
a variable geometry inlet.

Variable Throat Area Inlet

The diagram of the concord inlet (Figure 1.101 (a) and (b)) shows firstly an inlet at subsonic
speeds. The throat is a maximum size for maximum air inlet. The last diagram (Figure 1.101
(c)) shows the same inlet at supersonic speeds with the throat area reduced. The convergent
part breaks the airflow in to a series of weak shocks which slow down the air progressively. Any
unwanted air thereafter can be dumped by the spill valve.

Figure 1.107: A supersonic intake (Concorde)

Figure 1.108 (a): Variable intake operation (Concorde) - subsonic

1.110 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight

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 At take off the engines need maximum airflow, therefore the ramps are fully retracted and the
auxiliary inlet vane is wide open. This vane is held open aerodynamically. The auxiliary inlet
begins to close as the Mach number builds and it completely closed by the time the aircraft
reaches Mach 0.93.

Figure 1.109 (b): Variable intake operation (Concorde) - subsonic

Shortly after take-off the aircraft enters the noise abatement procedure where the re-heats are
turned off and the power is reduced. The secondary nozzles are opened further to allow more
air to enter, therefore quietening down the exhaust. The Secondary air doors also open at this
stage to allow air to bypass the engine.

At slow speeds all the air into the engine is primary airflow and the secondary air doors are kept
closed. Keeping them closed also prevents the engine ingesting any of its own exhaust gas. At
around Mach 0.55 the Secondary exhaust buckets begin to open as a function of Mach number
to be fully open when the aircraft is at M1.1

The ramps begin move into position at Mach 1.3 which shock wave start to form on the intakes.

At take off and during subsonic flight, 82% of the thrust is developed by the engine alone with
6% from the nozzles and 21% from the intakes

Figure 1.110 (c): Variable intake operation (Concorde) - supersonic

At the supersonic cruse speed of mach 2.0 the ramps have moved over half their amount of
available travel, slowing down the air by producing a supersonic shockwave (yellow lines) at the
engine intake lip.

When the throttles are brought back to start the decent the spill door is opened to dump out
excess air that is no longer needed by the engine, this allows the ramp to go down to their
maximum level of travel. As the speed is lowered the spill doors are closed and the ramps begin
to move back so by M1.3 are again fully retracted.

Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 1.111

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.01 – 31 March 2016