SCS301: RESEARCH METHODS IN COMPUTING

MURANG’A UNIVERSITY OF
TECHNOLOGY

SCS301: RESEARCH
METHODS IN COMPUTING
School: SCHOOL OF COMPUTING AND
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Department: COMPUTER SCIENCE
Lecturer’s Name: Everleen Nekesa
Email Address: ewanyonyi@[Link]

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Definition of research
Different authors have defined research as follows:
 Research is carrying out a diligent inquiry or a critical examination
of a given phenomenon.
 Research involves a critical analysis of existing conclusions or
theories with regard to newly discovered facts i.e. it’s a continued
search for new knowledge and understanding of the world around
us.
 Research is a process of arriving at effective solutions to problems
through systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data.

What is Business Research?

It is a systematic inquiry whose objective is to provide information to
solve managerial problems (Cooper and Schindler, 2003).

Research and Scientific Method

The scientific method encourages a rigorous, impersonal mode of
procedure dictated by the demands of logic and objective procedure. It
is based on the following basic postulates:
 It relies on empirical evidence
 It utilizes relevant concepts
 It is committed to only objective considerations
 It presupposes ethical neutrality i.e. it aims at nothing but making
only adequate and correct statements about population objects
 It results into probabilistic predictions
 Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical
scrutiny and for use in testing the conclusions through replication.
 It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed
as scientific theories.

Purpose of Research
 To discover new knowledge
 To describe a phenomenon
 To enable prediction.
 To enable control i.e. the ability to regulate the phenomenon under
study.
 To enable explanation of a phenomenon i.e. accurate observation
and measurement of a given phenomenon.
 To enable theory development and validation of existing theories.
Theory development involves formulating concepts, laws and
generalizations about a given phenomenon.
 Research provides one with the knowledge and skills needed for the
fast-paced decision-making environment

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Research is important because it provides information for decision

making within organizations. For management to improve their
production, there must be information; which is a product of research.

Why Managers need Better Information

 Explosive growth and influence of the internet
 Stakeholders demanding greater influence: Workers, shareholders,
customers and the general public are demanding to be included in
company decision-making.

 More vigorous competition – domestic and global

 More government intervention
 More complex decisions: There are more variables to consider in
every decision.
 Maturing of management as a group of disciplines
 Greater computing power and speed: The power and ease of use of
today’s computers to analyze data, which help in decision-making.
 New perspectives on established research methodologies

Sources of Knowledge
 Research
 Experience: Empiricists attempt to describe, explain, and make
predictions through observation.
 Tradition/reasoning: Rationalists believe all knowledge can be
deduced from known laws or basic truths of nature
 Authority: They serve as important sources of knowledge, but
should be judged on integrity and willingness to present a balanced
case.
 Intuition: it is the perception, explanation or insight into
phenomena by instinct. (ability to understand something without
reasoning)
The Value of Acquiring Research Skills
 To gather more information before selecting a course of action
 To do a high-level research study
 To understand research design
 To evaluate and resolve a current management dilemma
 To establish a career as a research specialist

Definition of basic terms used in research

 Population: it refers to an entire group of individuals, events or
objects having a common observable characteristic.
 Sample: It is a smaller group obtained from the accessible
population.

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 Sampling: It is the process of selecting a number of individuals for

a study in such a way that the individuals selected represent the
population.
 Variable: It is a measurable characteristic that assumes different
values among the subjects. They can be dependent, independent,
intervening, confounding or antecedent variables.
 Data: refers to all information a researcher gathers for his or her
study. Can be secondary data or primary data.
 Parameter: It is a characteristic that is measurable and can
assume different values in the population.
 Statistics: it is the science of organizing, describing and analyzing
data. Descriptive and inferential statistics.
 Objective: it refers to the specific aspects of the phenomenon
under study that the researcher desires to bring out at the end of
the research study.
 Literature review: It involves locating, reading and evaluating
reports of previous studies, observations and opinions related to the
planned study.
 Hypothesis: It is a researcher’s anticipated explanation or opinion
regarding the result of the study.
 Theory: It is a set of concepts or constructs and the interrelations
that are assumed to exist among those concepts. It provides the
basis for establishing the hypothesis to be tested in the study.
 A construct is an image or idea specifically invented for a given
research and/or theory-building purpose
 A concept is a bundle of meanings or characteristics associated
with certain events, objects, conditions, situations, and behaviors.
Concepts have been developed over time through shared usage

Components of research
1. Identification of the research area and topic.
2. Statement of the problem.
3. Literature review.
4. Methodology design
5. Sampling frame and sampling techniques.
6. Data collection tools, design and techniques.
7. Data analysis methods.
8. Report writing techniques.

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TYPES OF RESEARCH
Different authors have classified research into various categories.
Research can therefore be classified according to;
1. Type of Analyzed data
i. Qualitative
ii. Quantitative
2. Depth of study/scope
i. Exploratory research
ii. Descriptive research
iii. Explanatory research
iv. Correlational research
3. Objective/purpose of study
i. Theoretical research
ii. Applied research
4. Time of study
i. Longitudinal research
ii. Cross sectional
5. Degree of manipulation of variables
i. Experimental research
ii. Non experimental research
iii. Quasi-experimental research
6. According to sources of information
i. Primary data
ii. Secondary data

[Link] by analyzed data

Qualitative research
It includes designs, techniques and measures that do not produce
discrete numerical data. Qualitative data can be collected through
direct observation, participant observation or interview method.
Qualitative research includes an “array of interpretive techniques
which seek to describe, decode, translate and otherwise come to terms
with the meaning, not the frequency, of certain more or less naturally
occurring phenomena in the social world.

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Qualitative research aims to achieve an in-depth understanding of a

situation. Qualitative research is designed to tell the researcher how
(process) and why (meaning) things happen as they do. Qualitative
techniques are used at both the data collection and data analysis
stages of a research project.

At the data collection stage, the array of techniques includes focus

groups, individual depth interviews, case studies, ethnography,
grounded theory, action research and observation. During analysis, the
qualitative researcher uses content analysis of written or recorded
materials drawn from personal expressions by participants and
behavioural observations.

Qualitative Quantitative
Focus of Understand and interpret Describe, explain and
research predict
Researcher High, researcher is Limited, controlled to
involvement participant or catalyst prevent bias
Research In-depth understanding: Describe or predict:
purpose theory building Build and test theory
Sample design Non-probabilistic: purposive Probabilistic
Research design May evolve or adjust during Determined before
the course of the period commencing the
Often uses multiple project
methods simultaneously or Uses single method or
sequentially mixed methods
Consistency is not expected Consistency is critical
Involves longitudinal Involves either a
approach cross-sectional or a
longitudinal approach
Participant Pre-tasking is common No preparation
preparation desired to avoid
biasing the participant
Data type and Verbal or pictorial Verbal descriptions
preparation descriptions Reduced to numerical
Reduced to verbal codes codes for
computerized analysis

Data analysis Human analysis following Computerized analysis

computer or human coding

Quantitative research
It includes designs, techniques and measures that produce discrete
numerical or quantifiable data.

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Advantages of using both qualitative and quantitative methods

1. Since in many cases a researcher has several objectives, some of
these objectives are better assessed using quantitative methods.
2. Both methods supplement each other i.e. qualitative methods
provide the in-depth explanations while quantitative methods
provide the data needed to test hypotheses.
3. Since both methods have a bias, using both types of research
helps to avoid such bias in that each method can be used to
check the other.

Disadvantages of using both qualitative and quantitative

methods
1. It is expensive
2. Researchers may not have sufficient training in both methods to
be able to use them effectively.

2. Classification by purpose
1. Basic / Pure / Fundamental Research
Basic researchers are interested in deriving scientific knowledge i.e.
they are motivated by intellectual curiosity and need to come up
with a particular solution. It focuses on generating new knowledge
in order to refine or expand existing theories. It does not consider
the practical application of the findings to actual problems or
situations.
Example: How was the world formed? etc
2. Applied research
It is conducted for the purpose of applying or testing theory and
evaluating its usefulness in solving problems. It provides data to
support a theory, guide theory revision or suggest the development
of a new theory.
 It is solution specific
 Involves precise measurement of characteristics
Example: How to improve the speed of a computer etc
3. Action research
It is conducted with the primary intention of solving a specific,
immediate and concrete problem in a local setting e.g. investigating
ways of overcoming water shortage in a given area. It is not
concerned with whether the results can be generalized to any other
setting.
4. Evaluation Research
It is the process of determining whether the intended results were
realized. After conducting a research, a follow-up is done to
establish whether the objectives were met.

Types of evaluation research

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i. Needs assessment
A need is a discrepancy between an existing set of conditions
and a desired set of conditions. The results of needs assessment
study provide the foundation for developing new programmes
and for making changes in existing ones.
ii. Formative evaluation
Helps to collect data about a programme while it is still being
developed e.g. an educational programme, a marketing strategy
etc.
iii. Summative evaluation
It is done after the programme has been fully developed. It is
conducted to evaluate how worthwhile the final programme has
been especially compared to similar programmes.

[Link] by methods of analysis

i. Descriptive research
It is the process of collecting data in order to test hypotheses or to
answer questions concerning the current status of the subjects in
the study. It determines and reports the way things are. It attempts
to describe such things as possible behaviour, attitudes, values and
characteristics.
Steps involved in descriptive research
 Formulating the objectives of a study
 Designing the methods of data collection
 Selecting the sample
 Data collection
 Analyzing the results
ii. Causal-comparative research
It is used to explore relationships between variables. It determines
reasons or causes for the current status of the phenomenon under
study. The variables of interest cannot be manipulated unlike in
experimental research.
Steps in causal-comparative research
 Define the research question
 Select a group that possesses the characteristics, which the
researcher wants to study.
 Select a comparison group which does not display the
characteristics under study but which is similar to the group in
other respects.
 Collect data on both the experimental and control groups
 Analyze the data
Advantages of causal-comparative study
 Allows a comparison of groups without having to manipulate the
independent variables

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 It can be done solely to identify variables worthy of experimental

investigation
 They are relatively cheap.
Disadvantages of causal-comparative study
 Interpretations are limited because the researcher does not
know whether a particular variable is a cause or result of a
behaviour being studied.
 There may be a third variable which could be affecting the
established relationship but which may not be established in
the study.

iii. Correlation Methods

It describes in quantitative terms the degree to which variables are
related. It explores relationships between variables and also tries to
predict a subject’s score on one variable given his or her score on
another variable.
Steps in correlational research
 Problem statement
 Selection of subjects
 Data collection
 Data analysis

Advantages of the correlational method

 Permits one to analyze inter-relationships among a large number
of variables in a single study.
 Allows one to analyze how several variables either singly or in
combination might affect a particular phenomenon being studied.
 The method provides information concerning the degree of
relationship between variables being studied.

Disadvantages of the correlational method

 Correlation between two variables does not necessarily imply
causation although researchers often tend to interpret such a
relationship to mean causation.
 Since the correlation coefficient is an index, any two variables will
always show a relationship even when commonsense dictates
that such variables are not related.
 The correlation coefficient is very sensitive to the size of the
sample.

[Link] by type of research

i. Survey Research
A survey is an attempt to collect data from members of a population in
order to determine the current status of that population with respect to
one or more variables. Survey study is therefore a self-report study,
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which requires the collection of quantifiable information from the

sample. It is a descriptive research.
Steps involved in Survey research
 Problem statement
 Defining Objectives
 Selecting a Sample
 Preparing the instruments
 Data analysis
Purpose of survey research
i. It seeks to obtain information that describes existing
phenomena by asking individuals about their perceptions,
attitudes, behaviour or values.
ii. Can be used for explaining or exploring the existing status of
two or more variables, at a given point in time.
iii. It is the most appropriate to measure characteristics of large
populations.
Limitations of Survey research
i. They are dependent on the cooperation of respondents.
ii. Information unknown to the respondents cannot be tapped in a
survey e.g. amount saved per year
iii. Requesting information which is considered secret and personal,
encourages incorrect answers.
iv. Surveys cannot be aimed at obtaining forecasts of things to
come.

ii. Historical research

Involves the study of a problem that requires collecting information
from the past

Purpose of Historical Research

 Aims at arriving at conclusions concerning causes, effects or
trends of past occurrences that may help explain present events
and anticipate future events.
 Attempts to interpret ideas or events that had previously seemed
unrelated.
 Synthesizes old data or merges old data with new historical facts
that the researcher or other researchers have discovered.
 To reinterpret past events that have been studied.

Steps involved in historical research

 Identifying and delineating the problem.
 Developing hypothesis or hypotheses that one is interested in
testing.

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 Collecting and classifying resource materials, determining facts

by internal and external criticism.
 Organizing facts into results
 Interpreting data in terms of stated hypothesis or theory.
 Synthesizing and presenting the research in an organized form.

iii. Observational Research

The current status of a phenomenon is determined not by asking
but by observing. This helps to collect objective information.

Steps
 Selection and definition of the problem.
 Sample selection.
 Definition of the observational information.
 Recording observational information
 Data analysis and interpretation.

Types of observational research

1. Non-participant observation
The observer is not directly involved in the situation to be observed.
2. Naturalistic Observation
Behaviour is studied and recorded as it normally occurs.
3. Simulation observation.
The researcher creates the situation to be observed and tells
subjects to be observed what activities they are to engage in.
Disadvantage – the setting is not natural and the behaviour
exhibited by the subjects may not be the behaviour that would
occur in a natural setting.
4. Participant observation
The observer becomes part of or a participant in the situation. May
not be ethical
5. Case studies
A case study is an in-depth investigation of an individual, group,
institution or phenomenon. It aims to determine factors and
relationships among the factors that have resulted in the behaviour
under study.
6. Content analysis
It involves observation and detailed description of objects, items or
things that comprise the sample. The purpose is to study existing
documents such as books, magazines in order to determine factors
that explain a specific phenomenon.
Steps
a) Decide on the unit of analysis
b) Sample the content to be analyzed
c) Coding

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d) Data analysis
e) Compiling results and interpretations.

Advantages
a) Researchers are able to economize in terms of time and money.
b) Errors that arise during the study are easier to detect and
correct.
c) The method has no effect on what is being studied.
Disadvantages
a) It is limited to recorded communication.
b) It is difficult to ascertain the validity of the data.
Quiz
 As an IT student, which type of research can you undertake?
 How does it differ with the social science studies?

