CHAPTER FIVE

5. WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

• After treatment, water is to be stored temporarily and
supplied to the consumers through the network of
pipelines called distribution system.
• The distribution system also includes pumps, reservoirs,
pipe fittings, instruments for measurement of pressures,
flow leak detectors etc. The cost of distribution is about
40 to 70% of the total cost of the entire scheme.
• The efficiency of the system depends upon proper
planning, execution and maintenance.
• Ultimate aim is to supply potable water to all the
consumers whenever required in sufficient quantity with
required pressure with least lost and without any leakage.
5.1 REQUIREMENT OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

1. The system should convey the treated water up to

consumers with the same degree of purity.
2. The system should be economical and easy to maintain
and operate.
3. It should safe against any future pollution. As per as
possible should not be laid below sewer lines.
5.1 REQUIREMENT OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

4. Water should be supplied without interruption even

when repairs are undertaken
5. The system should be so designed that the supply
should meet maximum hourly demand
5.2 SYSTEM OF DISTRIBUTION

For efficient distribution it is required that the water should reach to every
consumer with required rate of flow. Therefore, some pressure in pipeline is
necessary, which should force the water to reach at every place. Depending
upon the methods of distribution, the distribution system is classified as the
follows:
1. Gravity system
2. Pumping system
3. Dual system or combined gravity and pumping system
1. GRAVITY SYSTEM

• When some ground sufficiently high above the city area is available,
this can be best utilized for distribution system in maintaining
pressure in water mains. This method is also much suitable when the
source of supply such as lake, river or impounding reservoir is at
sufficiently higher than city. The water flows in the mains due to
gravitational forces. As no pumping is required therefore it is the
most reliable system for the distribution of water as shown in fig. 5.1
2. PUMPING SYSTEM

• Constant pressure can be maintained in the system by direct

pumping into mains. Rate of flow cannot be varied easily
according to demand unless numbers of pumps are operated
in addition to stand by ones. Supply can be affected during
power failure and breakdown of pumps. During fires, the
water can be pumped in required quantity by the stand by
units.
3. COMBINED PUMPING AND GRAVITY SYSTEM

• This is also known as dual system. The pump is connected to the mains
as well as elevated reservoir. In the beginning when demand is small the
water is stored in the elevated reservoir, but when demand increases, the
flow in the distribution system comes from the both the pumping station
as well as elevated reservoir. This system is more reliable and
economical, because it requires uniform rate of pumping but meets low
as well as maximum demand. The water stored in the elevated reservoir
meets the requirements of demand during breakdown of pumps and for
fire fighting.
5.3 METHODS OF SUPPLY OF WATER

1. Continuous System
• This is the best system and water is supplied for all 24 hours.
This system is possible when there is adequate quantity of water
for supply. In this system sample of water is always available
for fire fighting and due to continuous circulation water always
remains fresh. In this system less diameter of pipes are required
and rusting of pipes will be less. Losses will be more if there are
leakages in the system.
 2. INTERMITTENT SYSTEM

If plenty of water is not available, the supply of water is divided into

zones and each zone is supplied with water for fixed hours in a day
or on alternate days.
The system has following disadvantages:
1. Consumers have to store water for non-supply hours.
2. Bigger sized pipes are to be laid, because full day’s supply is to
be provided within few hours of supply.
 CONT’D…

3. Pipelines are likely to rust faster due to alternate

wetting and drying. This increases the maintenance
cost.
4. More wastage of water due to the tendency of the
people to store more water than required quantity and to
waste the excess to collect fresh water each time.
5.4 LAYOUTS OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Generally in practice there are four different systems

of distribution which are used. They are:
• 1. Dead End or Tree system
• 2. Grid Iron system
• 3. Circular or Ring system
• 4. Radial system
1. DEAD END OR TREE SYSTEM

• This system is suitable for irregular developed towns or

cities. In this system water flows in one direction only
into sub-mains and branches. The diameter of pipe
decreases at every tree branch.
 ADVANTAGES:

• 1. Discharge and pressure at any point in the distribution system is

calculated easily
• 2. The valves required in this system of layout are comparatively
less in number.
• 3. The diameter of pipes used are smaller and hence the system is
cheap and economical
 DISADVANTAGES:

• 1. There is stagnant water at dead ends of pipes causing

contamination.
• 2. During repairs of pipes or valves at any point the entire
downstream end are deprived of supply
• 3. The water available for firefighting will be limited in quantity
 2. GRID IRON SYSTEM

• From the mains water enters the branches at all junctions in either
direction into sub-mains of equal diameters. At any point in the
line the pressure is balanced from two directions because of
interconnected network of pipes.
 ADVANTAGES

• 1. As water is supplied from both the sides at any point, very small
distribution area will be affected during repair.
• 2. Every point receives supply from two directions and with higher
pressure.
• 3. In case of fire, more quantity of water can be diverted towards the
affected area, by closing the valves of nearby localities.
• 4. There is free circulation of water and hence it is not liable for pollution
due to stagnation.
 DISADVANTAGES:

• 1. More length of pipes and number of valves are needed and hence
there is increased cost of construction
• 2. Calculation of sizes of pipes and working out pressures at various
points in the distribution system is complicated and difficult.
 3. CIRCULAR OR RING SYSTEM

• Supply to the inner pipes is from the mains around the boundary. It
has the same advantages as the grid-Iron system. Smaller diameter
pipes are needed. The advantages and disadvantages are same as that
of grid-Iron system.
 4. RADIAL SYSTEM

• This is a zoned system. Water is pumped to the distribution reservoirs

and from the reservoirs it flows by gravity to the tree system of pipes.
The pressure calculations are easy in this system. Layout of roads
needs to be radial to eliminate loss of head in bends. This is most
economical system also if combined pumping and gravity flow is
adopted.
5.5 PRESSURE IN THE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

• When the water enters in the distribution main, the water head
continuously lost due to friction in pipes, at the entrance of reducers,
due to valves, bends, meters etc till it reaches the consumers tap. The
net available head at the consumer’s tap is the head at the entrance of
the water main minus all the losses in the way. The effective head
available at the service connection to a building is very important,
because the height up to which the water can rise in the building will
depend on this available head only.
• The greater the head the more will be the height up to
which it will rise. If adequate head is not available at the
connection to the building, the water will not reach the
upper storey (i.e 2nd, 3rd, 4th etc.) to overcome this
difficulty the required effective head is maintained in
the street pipe lines.
 5.6 SERVICE RESERVOIR

The Service Reservoir is also known as distribution reservoirs. It’s

main functions are.
 To balance or equalize (allow a uniform rate) the supply and
demand over a long period of high consumption.
 Provide a supply during a failure or shutdown of treatment plant, pumps
To provide a reserve of water to meet fire and other emergency demand
 DETERMINATION OF STORAGE CAPACITY OF RESERVOIR

The total capacity of the service reservoir is determined by adding the quantity of water required for
various purposes. These are for balancing reserve, for Breakdown reserve and for fire reserves.
i) For Balancing Reserve: - This is requires equalizing b/n the fluctuations of demand rate with the
constant rate of pumping.
* Balancing Storage: - Max. Surplus + Max. Deficient
ii) For Break down Reserve:- This is the amount of storage during the break down of pumps.
* From 2 – 3 hrs pumping capacity is provided against this storage.
iii) For Fire reserve: - This is storage required for fighting a fire out break.
* In practice 2 – 5 lit/cap is normally provided for fire storage.
 ACCESSORIES OF SERVICE RESERVOIRS

The service reservoirs are to be provided with the following accessories:

1. Inlet Pipe : For the entry of water
2. Ladder : To reach the top of the reservoir and then to the bottom of the reservoir, for inspection and cleaning.
3. Lightening Conductor : In case of elevated reservoirs for the passage of lightening
4. Manholes : For providing entry to the inside of reservoir for inspection and cleaning
5. Outlet pipe: For the exit of water
6. Outflow Pipe : For the exit of water above full supply level
7. Vent pipes : For free circulation of air
8. Washout pipe : For removing water after cleaning of the reservoir
9. Water level indicator: To know the level of water inside the tank from outside.
 DEPTH AND SHAPE OF SERVICE RESERVOIRS

Depth
There is an economical depth of service reservoir for any given site. For a given
quantity of water either a shallow reservoir having long walls and a large floor area
may be constructed or, alternatively. A deep reservoir may be constructed with high
retaining walls and a smaller floor area. Depths usually used are as follows:
Size (m3) Depth of water (m)
Up to 3500 2.5 to 3.5
3500 to 15,000 3.5 to 5.0
Over 15,000 5.0 to 7.0
 5.7 PIPES USED IN THE WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Pipe Materials
Pipe materials used in transmission and distribution systems must have
the following characteristics:
• Adequate tensile and bending strength to withstand external loads.
• High overflowing strength to withstand internal water pressure
• Resistance to both internal and external corrosion
THE TYPES OF PIPES USED FOR DISTRIBUTING WATER

1. Cast iron pipe 2. Steel pipe 3. Concrete pipe 4. Plastic pipe

A pipe material is selected based on various conditions:
- Cost
- Type of water to be conveyed
- Carrying capacity of the pipe
- Maintenance cost
- Durability, etc.
 CONT’D…

• Cast iron pipes:

• highly resistant to corrosion, strong but brittle
• easy jointing, withstanding high internal pressure, long life
• very heavy and difficult to transport
 CONT’D…

• Steel pipe:
▫ strong, very light weight and can withstand
higher pressure than cast iron pipes.
▫ cheap, easy to construct and can be easily
transported
▫ cannot withstand external loads, affected by
corrosion and are costly to maintain.
 CONT’D…

• Cement-lined cast iron pipes:

 cement protect against corrosion.
very small coefficient of friction than unlined cast iron pipes.
 CONT’D…

• Plastic pipes:
• corrosion resistant , light weight and economical.
• Rigid and can withstand much higher pressure for a given wall thickness.
5.8APPURTENANCES IN THE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

The various devices fixed along the water distribution system are
known as appurtenances.
The following are the some of the fixtures used in the distribution
system.
• (i) Valves
• (ii) Fire hydrants and
• (iii)Water meter
 VALVES:

• In water works practice, to control the flow of water, to regulate

pressure, to release or to admit air, prevent flow of water in opposite
direction valves are required.
• Factors considered in the selection of valves:
▫ include purpose and operation,
▫ capacity required,
▫ head loss and rate of flow,
▫ cost,
▫ availability, etc.
2. WATER METER

• These are the devices which are installed on the pipes to

measure the quantity of water flowing at a particular point along
the pipe. The readings obtained from the meters help in working
out the quantity of water supplied and thus the consumers can
be charged accordingly. The water meters are usually installed
to supply water to industries, hotels, big institutions etc.
metering prevents the wastage of purified water.
3. FIRE HYDRANTS

• A hydrant is an outlet provided in water pipe for tapping

water mainly in case of fire. They are located at 100 to
150 m a part along the roads and also at junction roads.
 5.9 DETERMINATION OF PIPE SIZES

Permissible velocities for best results for different pipe sized

pipes are within the range of 0.3 to 2m/s. For small size pipes
flowing with high velocity of flow, loss of head due to friction
is more. Once the velocity of flow is established loss of head
due to friction, bends and other reasons can be computed. The
head required to develop a particular velocity in a particular
sized pipe is then calculated.
 SOLUTION

• i) For Balancing storage = Max. Surplus + Max. Deficit

• = 15,000 + 10,000 = 25,000 lit
• Let’s take 3hr pumping rate
• ii) For Break down storage = 3* 10,000 lit/hr = 30,000 lit
• Let’s take 5 lit/cap
• iii) For Fire reserve = 5 lit/cap * 1600 = 8,000 lit
• : - Total capacity of reservoirs = 25,000 + 30,000 + 8,000 = 63,000 lits
 EXAMPLE 1:

Given
• Total population of a town = 80,000
• Average daily consumption of water=150liters/capita/day
• If the flow velocity of an outlet pipe from intake = 1.5 m/s,
determine the diameter of the outlet pipe.
EXERCISE:

A town has a population of 100,000 persons. It is to be

supplied with water from a reservoir situated at a distance
of 6.44km. It is agreed that one-half of the daily supply
of 140lit/capita should be delivered in 6 hours. If the loss
of head is estimated to be 15m, calculate the size of pipe.
Assume f = 0.04.
5.10 PROCEDURE OF ANALYZING PIPE SIZE AND PRESSURE

The procedures of analyzing pipe sizes and pressure at

various points for dead end system of distribution and
grid iron systems.
• A. Dead end system ( reading Assignment)
B. GRID IRON SYSTEM

• In this system of supply, water reaches different points

from different ways. The computation in this method is
of very complex nature. In the analysis of such a
distribution system, the first step will be to calculate the
quantity of water flowing through each direction. Once
the discharges are known, designs can be carried out on
the same basis as dead end system.
• Hardy cross method is commonly employed method for the analysis of pressures and pipe
diameters in grid iron system.
• The conditions to be satisfied in any network of pipes are as follows
1. from continuity principle the flow into the junction must be equal to the flow out of the
function.
2. The Darcy–Weisbach equation must be satisfied for flow in each pipe.
• Minor losses may be neglected if the pipe lengths are large. However, if the minor
losses are large , they must be taken into account,
• According to Darcy-Weisbach equation the loss of head hf though any pipe
discharging at the rate of Q can be expressed as:

Where n = an exponent having a numerical value ranging from 1.72 to 2.0.

r = proportionality factor which can be determined for each pipe,
knowing the friction factor f, length L, and the diameter D of the pipe.
3. Consider different loops and compute the net head loss
around each circuit considering the head loss in clockwise
flows as positive and in anti-clockwise flows as negative. For a
correct distribution of flow, the net head loss around each loop
should be equal to zero, so that the circuit will be balanced.
However, in most of the cases, for the assumed distribution of
flow the head loss around the circuit will not be equal to zero.
The assumed flows are then corrected by introducing a correction for
the flows, until the circuit is balanced.
The value of the correction to be applied to the assumed flows of
the circuit may be obtained as follows:
For any pipe if Qo is the assumed discharge and Q is the corrected
discharge, then:
• Corrections are now applied to each pipe & to all loops. For pipes common
to two loops or circuits, a correction from both the loops will be required to
be applied. Clockwise direction is considered as positive & anticlockwise as
negative direction.
• With the corrected flows in all the pipes, a second trial calculation is made
for all the loops and process is repeated until the corrections become
negligible
PROCEDURES CAN BE EXPRESSED AS FOLLOWS:

1. Assume any internally consistent distribution of flow. The sum of

the flows entering any junction must equal the sum of the flows
leaving
2. Compute the head losses in each pipe by means of an equation or
diagram. Conventionally, clockwise flows are positive and produce
positive head losses.
3. With due attention to sign, compute the total head loss around each
circuit:
4. Compute, without regard to sign, for the same circuit, the sum of:
KnQn-1.
5. Apply the corrections obtained from equation (9) to the flow in
each line. Lines common to two loops receive both corrections with
due attention to sign.