Characteristics of a Good Research

Following the standards of the scientific method
a) Purpose clearly defined: Researcher distinguishes between
symptoms of organizations problem, the managers perception of
the problem and the research problem
b) Research process detailed: Researcher provides complete
research proposal
c) Research design thoroughly planned: Exploratory procedures are
outlined with constructs defined, sample unit is clearly described
along with sampling methodology, data collection procedures are
selected and designed
d) Limitations frankly revealed: Desired procedure is compared with
actual procedure in report, desired sample is compared with
actual sample in the report, impact on findings and conclusions is
detailed.
e) High ethical standards applied: Safeguards are in place to protect
study participants, organizations, clients and researchers.
Recommendations do not exceed the scope of the study. The
study’s methodology and limitations sections reflect researcher’s
restraint and concern for accuracy
f) Findings presented unambiguously: Findings are clearly
presented in words, tables and graphs. Findings are logically
organized to facilitate reaching a decision about the managers
problem. Executive summary of conclusions is outlined. Detailed
table of contents is tied to the conclusions and findings
presentation
a) Conclusions justified: Decision based conclusions are matched
with detailed findings

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b) Researcher’s experience reflected: Researcher provides

experience / credentials with report
c) Adequate analysis for decision-maker’s needs: sufficiently
detailed findings are tied to collection instruments.

IDENTIFICATION OF RESEARCH AREA

The research process starts by formulating a research problem that
can be investigated through research procedures.
Identifying a research problem
The first step in selecting a research problem is to identify the broad
area that one is interested in. Such an area should be related to the
professional interests and goals of the researcher e.g. low-cost
housing, productivity of workers, small-scale businesses etc.
The second step is to identify a specific problem within it that will form
the basis of the research study. The research problem should be an
important one i.e. it should
a) Lead to findings that have widespr`ead implications in a
particular area
b) Challenge some commonly held truism
c) Review the inadequacies of existing laws, views or policies
d) Cover a reasonable scope e.g. not too narrow or too general.

Defining the research problem

A research problem refers to some difficulty which the researcher
experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation
and wants to obtain a solution for the same. A research problem exists
if the following conditions are met:-
a) There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or
the problem.
b) There must be some objective(s) to be attained.
c) There must be alternative means or courses of action for obtaining
the objective(s) one wishes to attain.
d) There must be some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard
to the selection of alternatives.
e) There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty
pertains.

Selecting the problem

The following points must be observed by a researcher in selecting a
research problem or a subject of study:
a) Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will
be a difficult task to throw any new light in such a case.
b) Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average
researcher.

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c) Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.

d) The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible
so that the related research material or sources of research are
within one’s reach.
e) The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training
of a researcher, the costs involved and the time factor must be
considered.
f) The selection of a study must be preceded by a preliminary study.

Defining the problem

It involves the task of laying down boundaries within which a
researcher shall study the problem with a predetermined objective in
view. The following steps can be followed:-
a) Statement of the problem in a general way
b) Understanding the nature of the problem: Understand the origin
and nature of the problem e.g. by discussing it with those who
raised it in order to find out how the problem originally came
about. The researcher should keep in view the environment within
which the problem is to be studied and understood.
c) Surveying the available literature: the researcher must be well
conversant with relevant theories in the field, reports and records
as also all other relevant literature.
d) Developing ideas through discussions:
e) Rephrasing the research problem: Its putting the research problem
in as specific terms as possible so that it may become
operationally viable and may help in the development of working
hypotheses.
The following should also be observed when defining a research
problem:
a) Technical terms and words or phrases with special meanings
used in the statement of the problem, should be clearly defined.
b) Basic assumptions or postulates if any relating to the research
problem should be clearly stated.
c) A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation
should be provided.
d) The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data
available must also be considered by the researcher in defining
the problem.
e) The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the
problem is to be studied must be mentioned explicitly in defining
a research problem.

Certain factors determine the scope of a research study. These

include:
a) The time available to carry it out

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b) The money available to carry it out

c) The availability of equipment if needed to carry it out
d) The availability of subjects or the units of study.

Ways of identifying a specific research problem from the broad

area.
(a) Existing theories
(b) Existing literature
(c) Discussions with experts
(d) Previous research studies
(e) Replication
(f) The media
(g) Personal experiences.

STATING THE PROBLEM

A research study starts with a brief introductory section. The
researcher introduces briefly the general area of study, and then
narrows down to the specific problem to be studied.

Characteristics of a good problem statement

 It should be written clearly and in such a way that the reader’s
interest is captured immediately.
 The specific problem identified in the problem statement should
be objectively researchable
 The scope of the specific research problem should be indicated
 The importance of the study in adding new knowledge should be
stated clearly
 The problem statement must give the purpose of the research.

STATING THE PURPOSE

The purpose of a study crystallizes the researcher’s inquiry into a
particular area of knowledge in a given field. If the purpose is
accurately expressed, the research process will be carried out with
ease. The purpose of the study should meet the following criteria:
 It must be indicated clearly, unambiguously and in a declarative
manner.
 The purpose should indicate the concepts or variables in the
study.
 Where possible, the relationships among the variables should be
stated.
 The purpose should state the target population.

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 The variables and target population given in the purpose should

be consistent with the variables and target population
operationalised in the methods section of the study.

In stating the purpose of the study, the researcher should choose the
right words to convey the focus of the study effectively. Use of
subjective or biased words or sentences should be avoided.
Examples
Biased Neutral
To show To determine
To prove To compare
To confirm To investigate
To verify To differentiate
To check To explore
To demonstrate To find out
To indicate To examine
To validate To inquire
To explain To establish
To illustrate To test

Stating the Objectives

Research objectives are those specific issues within the scope of the
stated purpose that the researcher wants to focus upon and examine
in the study.
Characteristics of a good objective
 Specific:
 Measurable
 Achievable
 Reliable
 Time bound
Objectives guide the researcher in formulating testable hypotheses.
In stating the objectives of the study, the researcher should choose the
right words to convey the focus of the study effectively. Use of
subjective or biased words or sentences should be avoided.

FORMULATING HYPOTHESES
A hypothesis is a researcher’s prediction regarding the outcome of the
study. It states possible differences, relationships or causes between
two variables or concepts. Hypothesis are derived from or based on
existing theories, previous research, personal observations or
experiences. The test of a hypothesis involves collection and analysis
of data that may either support or fail to support the hypothesis. If the
results fail to support a stated hypothesis, it does not mean that the
study has failed but it implies that the existing theories or principles

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need to be revised or retested under various situations.

Purpose of hypothesis
 It provides direction by bridging the gap between the problem and
the evidence needed for its solution.
 It ensures collection of the evidence necessary to answer the
question posed in the statement of the problem.
 It enables the investigator to assess the information he or she has
collected from the standpoint of both relevance and organisation.
 It sensitizes the investigator to certain aspects of the situation that
are relevant regarding the problem at hand.
 It permits the researcher to understand the problem with greater
clarity and use the data to find solutions to problems.
 It guides the collection of data and provides the structure for their
meaningful interpretation in relation to the problem under
investigation.
 It forms the framework for the ultimate conclusions as solutions.

Characteristics of a good hypothesis

A sound review of literature or of existing theories often leads to good
hypothesis.
1. Should state clearly and briefly the expected relationships between
variables.
2. Must be based on a sound rationale derived from theory or previous
research or professional experience.
3. Must be consistent with common sense or generally accepted
truths.
4. Must be testable within a reasonable time.
5. Must be related to empirical phenomena. Words like ought, should,
bad should be avoided since they reflect moral judgment.
6. Variables stated in the hypothesis must be consistent with the
purpose statement, objectives and operationalized variables in the
method section.
7. Must be as simple and as concise as the complexity of the concepts
involved allows.
8. It must be stated in such a way that its implications can be deduced
in the form of empirical operations with respect to which
relationship can be validated or refuted.

Assumptions and Limitations

 An assumption is any fact that a researcher takes to be true
without actually verifying it. It puts some boundary around the
study and provides the reader with vital information, which

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influences the way results of the study are interpreted.

 A limitation is an aspect of a research that may influence the
results negatively but over which the researcher has no control. A
common limitation in social science studies is the scope of the
study, which sometimes may not allow generalizations. Sample
size may also be another limitation.

LITERATURE REVIEW
The review of literature involves the systematic identification, location
and analysis of documents containing information related to the
research problem being investigated. It should be extensive and
thorough because it is aimed at obtaining detailed knowledge of the
topic being studied.

Purpose of literature review

 To determine what has already been done related to the research
problem being studied. This will help the researcher to:
- Avoid unnecessary and unintentional duplication.
- Form the framework within which the research findings are
to be interpreted.
- Demonstrate his or her familiarity with the existing body of
knowledge.
 Helps reveal the strategies, procedures and measuring
instruments that have been found useful in investigating the
problem in question. This will help the researcher to:
- Avoid mistakes that have been made by other researchers
- Benefit from other researcher’s experiences
- Clarify how to use certain procedures, which one may only
have learned in theory.
 Helps to suggest other procedures and approaches, which will
help, improve the research study.
 Familiarizes the researcher with previous studies, which facilitates
interpretation of the results of the study. If there is a contradiction,
the literature review might provide rationale for the discrepancy.
 It helps the researcher to limit the research problem and to define
it better.
 Helps to determine new approaches and stimulates new ideas. The
researcher may be alerted to research possibilities, which have
been overlooked in the past.
 Approaches that have been proved to be futile will be revealed
through literature review.
 Specific suggestions and recommendations for further research
can be found by reviewing literature.

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 It pulls together, integrates and summarizes what is known in an

area. Thus helping to reveal gaps in information and areas where
major questions still remain.

Steps in carrying out literature review.

1. Familiarize yourself with the library before beginning the literature
review.
2. Make a list of key words or phrases to guide your literature search.
3. With the key words and phrases related to the study, one should go
to the source of literature.
4. Summarize the references on cards for easy organisation of the
literature.
5. Once collected, the literature should be analyzed, organized and
reported in an orderly manner.
6. Make an outline of the main topics or themes in order of
presentation.
7. Analyze each reference in terms of the outline made and establish
where it will be most relevant.
8. The literature should be organized in such a way that the more
general is covered first before the researcher narrows down to that
which is more specific to the research problem.

Sources of literature
(a) Primary sources: are direct descriptions of any occurrence by an
individual who actually observed or witnessed the occurrence.
(b) Secondary source: they include any publications written by an
author who was not a direct observer or participant in the events
described.

Examples
 Scholarly journals
 Theses and dissertations
 Government documents
 Papers presented at conferences
 Books
 References quoted in books
 International indices
 Abstracts
 Periodicals
 The Africana section of the library
 Reference section of the library
 Grey literature
 Inter-library loan
 The British lending library
 The internet

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 Microfilm

Evaluating information sources

Researchers evaluate and select information sources based on five
factors that can be applied to any type of source, whether printed or
electronic. These are:-
a) Purpose: The purpose is what the author is trying to accomplish
e.g. to enlighten, to define terms, to entertain etc.
b) Scope: what is the date of publication? What time period does
this source cover? How much of the topic is covered and to what
depth? Is the material covered local, regional or international?
c) Authority: The author and the author’s credentials should be
given both in printed and electronic sources.
d) Audience: When evaluating the plausible audience of a source,
look for key indicators including vocabulary, types of information
and questions or directions that guide the search.
e) Format: It relates to how the information is presented and how
easy it is to find a specific piece of information.

Tips on good review of literature

a) Do not conduct a hurried review for fear of overlooking important
studies.
b) Do not rely too heavily on secondary sources.
c) Check daily newspapers as they contain very educative, current
information.
d) Copy the references correctly in the first place so as to avoid the
frustration of trying to retrace a reference later.
e) Do not only concentrate on findings, check on methodology and
measurement of variables.

ETHICS IN RESEARCH
Ethics are norms or standards of behaviour that guide moral choices
about our behaviour and our relationship with others. Ethics differ from
legal constraints, in which generally accepted standards have defined
penalties that are universally enforced. The goal of ethics in research
is to ensure that no one is harmed or suffers adverse consequences
from research activities.

As the research is designed, several ethical considerations must be

balanced e.g.
 Protect the rights of the participant or subject.
 Ensure the sponsor receives ethically conducted and reported
research.

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 Follow ethical standards when designing research

 Protect the safety of the researcher and team
 Ensure the research team follows the design

1. Ethical treatment of participants

In general, the research must be designed in such a manner that the
respondent does not suffer physical harm, discomfort, pain,
embarrassment or loss to privacy. To safeguard against these, the
researcher should follow the following guidelines:
 Explain the study benefits
 Obtain informed consent
 Explain respondents rights and protection

(a) Benefits of the research in question

Whenever direct contact is made with a respondent, the researcher
should discuss the study benefits, being careful to neither overstate
nor understate the benefits. An interviewer should begin an
introduction with his or her name, the name of the research
organisation and a brief description of the purpose and benefits of the
research. This puts the respondent at ease, lets them know to whom
they are speaking and motivates them to answer questions truthfully.
Inducements to participate, financial or otherwise, should not be
disproportionate to the task or presented in a fashion that results in
coercion.

Deception occurs when the respondents are told only part of the truth
or when the truth is fully compromised. The benefits to be gained by
deception should be balanced against the risks to the respondents.
When possible, an experiment or interview should be designed to
reduce reliance on deception. In addition, the respondent’s rights and
well-being must be adequately protected. In instances where
deception in an experiment could produce anxiety, a subject’s medical
condition should be checked to ensure that no adverse physical harm
follows.

(b) Informed consent

Securing informed consent from respondents is a matter of fully
disclosing the procedures of the proposed survey or other research
design before requesting permission to proceed with the study. There
are exemptions that argue for a signed consent form. When dealing
with children, it is wise to have a parent or other person with legal
standing sign a consent form. If the researchers offer only limited
protection of confidentiality, a signed form detailing the types of limits
should be obtained. For most business research, oral consent is
sufficient.

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In situations where respondents are intentionally or accidentally

deceived, they should be debriefed once the research is complete.
Debriefing involves several activities following the collection of data
e.g.
 Explanation of any deception.
 Description of the hypothesis, goal or purpose of the study.
 Post study sharing of results.
 Post study follow-up medical or psychological attention.
According to Neuman and Wiegand (2000), a full blown consent
statement would contain the following: -
 A brief description of the purpose and procedure of the research,
including the expected duration.
 A statement of any risks, discomforts or inconveniences
associated with participation.
 A guarantee of anonymity or at least confidentiality, and an
explanation of both.
 The identification, affiliation and sponsorship of the research as
well as contact information.
 A statement that participation is completely voluntary and can be
terminated at any time without penalty.
 A statement of any procedures that may be used.
 A statement of any benefits to the class of subjects involved.
 An offer to provide a free copy of a summary of the findings.

(c) Rights to privacy

All individuals have a right to privacy and researchers must respect
that right. The privacy guarantee is important not only to retain validity
of the research but also to protect respondents. Once the guarantee of
confidentiality is given, protecting that confidentiality is essential. The
researcher can protect respondent’s confidentiality in several ways,
which include: -
 Obtaining signed nondisclosure documents
 Restricting access to respondent identification.
 Revealing respondent information only with written consent.
 Restricting access to data instruments where the respondent is
identified.
 Nondisclosure of data subsets.

Researchers should restrict access to information that reveals names,

telephone numbers, address or other identifying features. Only
researchers who have signed nondisclosure, confidentiality forms
should be allowed access to the data. Links between the data or
database and the identifying information file should be weakened.

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Individual interview response sheets should be inaccessible to

everyone except the editors and data entry personnel.

Occasionally, data collection instruments should be destroyed once the

data are in a data file. Data files that make it easy to reconstruct the
profiles or identification of individual respondents should be carefully
controlled. For very small groups, data should not be made available
because it is often easy to pinpoint a person within the group.
Employee-satisfaction survey feedback in small units can be easily
used to identify an individual through descriptive statistics.

Privacy is more than confidentiality. A right to privacy means one has

the right to refuse to be interviewed or to refuse to answer any
question in an interview. Potential participants have a right to privacy
in their own homes, including not admitting researchers and not
answering telephones. They have the right to engage in private
behaviour in private places without fear of observation. To address
these rights, ethical researchers can do the following:-
 Inform respondents of their right to refuse to answer any
questions or participate in the study.
 Obtain permission to interview respondents
 Schedule field and phone interviews.
 Limit the time required for participation.
 Restrict observation to public behaviour only.

2. Ethics and the sponsor

There are ethical considerations to keep in mind when dealing with the
research client or sponsor. Whether undertaking product, market,
personnel, financial or other research, a sponsor has the right to
receive ethically conducted research.

(a) Confidentiality
Sponsors have a right to several types of confidentiality including
sponsor nondisclosure, purpose nondisclosure and findings
nondisclosure.
 Sponsor nondisclosure: Companies have a right to dissociate
themselves from the sponsorship of a research project. Due to
the sensitive nature of the management dilemma or the research
question, sponsors may hire an outside consulting or research
firm to complete research projects. this is often done when a
company is testing a new product idea, to avoid potential
consumers from being influenced by the company’s current
image or industry standing. If a company is contemplating
entering a new market, it may not wish to reveal its plans to
competitors. In such cases, it is the responsibility of the

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researcher to respect this desire and device a plan to safeguard

the identity of the sponsor.
 Purpose nondisclosure: It involves protecting the purpose of
the study or its details. A research sponsor may be testing a new
idea that is not yet patented and may not want the competitor to
know his plans. It may be investigating employee complaints and
may not want to spark union activity. The sponsor might also be
contemplating a new public stock offering, where advance
disclosure would spark the interest of authorities or cost the firm
thousands of shillings.
 Findings nondisclosure: If a sponsor feels no need to hide its
identity or the study’s purpose, most sponsors want research
data and findings to be confidential, at least until the
management decision is made.

(b) Right to quality research

An important ethical consideration for the researcher and the sponsor
is the sponsor’s right to quality research. The right entails:
 Providing a research design appropriate for the research
question.
 Maximizing the sponsor’s value for the resources expended
 Providing data handling and reporting techniques
appropriate for the data collected.
From the proposal through the design to data analysis and the final
report, the researcher guides the sponsor on the proper techniques
and interpretations. Often sponsors would have heard about
sophisticated data handling technique and will want it used even when
it is inappropriate for the problem at hand. The researcher should
propose the design most suitable for the problem. The researcher
should not propose activities designed to maximize researcher revenue
or minimize researcher effort at the sponsor’s expense. The ethical
researcher should report findings in ways that minimize the drawing of
false conclusions. He should also use charts, graphs and tables to show
the data objectively, despite the sponsor’s preferred outcomes.

(c) Sponsor’s Ethics

Occasionally, research specialists may be asked by sponsors to
participate in unethical behaviour. Compliance by the researcher would
be a breach of ethical standards. Some examples to be avoided are:
 Violating respondent confidentiality
 Changing data or creating false data to meet a desired objective
 Changing data presentations or interpretations.
 Interpreting data from a biased perspective.
 Omitting sections of data analysis and conclusions.
 Making recommendations beyond the scope of the data collected.

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The ethical course often requires confronting the sponsor’s demand

and taking the following actions: -
 Educating the sponsor on the purpose of research
 Explain the researcher’s role in fact finding versus the sponsor’s
role in decision-making.
 Explain how distorting the truth or breaking faith with
respondents leads to future problems
 Failing moral suasion, terminate the relationship with the
sponsor.

3. Researchers and team members

Researchers have an ethical responsibility to their team’s safety as
well as their own and also protecting the anonymity of both the
sponsor and the respondent.
(a) Safety
It is the researcher’s responsibility to design a project so the safety of
all interviewers, surveyors, experimenters, or observers is protected.
Several factors may be important to consider in ensuring a
researcher’s right to safety e.g. some urban areas and undeveloped
rural areas may be unsafe for research assistants, therefore a team
member can accompany the researcher. It is unethical to require staff
members to enter an environment where they feel physically
threatened. Researchers who are insensitive to these concerns face
both research and legal risks.

(b) Ethical behaviour of assistants

Researchers should require ethical compliance from team members
just as sponsors expect ethical behaviour from the researcher.
Assistants are expected to carry out the sampling plan, to interview or
observe respondents without bias and to accurately record all
necessary data. Unethical behaviour such as filling in an interview
sheet without having asked the respondent the questions cannot be
tolerated. The behaviour of the assistants is under the direct control of
the responsible researcher or field supervisor. If an assistant behaves
improperly in an interview or shares a respondents interview sheet
with unauthorized person, it is the researcher’s responsibility. All
researchers’ assistants should be well trained and supervised.

(c) Protection of anonymity

Researchers and assistants protect the confidentiality of the sponsor’s
information and the anonymity of the respondents. Each researcher
handling data should be required to sign a confidentiality and
nondisclosure statement.

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RESEARCH DESIGN

Definition of research design

Kerlinger, N.F (1986) defines research design as
“ The plan and structure of investigation so conceived as to obtain
answers to research questions. The plan is overall scheme or program
of the research. It includes an outline of what the investigator will do
from writing hypotheses and their operational implications to the final
analysis of data….a research design expresses both the structure of
the research problem and the plan of investigation used to obtain
empirical evidence on relations of the problem”

Therefore a research design is the strategy for a study and the plan by
which the strategy is to be carried out. It specifies the methods and
procedures for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data.

ESSENTIALS OF RESEARCH DESIGN

The design:
a) Is an activity and time based plan
b) Is always based on the research question
c) Guides the selection of sources and types of information
d) Is a framework for specifying the relationships among the study’s
variables
e) Outlines procedures for every research activity.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF DESIGNS
Research can be classified using eight different descriptors as shown in the table below:
Category Options
The degree to which the  Exploratory study
research questions has been  Formal study
crystallized
The method of data  Monitoring
collection  Interrogation / communication
The power of the researcher  Experimental
to produce effects in the  Ex post facto
variables under study
The purpose of the study  Descriptive
 Causal
The time dimension  Cross-sectional
 Longitudinal
The topical scope – breath  Case
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and depth of the study  Statistical study

The research environment  Field setting
 Laboratory research
 Simulation
The participants perceptions  Actual routine
of research activity  Modified routine

1. Degree to which the research questions has been

crystallized
A study may be viewed as exploratory study or formal study. The
essential distinctions between these two options are the degree of
structure and the immediate objective of the study.
 Exploratory studies tend toward loose structures with the
objective of discovering future research tasks. Its immediate
purpose is to develop hypotheses or questions for further study.
 Formal study begins where the exploration leaves off- it begins
with a hypothesis or research question and involves precise
procedures and data source specifications. Its goal is to test the
hypotheses or answer the research questions posed.

2. Method of data collection

 Monitoring: It includes studies in which the researcher inspects
the activities of a subject or the nature of some material without
attempting to elicit responses from anyone e.g. an observation of
the actions of a group of decision makers.

 Interrogation / communication: the researcher questions the

subjects and collects their responses by personal or impersonal
means. The collected data may result from
i. Interview or telephone conversations
ii. Self-administered or self-reported instruments sent through
the mail, left in convenient locations, or transmitted
electronically or by other means
iii. Instruments presented before and / or after a treatment or
stimulus condition in an experiment.

3. Researcher control of variables

 Experimental: the researcher attempts to control and / or
manipulate the variables in the study. It is appropriate when one
wishes to discover whether certain variables produce effects in
other variables. Experimentation provides the most powerful
support for a hypothesis of causation.
 Ex post facto: Investigators have no control over the variables in
the sense of being able to manipulate them. They can only report
what has happened or what is happening. It is important that the

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researcher’s using this design do not influence the variables since

doing so will introduce bias. The researcher is limited to holding
factors constant by judicious selection of subjects according to strict
sampling procedures and by statistical manipulation of findings.

4. Purpose of the study

 Descriptive study: it is a research that is concerned with finding
out who, what, where, when, or how much.
 Causal study: It is concerned with learning why i.e. how one
variable produces changes in another. It tries to explain the
relationships among variables.

5. The time dimension

 Cross-sectional studies: they are carried out once and represent
a snapshot of one point in time.
 Longitudinal studies: are repeated over an extended period. It
tracks changes over time.
6. The topical scope
 Statistical studies: they are designated for breadth rather than
depth. They attempt to capture a population’s characteristics by
making inferences from a sample’s characteristics. Hypotheses
are tested quantitatively. Generalizations about findings are
presented based on the representativeness of the sample and the
validity of the design.

 Case studies: they place more emphasis on a full contextual

analysis of fewer events or conditions and their interrelations.
Although hypotheses are often used, the reliance on qualitative
data makes support or rejection more difficult. An emphasis on
detail provides valuable insight for problem solving, evaluation
and strategy. This detail is secured from multiple sources of
information. It allows evidence to be verified and avoids missing
data.

7. The research environment

 Field setting: it is where the research occurs under actual
environmental conditions
 Laboratory research: it is where the research occurs under
staged or manipulated conditions
 Simulation: To simulate is to replicate the essence of a system or
process. Simulations are increasingly used in operations research.
The major characteristics of various conditions and relationships in
actual situations are often represented in mathematical models.

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Role-playing and other behavioural activities may also be viewed as

simulations.

8. Participants’ perceptions
The usefulness of a design may be reduced when people in a disguised
study perceive that research is being conducted. Participants’
perceptions influence the outcomes of the research in subtle ways.
There are three levels of perception:
 Participants perceive no deviations from everyday routines
 Participants perceive deviations, but as unrelated to the researcher.
 Participants perceive deviations as researcher-induced.
In all research environments and control situations, researchers need
to be vigilant to effects that may alter their conclusions. Participant’s
perceptions serve as a reminder to classify one’s study by type, to
examine validation strengths and weaknesses and to be prepared to
qualify results accordingly.

MAJOR TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

(a) Exploratory studies
Exploration is particularly useful when researchers lack a clear idea of
the problems they will meet during the study. Through exploration
researchers develop concepts more clearly, establish priorities,
develop operational definitions and improve the final research design.
Other factors that necessitate the use of exploration are
a) To save time and money
b) If the area of investigation is new
c) Important variables may not be known or thoroughly defined
d) Hypothesis for the research may be needed
e) A researcher can explore to be sure if it is practical to do a formal
study in the area.

Despite its obvious value, researchers and managers give exploration

less attention that it deserves. Exploration is sometimes linked to old
biases about qualitative research i.e. subjective ness, non-
representativeness and non-systematic design.

When we consider the scope of qualitative research, several

approaches are adaptable for exploratory investigations of
management questions:
a) In-depth interviewing – usually conversational rather than
structured.
b) Participant observation – to perceive first hand what participants in
the setting experience
c) Films, photographs and videotapes – to capture the life of the group
under study.

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d) Case studies – for an in-depth contextual analysis of a few events or

conditions
e) Document analysis – to evaluate historical or contemporary
confidential or public records, reports, government documents and
opinions.

Where these approaches are combined, four exploratory techniques

emerge with wide applicability for the management researcher: -
a) Secondary data analysis
b) Experience surveys
c) Focus groups
d) Two-stage designs

An exploratory research is finished when the researchers have

achieved the following:
 Established the major dimensions of the research task
 Defined a set of subsidiary investigative questions that can be used
as a guide to a detailed research design.
 Developed several hypotheses about possible causes of a
management dilemma. Learned that certain other hypotheses are
such remote possibilities that they can be safely ignored in any
subsequent study.
 Concluded additional research is not needed or is not feasible.

(b) Descriptive Studies

It is the process of collecting data in order to test hypotheses or to
answer questions concerning the current status of the subjects in the
study. It determines and reports the way things are.
Provides answers to questions like Who? What? When? Where? How? It
attempts to describe such things as possible behaviour, attitudes,
values and characteristics.
(c) Causal Research
It is used to explore relationships between variables. It determines
reasons or causes for the current status of the phenomenon under
study. The variables of interest cannot be manipulated unlike in
experimental research.
Advantages of causal study
 Allows a comparison of groups without having to manipulate the
independent variables
 It can be done solely to identify variables worthy of experimental
investigation
 They are relatively cheap.
Disadvantages of causal study

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 Interpretations are limited because the researcher does not know

whether a particular variable is a cause or result of a behaviour
being studied.
 There may be a third variable which could be affecting the
established relationship but which may not be established in the
study.

(d) Correlation Methods

It describes in quantitative terms the degree to which variables are
related. It explores relationships between variables and also tries to
predict a subject’s score on one variable given his or her score on
another variable.

Advantages of the correlational method

 Permits one to analyze inter-relationships among a large number
of variables in a single study.
 Allows one to analyze how several variables either singly or in
combination might affect a particular phenomenon being studied.
 The method provides information concerning the degree of
relationship between variables being studied.

Disadvantages of the correlational method

 Correlation between two variables does not necessarily imply
causation although researchers often tend to interpret such a
relationship to mean causation.
 Since the correlation coefficient is an index, any two variables will
always show a relationship even when commonsense dictates
that such variables are not related.
 The correlation coefficient is very sensitive to the size of the
sample.

THE SAMPLE DESIGN

It refers to the techniques of the procedure the researcher would adopt
in selecting items for the sample.
Factors to consider in developing a sample design
a) Type of universe; finite or infinite
b) Sampling unit; geographic: state, district or village, construction
unit: house, flat. Social unit: family, club, school or individual.
c) Source list: sampling frame- contains all the names of all items of
a universe. The list should be comprehensive, correct, reliable
and appropriate.
d) The size of the sample. Should be efficient, representative,
reliable and flexible.
e) Parameters of interest
f) Budgetary constraint

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g) Sampling procedure.

Criteria for selecting a sampling procedure

Two costs are involved in a sampling analysis i.e. the cost of collecting
the data and the cost of an incorrect inference resulting from the data.
Two causes of incorrect inferences are systematic bias and sampling
error. A systematic bias results from errors in the sampling procedures
and it cannot be reduced or eliminated by increasing the sample size.
Systematic bias is the result of the following factors:-
 Inappropriate sampling frame
 Defective measuring device
 Non-respondents
 Indeterminancy principle – individuals act differently when kept
under observation.
 Natural bias in reporting data e.g. government tax – downward
bias, social organizations – upward bias.
Sampling errors are the random variations in the sample estimates
around a true population parameter. It decreases with the increase in
the size of the sample and it happens to be of a smaller magnitude in
case of a homogenous population. While selecting a sampling
procedure, the researcher must ensure that the procedure causes a
relatively small sampling error and helps to control the systematic bias
in a better way.

Steps in sampling design

Identification of the: -
a) Relevant population
b) Type of universe i.e. finite or infinite
c) Parameters of interest
d) Sampling frame
e) Type of sample i.e. probabilistic or non-probabilistic
f) Size of the sample needed

Characteristics of a good sample design

a) Must result in a truly representative sample
b) Must result in a small sampling error
c) Must be viable in the context of funds available for the research
study
d) Must ensure that systematic bias is controlled in a better way
e) Must be such that the results of the sample study can be applied
in general for the universe with a reasonable level of confidence.

The methodology section of a research study describes the procedures

that are to be followed in conducting the study. The techniques of
obtaining data are developed.

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Population: It’s a complete set of individuals, cases or objects with

some observable characteristics.
A census is a count of all the elements in a population.
Sample: A sample is a subset of a particular population. The target
population is that population to which a researcher wants to generalize
the results of the study. There must be a rationale for defining and
identifying the accessible population from the target population.
Sampling; It’s the process of selecting a sample from a population.

Reasons for sampling

a) Cost
b) Time: Greater speed of data collection
c) Destructive nature of certain tests
d) Greater accuracy of results
e) Physical impossibility of checking all items in the population.
f) Availability of population elements.

Characteristics of a good sample

a) Accuracy: It’s the degree to which bias is absent from the sample.
An unbiased sample is the one in which the underestimators and
the overestimators are balanced among the members of the
sample.
b) Precision of estimate: Precision is measured by the standard error
of estimate a type of standard deviation measurement. The
smaller error of estimate, the higher is the preciseness of the
sample.

Factors that influence the sample size

 Dispersion / variance: The greater the dispersion or variance within
the population, the larger the sample must be to provide
estimation precision.
 Precision of the estimate: the greater the desired precision of the
estimate, the larger the sample must be.
 Interval range: The narrower the interval range, the larger the
sample must be.
 Confidence level: The higher the confidence level in the estimate,
the larger the sample must be.
 Number of subgroups: The greater the number of subgroups of
interest within a sample, the greater the sample size must be, as
each subgroup must meet minimum sample size requirements.
 If the calculated sample size exceeds 5% of the population, sample
size may be reduced without sacrificing precision.

Sampling procedures:
There are two major ways of selecting samples;

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 Probability sampling methods

 Non - Probability sampling methods

1. Probability Sampling Methods

Samples are selected in such a way that each item or person in the
population has a known (Nonzero) likelihood of being included in the
sample.

Types of Probability sampling methods

a) Simple Random Sampling:
A sample is selected so that each item or person in the population
has the same chance of being included.
Advantages
 Easy to implement with automatic dialing and with
computerized voice response systems.
Disadvantages
 Requires a listing of population elements.
 Takes more time to implement
 Uses larger sample sizes
 Produces larger errors
 Expensive
b) Systematic Random Sampling:
The items or individuals of the population are arranged in some
manner. A random starting point is selected and then every k th
member of the population is selected for the sample.
Advantages
 Simple to design
 Easier to use than the simple random.
 Easy to determine sampling distribution of mean or proportion.
 Less expensive than simple random.
Disadvantages
 Periodicity within the population may skew the sample and
results.
 If the population list has a monotonic trend, a biased estimate
will result based on the start point.
c) Stratified Random Sampling:
A population is divided into subgroups called strata and a sample
is selected from each stratum. After the population is divided into
strata, either a proportional or a non-proportional sample can be
selected. In a proportional sample, the number of items in each
stratum is in the same proportion as in the population while in a
non-proportional sample, the number of items chosen in each
stratum is disproportionate to the respective numbers in the
population.
Advantages

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 Researcher controls sample size in strata

 Increased statistical efficiency
 Provides data to represent and analyze subgroups.
 Enables use of different methods in strata.

Disadvantages
 Increased error will result if subgroups are selected at different
rates
 Expensive especially if strata on the population have to be
created.

d) Cluster Sampling:
The population is divided into internally heterogeneous subgroups
and some are randomly selected for further study. It is used when it
is not possible to obtain a sampling frame because the population is
either very large or scattered over a large geographical area. A
multi-stage cluster sampling method can also be used.
Advantages
 Provides an unbiased estimate of population parameters if
properly done.
 Economically more efficient than simple random.
 Lowest cost per sample, especially with geographic clusters.
 Easy to do without a population list.

Disadvantages
 More error (Lower statistical efficiency) due to subgroups being
homogeneous rather the heterogeneous.

2. Non - Probability Sampling Methods

It is used when a researcher is not interested in selecting a sample that
is representative of the population.
a) Convenience or Accidental Sampling
It involves selecting cases or units of observation as they become
available to the researcher e.g. asking a question to the radio
listeners, roommates or neighbours.
b) Purposive Sampling: There are two main types; judgmental and
quota
i. Judgement Sampling: Occurs when a researcher selects sample
members to conform to some criterion. It allows the researcher to
use cases that have the required information with respect to the
objectives of his or her study e.g. educational level, age group,
religious sect etc.
ii. Quota Sampling
The researcher purposively selects subjects to fit the quotas
identified e.g.

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a) Gender: Male or Female.

b) Class Level: Graduate or Undergraduate
c) School: Humanities, Science or human resource development.
d) Religion: Muslim, Protestant, catholic, Jewish.
e) Fraternal affiliation: member or nonmember.
f) Social economic class: Upper, middle or lower.

Advantage
Widely used by pollsters, marketers and other researchers.
Disadvantages
a) It gives no assurance that the sample is representative of the
variables being studied.
b) The data used to provide controls may be outdated or
inaccurate.
c) There is a practical limit on the number of simultaneous controls
that can be applied to ensure precision.
d) Since the choice of subjects is left to field workers, they may
choose only friendly looking people.

c) Snow ball sampling

It is used when the population that possesses the characteristics under
study is not well known and can be best located through referral
networks. Initial subjects are identified who in turn identify others.
Commonly used in drug cultures, teenage gang activities, Mungiki sect,
insider trading, Mau Mau etc.

Sampling error
It’s the difference between a sample statistic and its corresponding
population parameter. The sampling distribution of the sample means
is a probability distribution of possible sample means of a given sample
size.

Statistical Inference
Sample information is used to shade some light on the population
characteristics i.e. we infer population properties based on findings on
the sample. Statistical inference falls into two main areas i.e. statistical
estimation and hypothesis testing.
Statistical Estimation: The characteristics of the sample (sample
statistic) are used to estimate or approximate some unknown
population characteristics.
Hypothesis testing: The population characteristics are known or
assumed. The sample characteristics are used to verify or ascertain
this assumed or known population characteristic. The assignment of
values to a population parameter is based on a sample is called
estimation. The values assigned to a population parameter based on

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the value of a sample statistic is called an estimate of the population

parameter. The sample statistic used to estimate a population
parameter is called an estimator. Estimation can be undertaken in
two forms namely, Point estimation or Interval estimation

Selecting the sample size to estimate a population mean

One of the most common questions asked of statisticians is, how large
should the sample taken in a survey be? The answer to this question
depends on three factors:-
i. The parameter to be estimated

ii. The desired confidence level of the interval estimator

iii. The maximum error of estimation, where error of estimation is

the absolute difference between the point estimator and the
parameter e.g. the point estimator of is so that the error of
estimation

The maximum error of estimation is also called the error bound and is
denoted B.
Suppose the parameter of interest in an experiment is the population
mean . The confidence interval estimator (assuming a normal
population, with the population variance known) is . If we want
to estimate to within a certain specified bound B, we will want the
confidence interval estimator to be . As a consequence, we have

. Solving for , we get the following result

A popular method of approximating is to begin by approximating the

range of the random variable. A conservative estimate of is the range
divided by 4 i.e. . This produces a larger value of , which
results in a larger value of , which then estimates with an interval at
least as good as was specified.
Examples
1. A production manager would like to estimate the mean time
required for workers to complete a task on an assembly line.
Assume that she knows that is 80 seconds. How large a sample
should she draw to estimate to within 5 seconds with (i) 90%
confidence (ii) 95% confidence (iii) 99% confidence

2. Find , given that we want to estimate to within 10 units with 95%

confidence, assuming that

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3. The operations manager of a large production plant would like to

estimate the average amount of time a worker takes to assemble a
new electronic component. After observing a number of workers
assembling similar devices, she noted that the shortest time taken
was 10 minutes and the longest time taken was 22 minutes. How
large a sample of workers should she take if she wants to estimate
the mean assembly time to within 20 seconds? Assume that the
confidence level is to be 99%.

4. Determine the sample size necessary to estimate to within 10

units with 99% confidence. We know that the range of the
population is 200 units.

Selecting the sample size to estimate a population proportion

The sample size necessary to estimate p is

1. The manager of a bank feels that 35% of branches will have

enhanced yearly collection of deposits after introducing a hike in
interest rate. Determine the sample size such that the mean
proportion is within plus or minus 0.06 at a confidence level of (i)
90% (ii) 95% and (iii) 99%.

2. How large a sample should be taken in order to estimate to within

0.01 with 95% confidence ? assume that

a) You have no information about the value of

b) is believed to be approximately 0.10

c) is believed to be approximately 0.90

3. The director of a management school feels that 55% of students will

have enhanced performance if additional input is given to them.
Determine the sample size such that the mean proportion is within
plus or minus 0.10 at a confidence level of 95%.

MEASUREMENT
Introduction

While people measure things casually in daily life, research

measurement is more precise and controlled. In measurement, one
settles for measuring properties of the objects rather than the objects

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themselves. An event is measured in terms of its duration i.e. what

happened during it, who was involved, where it occurred etc.
Measurement is the basis for all systematic inquiry because it provides
us with the tools for recording differences in the outcome of variable
change.

Definition of Measurement

Measurement is the procedure by which we assign numerals, numbers,

or other distinguishing values to variables according to rules. These
rules help us determine the kinds of values we will assign to certain
observable phenomena or variables. They also determine the quality
of measurement. Precision and exactness in measurement are vitally
important. The measures are what are actually used to test the
hypotheses. A researcher needs good measures for both independent
and dependent variables.

Measurement is a three – part process that includes:-

a) Selecting observable empirical events

b) Developing a set of mapping rules: a scheme for assigning
numbers or symbols to represent aspects of the event being
measured.

c) Applying the mapping rules to each observation of that event

Mapping rules have four characteristics:-

a) Classification: Numbers are used to group or sort responses.

No order exists.
b) Order: Numbers are ordered. One number is greater than, less
than or equal to another number.

c) Distance: Differences between numbers are ordered. The

difference between any pair of numbers is greater than, less
than or equal to the difference between any other pair of
numbers.

d) Origin: The number series has a unique origin indicated by the

number zero. This is an absolute and meaningful zero point.

Measurement consists of two basic processes called

conceptualization and Operationalization, then an advanced
process called determining the levels of measurement, and then
even more advanced methods of measuring reliability and validity.

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Conceptualization is the process of taking a construct or concept and

refining it by giving it a conceptual or theoretical definition. Ordinary
dictionary definitions will not do. Instead, the researcher takes
keywords in their research question or hypothesis and finds a clear and
consistent definition that is agreed-upon by others in the scientific
community. Conceptualization is often guided by the theoretical
framework, perspective, or approach the researcher is committed to.

Operationalization is the process of taking a conceptual definition

and making it more precise by linking it to one or more specific,
concrete indicators or operational definitions. These are usually things
with numbers in them that reflect empirical or observable reality. For
example, if the type of crime one has chosen to study is theft (as
representative of crime in general), creating an operational definition
for it means at least choosing between petty theft and grand theft
(false taking of less or more than $150).

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

A level of measurement is a scale by which a variable is measured.

For 50 years, with few detractors, science has used the Stevens (1951)
typology of measurement levels (scales). There are three things to
remember about this typology:

 Anything that can be measured falls into one of the four types;
 The higher the level of measurement, the more precision in
measurement; and

 Every level up contains all the properties of the previous level.

The four levels of measurement, from lowest to highest, are:

a) Nominal level. The observations are classified under a common

characteristic e.g. sex, race, marital status, employment status,
language, religion etc. helps in sampling.
b) Ordinal level: items or subjects are not only grouped into
categories, but they are ranked into some order e.g. greater
than, less than, superior, happier than, poorer, above etc. helps
in developing a likert scale.
c) Interval level: numerals are assigned to each measure and
ranked. The intervals between numerals are equal. The numerals
used represent meaningful quantities but the zero point is not
meaningful e.g. test scores, temperature.
d) Ratio level: has all the characteristics of the other levels and in
addition the zero point is meaningful. Mathematical operations

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can be applied to yield meaningful values e.g. height, weight,

distance, age, area etc.

Sources of measurement differences

The ideal study should be designed and controlled for precise and
unambiguous measurement of the variables. Since 100% control is
unattainable, error occurs. Much potential error is systematic (results
from a bias) while the remainder is random (occurs erratically). Some
of the major sources of error are:
(a) The respondent: opinion differences that affect measurement
come from relatively stable characteristics of the respondent e.g.
employee status, ethnic group and social class. Temporary factors
like fatigue, boredom, anxiety and other distractions also limit the
ability to respond accurately and fully. Hunger, impatience or
general variations in mood will also have an impact.
(b) The situational factors: any condition that places a strain on
the interview or measurement session can have serious effects on
the interviewer – respondent rapport. If another person is present,
that person can distort responses by joining in, by distracting or
by merely being present. If the respondents believe anonymity is
not ensured, they may be reluctant to express certain feelings.
(c) The measurer: the interviewer can distort responses by re-
wording, paraphrasing, or re-ordering questions. Stereotypes in
appearance and action introduce bias. Inflections of voice or
unconscious prompting with smiles and nods may encourage or
discourage certain replies. Incorrect coding, careless tabulation
and faulty statistical calculation may introduce further errors in
data analysis.
(d) The data collection instrument: a defective instrument can
cause distortion in two major ways:
 It can be too confusing and ambiguous e.g. the use of
complex words, leading questions, ambiguous meanings,
multiple questions.
 Leads to poor selection from the universe of content items.
Seldom does the instrument explore all the potentially
important issues.


TYPES OF VARIABLES

A variable is a measurable characteristic that assumes different values

among the subjects. According to Mugenda and Mugenda (2003),
variables can be classified into the following categories: -

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1. Independent variables / Predictor variables

It is a variable that a researcher manipulates in order to determine its
effect or influence on another variable. They predict the amount of
variation that occurs in another variables.

Types of independent variables

i. Experimental variables: They are variables which the
researcher has manipulative control over them. Are commonly
used in biological and physical sciences e.g. influence of amount
of fertilizer on the yield of wheat, influence of alcohol on reaction
time.

ii. Measurement types of independent variables: Are

variables, which have already occurred. They have fixed
manipulative and uninfluenceable properties. Most of the
variables are either environmental or personalogical e.g. age,
gender, marital status, race, colour, geographical location,
nationality, soil type, altitude etc. (e.g. influence of nationality on
choice of food).

2. Dependent variables / criterion variables

It is the variable that is measured, predicted or monitored and is
expected to be affected by manipulation of an independent variable.
They attempt to indicate the total influence arising from the effects of
the independent variable. It varies as a function of the independent
variable e.g. influence of hours studied on performance in a statistical
test, influence of distance from the supply center on cost of building
materials.

3. Extraneous variables
They are those variables that affect the outcome of a research study
either because the researcher is not aware of their existence or if the
researcher is aware, she or he has no control over them.

Extraneous variables are often classified into three types:

a) Subject variables, which are the characteristics of the

individuals being studied that might affect their actions. These
variables include age, gender, health status, mood, background,
etc.
b) Experimental variables are characteristics of the persons
conducting the experiment which might influence how a person
behaves. Gender, the presence of racial discrimination,
language, or other factors may qualify as such variables.

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c) Situational variables are features of the environment in which

the study or research was conducted, which have a bearing on
the outcome of the experiment in a negative way. Included are
the air temperature, level of activity, lighting, and the time of
day.
4. Control variables / concomitant / covariate or blocking
variables
They are extraneous variables that are built into the study. Extraneous
variables are variables, which influence the results of a study when
they are not controlled.

Reasons for introducing control variables:

 It increases the validity of the data.
 It leads to more convincing generalizations.

Since absolute control of extraneous variables is not possible in any

study, results are interpreted on the basis of degrees of confidence
rather than certainty.

Once the major extraneous variables are identified, the researcher can
control them by:-
i. Building the extraneous variable into the study: i.e. including it
as an independent variable. E.g. in determining the effect of
alcohol on reaction time, sex may influence reaction time.
Therefore, sex can be introduced as an independent variable.
Using regression, one can measure the effect of alcohol on
reaction time, controlling sex.
ii. Include them in the study but only at one level e.g. time is the
dependent variable, alcohol level - the independent and sex the
extraneous variable. Sex can be controlled by sampling only
females or males of a given age. The disadvantage of this
method is that generalizations are limited to a smaller
population.
iii. By removing the effects of the extraneous variables by statistical
procedures i.e. by siphoning its effects on the dependent
variable. This can be done by:
 Analysis of co-variance
 Partial correlation.
5. Intervening variables

They are a special case of extraneous variables. The difference

between the intervening and extraneous variables is in the assumed
relationship among the variables. An intervening variable is a
hypothetical internal state that is used to explain relationships
between observed variables, such as independent and dependent

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variables, in empirical research. With an extraneous variable, there is

no causal link between the independent and dependent variable, but
they are independently associated with a third variable – the
extraneous variable. An intervening variable is recognized as being
caused by the independent variable and as being a determinant of the
dependent variable.

Independent intervening dependent

The total effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable

can be subdivided into direct and indirect effects.

 Indirect effects are those effects of an intervening variable.

 Direct effects are not transmitted through another variable.

The choice of the right intervening variables helps one not only to
determine accurately the total effects of an independent variable on
the dependent variable but also partition the total effects into direct
and indirect.

Examples of intervening variables include: motivation, intelligence,

intention, and expectation.

6. Antecedent variables

They do not interfere with the established relationship between an

independent and dependent variable but clarifies the influence that
precedes such a relationship.

Antecedent independent dependent

Conditions that must hold for a variable to be classified as a

antecedent variable:-

 The variables including the antecedent variable must be related in

some logical sequence.
 When the antecedent variable is controlled for, the relationship
between the independent and the dependent variables should not
disappear. Rather it should be enhanced.

 When the independent variable is controlled for or its influence

removed, there should not be any relationship between the
antecedent variable and the dependent variable.

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e.g. political stability – attracts investors – increased job opportunities –

high standards of living – reduction of poverty.

7. Suppressor variables

It is an extraneous variable which when not controlled for, removes a

relationship between the two variables. When a suppressor variable is
introduced in the study as a control variable, a true relationship
emerges.

8. Distorter variables

It is a variable that converts what was thought of as a positive

relationship into a negative relationship and vice-versa. Its effects lead
a researcher into drawing erroneous conclusions from the data. When
the distorter variable is controlled, a true relationship is obtained.
Consideration of distorter variables in a study reduces the chances of
making a type I (rejecting a true null hypothesis) or type two error
(accepting a false null hypothesis).

9. Exogenous and endogenous variables

They are commonly used in testing hypothesized causal models. Path

analysis ( a procedure that tests causal links among several variables)
is often used in testing the validity of causal relationships in a theory
or model.

A C

B D

C and D are called endogenous variables. Each endogenous variable is

caused or explained by the variable that precedes it. E.g. D is caused
by A, B and C.

A and B are called exogenous variables. They lack hypothesized causes

in the model.

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Validity and Reliability in Research

The quality of a research study depends to a large extent on the

accuracy of the data collection procedures. Reliability and validity
measures the relevance and correctness of the data.

Reliability

Reliability is the extent to which an experiment, test, or any measuring

procedure yields the same result on repeated trials. Without the
agreement of independent observers able to replicate research
procedures, or the ability to use research tools and procedures that
yield consistent measurements, researchers would be unable to
satisfactorily draw conclusions, formulate theories, or make claims
about the generalizability of their research. In addition to its important
role in research, reliability is critical for many parts of our lives,
including manufacturing, medicine and sports. Reliability is such an
important concept that it has been defined in terms of its application to
a wide range of activities.

Reliability is influenced by random error. Random error is the deviation

from a true measurement due to factors that have not effectively been
addressed by the researcher. As random error increases, reliability
decreases.

Causes of random error

 Inaccurate coding
 Ambiguous instruction to the subjects
 Interviewer’s fatigue
 Interviewee’s fatigue
 Interviewer’s bias
Research instruments yield data that have two components; the true
value or score and an error component. The error component of the
data reflects the limitations of the instrument. There are three types of
errors that arise at the time of data collection;
 Error due to the inaccuracy of the instrument
 Error due to the inaccuracy of scoring by the researcher
 Unexplained error

Ways of Assessing Reliability

 Test-Retest
 Equivalent form
 Internal consistency
 Interrater reliability

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1. The Test-Retest technique

It involves administering the same instruments twice to the same
group of subjects, but after some time. Stability reliability (sometimes
called test, re-test reliability) is the agreement of measuring
instruments over time. To determine stability, a measure or test is
repeated on the same subjects at a future date. Results are compared
and correlated with the initial test to give a measure of stability.

An example of stability reliability would be the method of maintaining

weights used by the Kenya Bureau of Standards. Platinum objects of
fixed weight (one kilogram, half kilogram, etc...) are kept locked away.
Once a year they are taken out and weighed, allowing scales to be
reset so they are "weighing" accurately. Keeping track of how much
the scales are off from year to year establishes stability reliability for
these instruments. In this instance, the platinum weights themselves
are assumed to have a perfectly fixed stability reliability
Disadvantages
 Subjects may be sensitized by the first testing hence will do better
in the second test
 Difficulty in establishing a reasonable period between the two
testing sessions.

2. Equivalent form

Equivalent reliability is the extent to which two items measure identical

concepts at an identical level of difficulty. Equivalency reliability is
determined by relating two sets of test scores to one another to
highlight the degree of relationship or association. In quantitative
studies and particularly in experimental studies, a correlation
coefficient, statistically referred to as r, is used to show the strength of
the correlation between a dependent variable (the subject under
study), and one or more independent variable, which are manipulated
to determine effects on the dependent variable. An important
consideration is that equivalency reliability is concerned with
correlational, not causal, relationships.

For example, a researcher studying university Bachelor of commerce

students happened to notice that when some students were studying
for finals, their holiday shopping began. Intrigued by this, the
researcher attempted to observe how often, or to what degree, these
two behaviors co-occurred throughout the academic year. The
researcher used the results of the observations to assess the
correlation between studying throughout the academic year and
shopping for gifts. The researcher concluded there was poor

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equivalency reliability between the two actions. In other words,

studying was not a reliable predictor of shopping for gifts.

Two instruments are used. Specific items in each form are different but
they are designed to measure the same concept. They are the same in
number, structure and level of difficulty e.g. TOEFL, GRE

Advantages
 Estimates the stability of the data as well as the equivalence of the
items in the two forms

Disadvantages
 Difficulty in constructing two tests, which measure the same
concept (time and resources).

3. Internal consistency technique

Internal consistency is the extent to which tests or procedures assess
the same characteristic, skill or quality. It is a measure of the precision
between the observers or of the measuring instruments used in a
study. This type of reliability often helps researchers interpret data and
predict the value of scores and the limits of the relationship among
variables.
For example, a researcher designs a questionnaire to find out about
college students' dissatisfaction with a particular textbook. Analyzing
the internal consistency of the survey items dealing with
dissatisfaction will reveal the extent to which items on the
questionnaire focus on the notion of dissatisfaction.

4. Interrater reliability
Interrater reliability is the extent to which two or more individuals
(coders or raters) agree. Interrater reliability addresses the consistency
of the implementation of a rating system.
A test of interrater reliability would be the following scenario: Two or
more researchers are observing a high school classroom. The class is
discussing a movie that they have just viewed as a group. The
researchers have a sliding rating scale (1 being most positive, 5 being
most negative) with which they are rating the student's oral responses.
Interrater reliability assesses the consistency of how the rating system
is implemented. For example, if one researcher gives a "1" to a student
response, while another researcher gives a "5," obviously the interrater
reliability would be inconsistent. Interrater reliability is dependent upon
the ability of two or more individuals to be consistent. Training,
education and monitoring skills can enhance interrater reliability.

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Ways of improving reliability

 Minimize external sources of variation
 Standardize conditions under which measurements occurs
 Improve investigator consistency by using only well trained,
supervised and motivated persons to conduct the research
 Broaden the sample of measurement questions by adding similar
questions to the data collection instrument or adding more
observers or occasions to an observation study.
 Improve internal consistency of an instrument by excluding data
from analysis drawn from measurement questions eliciting extreme
responses.

Validity

Validity refers to the degree to which a study accurately reflects or

assesses the specific concept that the researcher is attempting to
measure. It is the degree to which results obtained from the analysis
of data actually represent the phenomenon under study. It is the
accuracy and meaningfulness of inferences, which are based on the
research results. It has to do with how accurately the data obtained in
the study represents the variables of the study. If such data is a true
reflection of the variables, then inferences based on such data will be
accurate and meaningful. Validity is largely determined by the
presence or absence of systematic error in the data e.g. using a faulty
scale to measure.

Types of validity
(a) Construct validity

Construct validity seeks agreement between a theoretical concept and

a specific measuring device or procedure. For example, a researcher
inventing a new IQ test might spend a great deal of time attempting to
"define" intelligence in order to reach an acceptable level of construct
validity.

Construct validity can be broken down into two sub-categories:

Convergent validity and discriminate validity. Convergent validity is
the actual general agreement among ratings, gathered independently
of one another, where measures should be theoretically related.
Discriminate validity is the lack of a relationship among measures
which theoretically should not be related.

To understand whether a piece of research has construct validity, three

steps should be followed. First, the theoretical relationships must be
specified. Second, the empirical relationships between the measures of

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the concepts must be examined. Third, the empirical evidence must be

interpreted in terms of how it clarifies the construct validity of the
particular measure being tested.

(b) Content validity

Content Validity is based on the extent to which a measurement
reflects the specific intended domain of content.
Content validity can be illustrated using the following examples:
Researchers aim to study mathematical learning and create a survey
to test for mathematical skill. If these researchers only tested for
multiplication and then drew conclusions from that survey, their study
would not show content validity because it excludes other
mathematical functions. Although the establishment of content validity
for placement-type exams seems relatively straight-forward, the
process becomes more complex as it moves into the more abstract
domain of socio-cultural studies. For example, a researcher needing to
measure an attitude like self-esteem must decide what constitutes a
relevant domain of content for that attitude. For socio-cultural studies,
content validity forces the researchers to define the very domains they
are attempting to study.

The usual procedure in assessing the content validity of a measure is

to use professional or experts in the particular field. The instrument is
given to two groups of experts, one group is requested to assess what
concept the instrument is trying to measure. The other group is asked
to determine whether the set of items or checklist accurately
represents the concept under study.

(c) Criterion related validity

Criterion related validity, also referred to as instrumental validity, is
used to demonstrate the accuracy of a measure or procedure by
comparing it with another measure or procedure which has been
demonstrated to be valid. For example, imagine a hands-on driving
test has been shown to be an accurate test of driving skills. By
comparing the scores on the written driving test with the scores from
the hands-on driving test, the written test can be validated by using a
criterion related strategy in which the hands-on driving test is
compared to the written test.
Types
a) Predictive validity – refers to the degree to which obtained
data predicts the future behaviour of subjects e.g. B. Com
graduates
b) Concurrent validity- refers to the degree to which data are
able to predict the behaviour of subjects in the present and not
in the future e.g. psychiatry

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Internal and external validity

Researchers should be concerned with both external and internal
validity.
a) External validity refers to the extent to which the results of a
study are generalizable or transferable. External validity is the
degree to which research findings can be generalized to
populations and environments outside the experimental setting.
It has to do with representativeness of the sample with regard to
the target population.
b) Internal validity refers to (1) the rigor with which the study was
conducted (e.g., the study's design, the care taken to conduct
measurements, and decisions concerning what was and wasn't
measured) and (2) the extent to which the designers of a study
have taken into account alternative explanations for any causal
relationships they explore. In studies that do not explore causal
relationships, only the first of these definitions should be
considered when assessing internal validity. Internal validity
depends on the degree to which extraneous variables have been
controlled for in the study
Internal and external validity are inversely related to each other.

Threats to internal validity

a) History – refers to occurrence of events that influence
experimental units during t he course of the study
b) Maturation – refers to the biological or psychological processes
which occur among the subjects in a relatively short time and
which influence research findings
c) Instrumentation -
d) Pre-testing – solution – use equivalent form tests
e) Statistical regression
f) Attrition- subjects dropping out of the study before completion-
leads to error, biasness in the sample
g) Differential selection – occurs when subjects are systematically
selected for a study - volunteers and non-volunteers – biasness
leads error
h) Selection – maturation interaction
i) Ambiguity - when correlation is taken for causation
j) Apprehension - when people are scared to respond to your study
k) Demoralization - when people get bored with your measurements
l) Diffusion - when people figure out your test and start mimicking
symptoms

Threats to external validity

a) Accessible and target population

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b) Control of extraneous variables

c) Pre-test treatment interaction
d) Explicit description of the sample
e) Multi-treatment interference

RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

The research instruments that are widely used include

a) Questionnaires
b) Interviews
c) Observations

QUESTIONNAIRES
Each item in the questionnaire is developed to address a specific
objective, research question or hypothesis of the study. The researcher
must also know how information obtained from each questionnaire
item will be analysed.

Types of questions used in questionnaires

1 Structured or closed-ended questions
They are questions, which are accompanied by a list of possible
alternatives from which respondents select the answer that best
describes their situation.
Advantages of Structured or closed-ended questions
 They are easier to analyse since they are in an immediate usable
form
 They are easier to administer
 They are economical to use in terms of time and money

Disadvantages of Structured or closed-ended questions

 They are more difficult to construct
 Responses are limited and the respondent is compelled to answer
questions according to the researcher’s choices

2 Unstructured or open – ended questions

They refer to questions, which give the respondent complete freedom
of response. The amount of space provided is always an indicator of
whether a brief or lengthy answer is desired.

Advantages of Unstructured or open – ended questions

 They permit a greater depth of response
 They are simple to formulate
 The respondent’s responses may give an insight into his feelings,
background, hidden motives, interest and decisions.

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Disadvantages of Unstructured or open – ended questions

 There is a tendency of the respondents providing information, which
does not answer the stipulated research questions or objectives.
 The responses given may be difficult to categorize and hence
difficult to analyze quantitatively
 Responding to open ended questions is time consuming, which may
put some respondent off.

3 Contingency questions
In particular cases, certain questions are applicable to certain groups
of respondents. In such cases, follow-up questions are needed to get
further information from the relevant sub-group only. These
subsequent questions, which are asked after the initial questions, are
called ‘contingency questions’ or ‘ filter questions’. The purpose of
these kinds of questions is to probe for more information. They also
simplify the respondent’s task, in that they will not be required to
answer questions that are not relevant to them.

4 Matrix questions
These are questions, which share the same set of response categories.
They are used whenever scales like likert scale are being used.

Advantages of matrix questions

 When questions or items are presented in matrix form, they are
easier to complete and hence the respondent is unlikely not to be
put off.
 Space is used efficiently
 It is easy to compare responses given to different items.

Disadvantages of matrix questions

 Some respondents, especially the ones that may not be too keen to
give right responses, might form a pattern of agreeing or
disagreeing with statements.
 Some researchers use them when in fact the kind of information
being sought could better be obtained in another format.

Rules for constructing questionnaires and questionnaire items

1. List the objectives that you want the questionnaire to accomplish
before constructing the questionnaire.
2. Determine how information obtained from each questionnaire
item will be analyzed.
3. Ensure clarity and avoid ambiguity.
4. If a concept has several meanings and that concept must be
used in a question, the intended meaning must be defined.
5. Construct short questions.

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6. Items should be stated positively as possible.

7. Double-barreled items should be avoided.
8. Leading and biased questions should be avoided.
9. Very personal and sensitive questions should be avoided.
10. Simple words that are easily understandable should be
used.
11. Questions that assume facts with no evidence should be
avoided.
12. Avoid psychologically threatening questions.
13. Include enough information in each item so that it is
meaningful to the respondent.

Tips on how to organize or order items in a questionnaire

1. Begin with non-threatening, interesting items.
2. It is not advisable to put important questions at the end of a long
questionnaire.
3. Have some logical order when putting items together.
4. Arrange the questions according to themes being studied.
5. If the questionnaire is arranged into content sub-sections, each
section should be introduced with a short statement concerning
its content and purpose.
6. Socio-economic questions should be asked at the end because
respondents may be put off by personal questions at the
beginning of the questionnaire.

Presentation of the questionnaire

1. Make the questionnaire attractive by using quality paper. It
increases the response rate.
2. Organize and lay out the questions so that the questionnaire is easy
to complete.
3. All the pages and items in a questionnaire should be numbered.
4. Brief but clear instruction must be included.
5. Make your questionnaire short.

Pretesting the questionnaire

The questionnaire should be pretested to a selected sample, which is
similar to the actual sample, which the researcher plans to study. This
is important because:-
 Questions that are vague will be revealed in the sense that the
respondents will interpret them differently.
 Comments and suggestions made by respondents during
pretesting should be seriously considered and incorporated.
 Pretesting will reveal deficiencies in the questionnaire.
 It helps to test whether the methods of analysis are appropriate.

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Ways of administering questionnaires

Questionnaires are mainly administered using three methods:
i. Self administered questionnaires
Questionnaires are send to the respondents through mail or hand-
delivery, and they complete on their own.
ii. Researcher administered questionnaires
The researcher can decide to use the questionnaire to interview the
respondents. This is mostly done when the subjects may not have
the ability to easily interpret the questions probably because of
their educational level.
iii. Use of the internet
The people sampled for the research receive and respond to the
questionnaires through their web sites or e-mail addresses.

The letter of transmittal / Cover letter

The letter of transmittal / Cover letter should accompany every
questionnaire.
Contents of a letter of transmittal
 It should explain the purpose of the study.
 It should explain the importance and significance of the study.
 A brief assurance of confidentiality should be included in the letter.
 If the study is affiliated to a certain institution or organisation, it is
advisable to have an endorsement from such an institution or
organisation.
 In a sensitive research, it may be necessary to assure the
anonymity of respondents.
 The letter should contain specific deadline dates by which the
completed questionnaire is to be returned.

Follow-up techniques
 Sending a follow-up letter which should be polite, and asking the
subjects to respond
 A questionnaire and a follow-up letter.

Response rate
It refers to the percentage of subjects who respond to questionnaires.
Many authors believe that a response rate of 50% is adequate for
analysis and reporting. If the response rate is low, the researcher must
question the representativeness of the sample.

INTERVIEWS
An interview is an oral (face to face) administration of a questionnaire
or an interview schedule. To obtain accurate information through
interviews, a researcher needs to obtain the maximum co-operation
from respondents. Interviews are particularly useful for getting the

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story behind a participant's experiences. The interviewer can pursue

in-depth information around a topic. Interviews may be useful as
follow-up to certain respondents to questionnaires, e.g., to further
investigate their responses. Usually open-ended questions are asked
during interviews.

Guidelines for preparation for Interview

1. Choose a setting with little distraction. Avoid loud lights or noises,
ensure the interviewee is comfortable (you might ask them if they
are), etc. Often, they may feel more comfortable at their own places
of work or homes.
2. Explain the purpose of the interview.
3. Address terms of confidentiality. Note any terms of confidentiality.
(Be careful here. Rarely can you absolutely promise anything.
Courts may get access to information, in certain circumstances.)
Explain who will get access to their answers and how their answers
will be analyzed. If their comments are to be used as quotes, get
their written permission to do so.
4. Explain the format of the interview. Explain the type of interview
you are conducting
and its nature. If you want them to ask questions, specify if they're
to do so as they have them or wait until the end of the interview.
5. Indicate how long the interview usually takes.
6. Tell them how to get in touch with you later if they want to.
7. Ask them if they have any questions before you both get started
with the interview.
8. Don't count on your memory to recall their answers. Ask for
permission to record the interview or bring along someone to take
notes.

Types of Interviews approaches

(a) Informal, conversational interview - no predetermined questions
are asked, in order to remain as open and adaptable as possible
to the interviewee's nature and priorities; during the interview,
the interviewer "goes with the flow".
(b) General interview guide approach - the guide approach is
intended to ensure that the same general areas of information
are collected from each interviewee; this provides more focus
than the conversational approach, but still allows a degree of
freedom and adaptability in getting information from the
interviewee.
(c) Standardized, open-ended interview - here, the same open-
ended questions are asked to all interviewees (an open-ended
question is where respondents are free to choose how to answer
the question, i.e., they don't select "yes" or "no" or provide a

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numeric rating, etc.); this approach facilitates faster interviews

that can be more easily analyzed and compared
(d) Closed, fixed-response interview - where all interviewees are
asked the same questions and asked to choose answers from
among the same set of alternatives. This format is useful for
those not practiced in interviewing.

Sequence of Questions
1. Get the respondents involved in the interview as soon as
possible.
2. Before asking about controversial matters (such as feelings and
conclusions), first ask about some facts. With this approach,
respondents can more easily engage in the interview before
warming up to more personal matters.
3. Intersperse fact-based questions throughout the interview to
avoid long lists of fact-based questions, which tends to leave
respondents disengaged.
4. Ask questions about the present before questions about the past
or future. It's usually easier for them to talk about the present
and then work into the past or future.
5. The last questions might be to allow respondents to provide any
other information they prefer to add and their impressions of the
interview.

Wording of Questions
 Wording should be open-ended. Respondents should be able to
choose their own terms when answering questions.
 Questions should be as neutral as possible. Avoid wording that
might influence answers, e.g., evocative, judgmental wording.
 Questions should be asked one at a time.
 Questions should be worded clearly. This includes knowing any
terms particular to the program or the respondents' culture.
 Be careful asking "why" questions. This type of question infers a
cause-effect relationship that may not truly exist. These
questions may also cause respondents to feel defensive, e.g.,
that they have to justify their response, which may inhibit their
responses to this and future questions.

While Carrying Out Interview

 Occasionally verify the tape recorder (if used) is working.
 Ask one question at a time.
 Attempt to remain as neutral as possible. That is, don't show
strong emotional reactions to their responses. Patton suggests to
act as if "you've heard it all before."

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 Encourage responses with occasional nods of the head, "uh

huh"s, etc.
 Be careful about the appearance when note taking. That is, if you
jump to take a note, it may appear as if you're surprised or very
pleased about an answer, which may influence answers to future
questions.
 Provide transition between major topics, e.g., "we've been talking
about (some topic) and now I'd like to move on to (another
topic)."
 Don't lose control of the interview. This can occur when
respondents stray to another topic, take so long to answer a
question that times begins to run out, or even begin asking
questions to the interviewer.

Immediately After Interview

 Verify if the tape recorder, if used, worked throughout the
interview.
 Make any notes on your written notes, e.g., to clarify any
scratchings, ensure pages are numbered, fill out any notes that
don't make senses, etc.
 Write down any observations made during the interview. For
example, where did the interview occur and when, was the
respondent particularly nervous at any time? Were there any
surprises during the interview? Did the tape recorder break?

Personal interviews
People selected to be part of the sample are interviewed in person by a
trained interviewer.
Requirements for success
Three broad conditions must be met in order to have a successful
personal interview:
 The participant must possess the information being targeted by the
investigative questions
 The participant must understand his or her role in the interview as
the provider of accurate information
 The participant must perceive adequate motivation to cooperate

Increasing the participant’s receptiveness

The first goal in an interview is to establish a friendly relationship with
the participant. Three factors will help increase participant
receptiveness. The participant must:
 Believe that the experience will be pleasant and satisfying
 Believe that answering the survey is an important and worthwhile
use of his or her time

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 Dismiss any mental reservations that he or she might have about

participation.

The technique of stimulating participants to answer more fully and

relevantly is termed probing. Since it presents a great potential for
bias, a probe should be neutral and appear as a natural part of the
conversation. Appropriate probes should be specified by the designer
of the data collection instrument. There are several probing styles e.g.
 A brief assertion of understanding and interest e.g. comments such
as “I see” “yes”.
 An expectant pause
 Repeating the question
 Repeating the participant’s reply
 A neutral question or comment
 Question clarification.

Problems likely to be encountered during personal interviews

In personal interviews, the researcher must deal with bias and cost.
Biased results is as a result of three types of errors:
(a) Sampling error
It’s the difference between a sample statistic and its corresponding
population parameter. The sampling distribution of the sample
means is a probability distribution of possible sample means of a
given sample size.

(b) Non-response error

This occurs when the responses of participants differ in some
systematic way from the responses of non-participants. It occurs when
the researcher:
 Cannot locate the person to be studied
 Is unsuccessful in encouraging that person to participate
Solutions to reduce errors of non-response are
 Establishing and implementing callback procedures
 Creating a non response sample and weighting results from
this sample
 Substituting another individual for the missing non-participant.
(c) Response error
Occurs when the data reported differ from the actual data. It can occur
during the interview or during preparation of data analysis.
 Participant-initiated error occurs when the participant fails to
answer fully and accurately either by choice or because of
inaccurate or incomplete knowledge. Can be solved by using trained
interviewers who are knowledgeable about such problems.
 Interviewer error can be caused by:-
- Failure to secure full participant cooperation

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- Failure to consistently execute interview procedures

- Failure to establish appropriate interview environment
- Falsification of individual answers or whole interviews
- Inappropriate influencing behavior
- Failure to record answers accurately and completely
- Physical presence bias.

Advantages of Personal interviews

 Good cooperation from the respondents
 Interviewer can answer questions about survey, probe for
answers, use follow-up questions and gather information by
observation.
 Special visual aids and scoring devices can be used.
 Illiterate and functionally illiterate respondents can be reached
 Interviewer can prescreen respondent to ensure he / she fits the
population profile.
 Responses can be entered directly into a portable microcomputer
to reduce error and cost when using computer assisted personal
interviewing.

Disadvantages of Personal interviews

 High costs
 Need for highly trained interviewers
 Longer period needed in the field collecting data
 May be wide geographic dispersion
 Follow-up is labor intensive
 Not all respondents are available or accessible
 Some respondents are unwilling to talk to strangers in their
homes
 Some neighborhoods are difficult to visit
 Questions may be altered or respondent coached by
interviewers.

Telephone interviews
People selected to be part of the sample are interviewed on the
telephone by a trained interviewer.
Advantages of Telephone interviews
 Lower costs than personal interviews
 Expanded geographic coverage without dramatic increase in costs
 Uses fewer, more highly skilled interviewers
 Reduced interview bias
 Fates completion time
 Better access to hard-to-reach respondents through repeated
callbacks
 Can use computerized random digit dialing

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 Responses can be entered directly into a computer file to reduce

error and cost when using computer assisted telephone
interviewing.

Disadvantages of Telephone interviews

 Response rate is lower than for personal interview
 Higher costs if interviewing geographically dispersed sample
 Interview sample must be limited
 Many phone numbers are unlisted or not working, making directory
listings unreliable
 Some target groups are not available by phone
 Responses may be less complete
 Illustrations cannot be used.
 Respondents may not be honest with their responses since it is not
a face to face situation

Rules pertaining to interviews

The interviewer must
 Be pleasant
 Show genuine interest in getting to know respondents without
appearing like spies.
 Be relaxed and friendly.
 Be very familiar with the questionnaire or the interview guide.
 Have a guide which indicates what questions are to be asked and
in what order.
 Interact with the respondent as an equal.
 Pretest the interview guide before using it to check for vocabulary,
language level and how well the questions will be understood.
 Inform the respondent about the confidentiality of the information
given.
 Not ask leading questions
 Remain neutral in an interview situation in order to be as objective
as possible.

An interview schedule
It’s a set of questions that the interviewer asks when interviewing. It
makes it possible to obtain data required to meet specific objectives
of the study.

Note taking during interviews

It refers to the method of recording in which the interviewer records
the respondent’s responses during the interview.

Advantages

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 It facilitates data analysis since the information is readily

accessible and already classified into appropriate categories.
 If taken well, no information is left out.

Disadvantages of note taking

 It may interfere with the communication between the respondent
and the interviewer.
 It might upset the respondent if the answers are personal and
sensitive.
 If it is delayed, important details may be forgotten.
 It makes the interview lengthy and boring.

Tape recording
The interviewer’s questions and the respondent’s answers are
recorded either using a tape recorder or a video tape.
Advantages
 It reduces the tendency for the interviewer to make unconscious
selection of data in the course of the recording.
 The tape can be played back and studied more thoroughly.
 A person other than the interviewer can evaluate and categorize
responses.
 It speeds up the interview.
 Communication is not interrupted.
Disadvantages
 It changes the interview situation since respondents get nervous.
 Respondents may be reluctant to give sensitive information if they
know they are being taped.
 Transcribing the tapes before analysis is time consuming and
tedious.

Advantages of interviews
 It provides in-depth data, which is not possible to get using a
questionnaire.
 It makes it possible to obtain data required to meet specific
objectives of the study.
 Are more flexible than questionnaires because the interviewer can
adapt to the situation and get as much information as possible.
 Very sensitive and personal information can be extracted from the
respondent.
 The interviewer can clarify and elaborate the purpose of the
research and effectively convince respondents about the
importance of the research.
 They yield higher response rates

Disadvantages of interviews

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 They are expensive – traveling costs

 It requires a higher level of skill
 Interviewers need to be trained to avoid bias
 Not appropriate for large samples
 Responses may be influenced by the respondent’s reaction to the
interviewer.

OBSERVATION
Observation is one of the few options available for studying records,
mechanical processes, small children and complex interactive
processes. Data can be gathered as the event occurs. Observation
includes a variety of monitoring situations that cover non-behavioral
and behavioral activities.

The observer-participant relationship

Interrogation presents a clear opportunity for interviewer bias. The
problem is less pronounced with observation but is still real. The
relationship between observer and participant may be viewed from
three perspectives:
 Whether the observation is direct or indirect
 Whether the observer’s presence is known or unknown to the
participant
 What role the observer plays

Guidelines for the qualification and selection of observers

 Concentration: Ability to function in a setting full of distractions
 Detail-oriented: Ability to remember details of an experience
 Unobtrusive: Ability to blend with the setting and not be distinctive
 Experience level: Ability to extract the most from an observation
study

Advantages of observation
Enables one to:
 Secure information about people or activities that cannot be
derived from experiment or surveys
 Reduces obtrusiveness
 Avoid participant filtering and forgetfulness
 Secure environmental context information
 Optimize the naturalness of the research setting

Limitations of observation
 Difficulty of waiting for long periods to capture the relevant
phenomena
 The expense of observer costs and equipment
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 Reliability of inferences from surface indicators

 The problem of quantification and disproportionately large records

Observation forms, schedules or checklists

The researcher must define the behaviors to be observed and then
develop a detailed list of behaviors. During data collection, the
researcher checks off each as it occurs. This permits the observer to
spend time thinking about what is occurring rather than on how to
record it and this enhances the accuracy of the study.

DATA ANALYSIS
DATA PREPARATION AND DESCRIPTION
Once the data begins to flow in, attention turns to data analysis. If the
project has been done correctly, the analysis planning is already done.
Data preparation
This includes editing, coding and data entry. These activities ensure
the accuracy of the data and their conversion from raw form to
reduced and classified forms that are more appropriate for analysis.
Editing
Editing detects errors and omissions, corrects them when possible and
certifies that minimum data quality standards have been achieved.
The editor’s purpose is to guarantee that data are:
 Accurate
 Consistent with intent of the question and other information in
the survey
 Uniformly entered
 Complete
 Arranged to simplify coding and tabulation
Field editing
In large projects, field editing review is a responsibility of the field
supervisor. It should be done soon after the data have been gathered.
During the stress of data collection, the researcher often uses ad hoc
abbreviations and special symbols. Soon after the interview,
experiment or observation, the investigator should review the
reporting forms. It is difficult to complete what was abbreviated or
written in shorthand or noted illegibly if the entry is not caught that
day. When entry gaps are present from interviews, a call back should
be made rather than guessing what the respondent ‘probably would
have said’. Self-interviewing has no place in quality research.
Central editing
For a small study, the use of a single editor produces maximum
consistency. In large studies, the tasks may be broken down so that
each editor can deal with one entire section. This approach will not

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identify inconsistencies between answers in different sections.

However, this problem can be handled by identifying points of possible
inconsistency and having one editor check specifically for them.

Rules to guide editors in their work

 Be familiar with instructions given to interviewers and coders
 Do not destroy, erase or make illegible the original entry by the
interviewer, original entries should be crossed out with a single line
to remain legible.
 Make all entries on an instrument in some distinctive colour and in a
standardized form.
 Initial all answers changed or supplied.
 Place initials and date of editing on each instrument completed.
Coding
Coding involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers so the
responses can be grouped into a limited number of classes or
categories. The classifying of data into limited categories sacrifices
some data detail but is necessary for efficient analysis. Coding helps
the researcher to reduce several thousand replies to a few categories
containing the critical information needed for analysis. In coding,
categories are the partitioning of a set and categorization is the
process of using rules to partition a body of data.
Coding rules
The categories should be:
 Appropriate to the research problem and purpose: Categories must
provide the best partitioning of data for testing hypotheses and
showing relationships.
 Exhaustive
 Mutually exclusive
 Derived from one classification principle
Coding closed questions
The responses to closed questions include scaled items and others for
which answers can be anticipated. When codes are established early
in the research process, it is possible to pre-code the questionnaire.
Pre-coding is particularly helpful for data entry because it makes the
intermediate step of completing a coding sheet unnecessary. The data
are accessible directly from the questionnaire. A respondent,
interviewer, field supervisor or researcher is able to assign an
appropriate numerical response on the instrument by checking, circling
or printing it in the proper coding location.

Coding open-ended questions

Open-ended questions are always used where insufficient information
or lack of a hypothesis prohibits preparing response categories in
advance, need to measure sensitive or disapproved behaviour,

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discover salience or encouraging natural modes of expressions.

Content analysis is always used to analyse open-ended questions.
Converse and Presser (1986) define content analysis as a research
technique for the objective, systematic and quantitative description of
the manifest content of a communication.

Content analysis follows a systematic process i.e.

 Selection of a unitization scheme. The units may be syntactical,
referential, prepositional or thematic
 Selection of a sampling plan
 Development of recording and coding instructions
 Data reduction
 Inferences about the context
 Statistical analysis

Content analysis guards against selective perception of the content,

provides for the rigorous application of reliability and validity criteria
and is amenable to computerization.
“Don’t know” replies
“Don’t know” replies are evaluated in light of the questions nature and
the respondent. While many don’t know are legitimate, some result
from questions that are ambiguous or from an interviewing situation
that is not motivating. It is better to report don’t knows as a separate
category unless there are compelling reasons to treat them otherwise.

Data entry
Data entry converts information gathered by secondary or primary
methods to a medium for viewing and manipulation. Data entry is
accomplished by keyboard entry from pre-coded instruments, optical
scanning, real time keyboarding, telephone pad data entry, bar codes,
voice recognition, optical mark recognition (OMR) and data transfers
from electronic notebooks and laptop computers. Database programs,
spreadsheets and editors in statistical software programs e.g. SPSS
and SAS offer flexibility for entering, manipulating and transferring
data for analysis, warehousing and mining.

Data description
The objective of descriptive statistical analysis is to develop sufficient
knowledge to describe a body of data. This is accomplished by
understanding the data levels for the measurements we choose, their
distributions and characteristics of location, spread and shape. The
discovery of miscoded values, missing data and other problems in the
data set is enhanced with descriptive statistics

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There are three general areas that make up the field of statistics:
descriptive statistics, relational statistics, and inferential statistics:

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
Descriptive statistics fall into one of two categories: measures of
central tendency (mean, median, and mode) or measures of dispersion
(standard deviation and variance). Their purpose is to explore hunches
that may have come up during the course of the research process, but
most people compute them to look at the normality of their numbers.
Examples include descriptive analysis of sex, age, race, social class,
and so forth.

VISUAL DISPLAYS OF DATA

In addition to numerical summaries of location, spread and shape,
visual displays can be used to provide a complete and accurate
impression of distribution and variable relationships.
 Frequency table arrays data from highest to lowest values with
counts and percentages. They are most useful for inspecting the
range of responses and their repeated occurrence.
 Bar charts and pie charts are appropriate for relative comparisons
of nominal data.
 Histograms are optimally used with continuous variables where
intervals group the responses.
 Stem and leaf displays present actual data values using a
histogram type device that allows inspection of spread and
shape.
 Box plots use the five-number summary to convey a detailed
picture of a distribution’s main body, tails and outliers.
 Control charts displays sequential measurements of a process
together with a centre line and control limits. The selection of a
control chart depends on the level of data one is measuring. It
helps manager’s focus on special causes of variation by revealing
whether a system is under control and substantiating results from
improvements.
 The Pareto diagram is a bar chart whose percentages sum to 100
percent. The causes of the problem under investigation are
sorted in decreasing importance with bar height descending from
left to right. Its pictorial array reveals the highest concentration of
quality improvement potential in the fewest number of remedies.

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
Hypothesis: It’s a statement about a population parameter developed
for the purpose of testing.

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Hypothesis testing: It’s a procedure based on sample evidence and

probability theory to determine whether the hypothesis is a reasonable
statement.
Procedure for testing a hypothesis
1. State the null and alternate hypothesis
2. Identify the test statistic
3. Formulate a decision rule and identify the rejection region
4. Compute the value of the test statistic
5. Make a conclusion.
State the null hypothesis (HO) and alternate hypothesis (HA)
 The null hypothesis is a statement about the value of a population
parameter. It should be stated as “There is no significant
difference between ……………”. It should always contain an equal
sign.
 The alternate hypothesis is a statement that is accepted if sample
data provide enough evidence that the null hypothesis is false.
One-tailed and Two-tailed tests
 A test is one tailed when the alternate hypothesis states a
direction e.g.
Ho: The mean income of women is equal to the mean income
of men
HA: The mean income of women is greater than the mean
income of men
 A test is two tailed if no direction is specified in the alternate
hypothesis
Ho: There is no difference between the mean income of women
and the mean income of men
HA: There is a difference between the mean income of women
and the mean income of men
Identify the test statistic
A test statistic is the statistic that will be used to test the hypothesis
e.g.
Formulating a decision rule and identifying the rejection region
A decision rule is a statement of the conditions under which the null
hypothesis is rejected and the conditions under which it is not rejected.
It is determined by the level of significance which is designated by 
and should be between 0 –1.
Compute the value of the test statistic and make a conclusion.
The value of the test statistic is determined from the sample
information, and is used to determine whether to reject the null
hypothesis or not.

Types of errors that can be committed

i. Type I error: it is rejecting the null hypothesis, when it is true.

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ii. Type II error: It is not rejecting the null hypothesis, when it is

false.

Null Do not reject Reject HO

hypothesis HO
HO is True Correct Type I error
decision
HO is false Type II error Correct decision

TESTING THE POPULATION MEAN WHEN THE POPULATION

VARIANCE IS KNOWN
When the population variance is known and the population is normally

distributed, the test statistic for testing hypothesis about is .

Estimating the population mean when the population variance

is known
The confidence interval estimator of when is known is

Examples
1. A study by the Coca-Cola Company showed that the typical adult
Kenyan consumes 18 gallons of Coca-Cola each year. According to
the same survey, the standard deviation of the number of gallons
consumed is 3.0. A random sample of 64 college students showed
they consumed an average (mean) of 17 gallons of cola last year. At
the 0.05 significance level, can we conclude that there is a
significance difference between the mean consumption rate of
college students and other adults?
2. The manager of a departmental store is thinking about establishing
a new billing system for the stores credit customers. After a
thorough financial analysis, she determines that the new system will
not be cost effective if the average monthly account is less than
70,000. A random sample of 200 monthly accounts is drawn, for
which the mean monthly account is Sh. 66,000. With  = 0.05, is
there sufficient evidence to conclude that the new system will not
be cost effective? Assume that the population standard deviation is
Sh. 30,000.
3. Past experience indicates that the monthly long distance telephone
bill per household in a particular community is normally distributed,
with a mean of Sh. 1012 and a standard deviation of Sh. 327. After
an advertising campaign that encouraged people to make long
distance telephone calls more frequently, a random sample of 57
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households revealed that the mean monthly long distance bill was
Sh. 1098. Can we conclude at the 10% significance level that the
advertising campaign was successful?

Testing the population proportion

The null and alternate hypotheses of tests of proportions are set up in
the same way as the hypothesis of tests about mean and variance.

The test statistic for is

Confidence interval estimator of is

Example:
1. An inventor has developed a system that allows visitors to
museums, zoos and other attractions to get information at the touch
of a digital code. For example, zoo patrons can listen to an
announcement (recorded on a microchip) about each animal they
see. It is anticipated that the device would rent for $3.00 each. The
installation cost for the complete system is expected to be about
$400,000. The ABC zoo is interested in having the system installed,
but the management is uncertain about whether to take the risk. A
financial analysis of the problem indicates that if more than 10% of
the zoo visitors rent the system, the zoo will make a profit. To help
make the decision, a random sample of 400 zoo visitors is given
details of the systems capabilities and cost. If 48 people say that
they would rent the device, can the management of the zoo
conclude at the 5% significance level that the investment would
result in a profit?
2. In a random sample of 100 units from an assembly line, 22 were
defective.
(a) Does this provide sufficient evidence at the 10%
significance level to allow us to conclude that the defective
rate among all units exceeds 10%?
(b) Find a 99% confidence interval estimate of the defective
rate.
3. A manufacturer of computer chips claims that more than 90% of his
products conform to specifications. In a random sample of 1,000
chips drawn from a large production run, 75 were defective. Do the
data provide sufficient evidence at the 1% level of significance to
enable us to conclude that the manufacturer’s claim is true?

Chi-square test of a multinomial experiment

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A multinomial experiment is a generalized version of a binomial

experiment that allows for more than two possible outcomes on each
trial of the experiment.

Properties of a multinomial experiment

 The experiment consists of a fixed number of trials.
 The outcome of each trial can be classified into exactly one of
categories called cells
 The probability that the outcome of a trial will fall into a cell
remains constant for each trial, for moreover,
.
 Each trial of the experiment is independent of the other trials.

Test statistic is

Rejection region is

Example
1. Two companies A and B have recently conducted aggressive
advertising campaigns in order to maintain and possibly increase
their respective shares of the market for a particular product.
These two companies enjoy a dominant position in the market.
Before advertising campaigns began, the market share for
Company A was 45% while Company B had a market share of 40%.
Other competitors accounted for the remaining market share of
15%. To determine whether these market shares changed after the
advertising campaigns, a marketing analyst solicited the
preferences of a random sample of 200 consumers of this product.
Of the 200 consumers, 100 indicated a preference for Company’s
A’s product, 85 preferred Company’s B product and the remainder
preferred one or another of the products distributed by other
competitors. Conduct a test to determine at the 5% level of
significance, whether the market shares have changed from the
levels they were at before the advertising campaigns occurred.
2. To determine if a single die, is balanced, or fair, the die was rolled 600 times. The
observed frequencies with which each of the six sides of the die turned up are
recorded in the following table: -
Face 1 2 3 4 5 6
Observed 11 92 84 101 107 102
frequency 4
Is there sufficient evidence to conclude at the 5% level of
significance, that the die is not fair?

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3. Grades assigned by an economics instructor have historically

followed a symmetrical distribution.
Grade A B C D F
Percentag 5 25 40 25 5
e

A sample of 150 grades revealed the following

Grade A B C D F
Number 11 32 62 29 16
Can we conclude at the 1% level of significance that this year’s
grades are distributed differently than they were in the past?

Rule of five
For the discrete distribution of the test statistic to be adequately
approximated by the continuous chi-square distribution, the
conventional rule is to require that the expected frequency for each
cell be at least 5. Where necessary, cells should be combined in order
to satisfy this condition. The choice of cells to be combined should be
made in such a way that meaningful categories result from the
combination.

CHI-SQUARE TEST OF A CONTIGENCY TABLE

A contingency table is a rectangular table which items from a
population are classified according to two characteristics. The objective
is to analyze the relationship between two qualitative variables i.e. to
investigate whether a dependence relationship exists between two
variables or whether the variables are statistically independent. The
number of degrees of freedom for a contingency table with rows and
columns is .

Examples
1. The trustee of a company’s pension plan has solicited the opinions of a sample of the
company’s employees regarding a proposed revision of the plan. A breakdown of the
responses is shown in the table below: -
Response Lower Middle Top
level managem managem
managem ent ent
ent
For 67 32 11
Against 63 18 9
Is there sufficient evidence at the 5% significance level, to conclude
that the responses differ among the three groups of employees?

2. The operations manager at a shirt manufacturing plant has been concerned about the
large number of defects that the company’s three shifts have been producing. They
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appear to be three types of defects: Improper stitching, buttons not aligned with
button holes and inconsistent colouring. The manager decides to investigate the
problem. As a first step to improving the quality, she wants to know if the number
and type of defects are the same for all three shifts. A random sample of one day’s
shirt production is taken. The number of each type of defect and the number of
perfect shirts for each are shown in the following table.
Shift
Shirt condition 1 2 3 Total
Perfect 224 249 238 711
Improperly stitched 15 19 21 55
Unaligned buttons 8 12 12 32
Inconsistent colour 17 16 11 44
Total 264 296 282 842
Do these results allow the operations manager to conclude that at
the 10% significance level, there are differences in quality among
the three shifts?

3. There are three distinct types of hardware wholesalers; independents (independently

owned), Wholesaler voluntaries (groups of independents acting together) and retailer
cooperatives (retailer owned). In a random sample of 137 retailers, the retailers were
categorized according to the type of wholesaler they primarily used and according to
their store location as shown in the table below:
Store Location Retailer Wholesaler Independ
cooperativ Voluntaries ents
es
Multiple 14 10 5
locations 29 26 13
Free- standing 20 14 6
Others (Mall,
strips)
At the 5% significance level, is there sufficient evidence to
conclude that the type of wholesaler primarily used by a retailer
is related to the retailers location?
RELATIONAL STATISTICS
Relational statistics fall into one of three categories: univariate,
bivariate, and multivariate analysis. Univariate analysis is the study of
one variable for a sub-population. Bivariate analysis is the study of a
relationship between two variables. Multivariate analysis is the study of
relationship between three or more variables. The relational statistics
include correlation, regression, discriminant analysis, conjoint analysis,
factor analysis and cluster analysis
 Discriminant analysis: It is used to classify people or objects into
groups based on several predictor variables. The groups are defined
by a categorical variable with two or more values, whereas the
predictors are metric. The effectiveness of the discriminant equation

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is based not only on its statistical significance but also on its success
in correctly classifying cases to groups.
 Conjoint analysis: It is a technique that typically handles non-
metric independent variables. It allows the researcher to determine
the importance of product or service attributes and the levels or
features that are most desirable. Respondents provide preference
data by ranking or rating cards that describe products. These data
become utility weights of product characteristics by means of
optimal scaling and log linear algorithms.
 Factor analysis: It attempts to reduce the umber of variables and
discover the underlying constructs that explain the variance. A
correlation matrix is used to derive a factor matrix from which the
best linear combination of variables may be extracted.
 Cluster analysis: It is a set of techniques for grouping similar
objects or people. The cluster procedure starts with an
undifferentiated group of people, events or objects and attempts to
reorganize them into homogeneous sub-groups.

REGRESSION ANALYSIS
Regression involves developing a mathematical equation that analyses
the relationship between the variable to be forecast (dependent
variable) and the variables that the statistician believes are related to
the forecast variable (independent variable).
Regression is the estimation of unknown values or the prediction of
one variable from known values of other variables.
Types of regression
 Simple linear regression: Involves a relationship between two
variables only.
 Multiple regression: Analyses or considers the relationship
between three or more variables.

Simple Regression
The first step in establishing the relationship between X and Y is to
obtain observations on the two variables and analyze the data using a
scatter diagram to indicate whether a positive or negative relationship
exists between X and Y. the relationship can be approximated by a
straight line. Algebraically, the relationship is

The above function is deterministic since it gives exact relationship

between X and Y. when the line is plotted, not all the points will fall on
the line because of the following reasons:-
 Omission of other explanatory variables from the function
 Random behavior of human beings
 Imperfect specification of the functional form of the model
 Errors of aggregation

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 Errors of measurement

To account for the deviations of some points from the straight line, the
error term is introduced. The introduction of the error term makes the
function stochastic . To estimate the values of the
coefficients and , we need observations on Y, X and the error term.
However, the error term is not observable and therefore we make
assumptions about the error term.

Assumptions of the error term

 The error term is a real random variable which has a mean of zero
and constant variance ( Assumption of homoscedasticity)
 The error term is normally distributed
 The error term corresponding to different values of X for different
periods are not correlated (assumption of no autocorrelation)
 There is no relationship between the explanatory variables and the
error term
 The explanatory variables are measured without error. The error
absorbs the influence of omitted variables and errors of
measurement in the dependent variable.
All the above assumptions are called stochastic assumptions

Other assumptions
 The explanatory variables are not perfectly linearly related or
correlated (No multicollinearity)
 The variables are correctly aggregated
 The relation being estimated is identified
 The relationship is correctly specified

The regression equation of Y on X

 It used to predict the values of Y from the given values of X.
 It is expressed as follows
 To determine the values of and the following two normal
equations are to be solved simultaneously

 Alternatively the values of and can be got using the following

formula’s

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Example
1. A random sample of eight auto drivers insured with a company and having similar
auto insurance policies was selected. The following table lists their driving experience
(in years) and the monthly auto insurance premium (in Sh.000) paid by them.
Driving experience 5 2 12 9 15 6 25 16
(Years)
Monthly auto insurance 64 8 50 7 44 5 42 60
premium 7 1 6
(In Sh.000)
i. Find the least squares regression line by identifying the
appropriate dependent and independent variable

ii. Interpret the meaning of the constants calculated in part (i)

above.
iii. Compute the coefficient of correlation and coefficient of
determination and interpret their values.

2. A farmer wanted to find out the relationship between the amount of

fertilizer used and the yield of corn. He selected seven acres of his
land on which he used different amounts of fertilizer to grow corn.
The following table gives the amount (in kg) of fertilizer used and the
yield (in Tonnes) of corn for each of the seven acres.
Fertilizer used 120 80 100 70 88 75 110
Yield of corn 138 112 129 96 119 104 134
i. Find the least squares regression line by identifying the
appropriate dependent and independent variable.

ii. Interpret the meaning of the constants calculated in part (i) above.

iii. Compute the coefficient of correlation and coefficient of

determination and interpret their values.

iv. Predict the yield of corn per acre for 105 kg of fertilizer used.

3. In an attempt to get a better idea of some of the determinants of

medical expenditures by families, a social worker collected data on
family size and average weekly medical bills, with the results shown
in the following table;
Family size 2 2 4 5 7 3 8 1 5 2 3 5 2
0
Weekly medical
expenses ( in Sh. 2 2 5 5 7 3 10 8 5 2 2 4 2
’00’) 0 8 2 0 8 5 2 8 1 2 9 9 5

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i. Find the least squares regression line by identifying the

appropriate dependent and independent variable.

ii. Interpret the meaning of the constants calculated in part (i) above.

iii. Compute the coefficient of correlation and coefficient of

determination and interpret their.

CORRELATION
Definition: It is the existence of some definite relationship between
two or more variables. Correlation analysis is a statistical tool used to
describe the degree to which one variable is linearly related to another
variable.

Types of Correlation
Correlation may be classified in the following ways:-
Positive and negative correlation
Correlation is said to be positive if two series move in the same
direction, otherwise it is negative (opposite Direction).
Linear and Non-Linear correlation
Correlation is linear if the amount of change in one variable tends to
bear a constant ratio to the amount of change in the other variable
otherwise it is non-linear.
Simple, partial and multiple correlation
Simple correlation is where two variables are studied while partial or
multiple involves three or more variables.

Methods of calculating simple correlation

1. Scatter diagram
2. Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation
3. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient
4. Method of least squares

Scatter diagram
It is a chart that potrays the relationship between two variables.
Advantages
 It is simple and non-mathematical method of studying correlation
between variables.
 It is not influenced by the size of extreme values
Limitation
 One cannot establish the exact degree of correlation between the
variables.

Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation (Product moment

coefficient of correlation)

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The coefficient of correlation (r) is a measure of strength of the linear

relationship between two variables.

Interpretation of the coefficient of correlation

 When r = +1, there is a perfect positive correlation between the
variables
 When r = -1, there is a perfect negative correlation between the
variables
 When r = 0, there is no correlation between the variables
 The closer r is to +1 or to –1, the closer the relationship between
the variables and the closer r is to 0, the less close the relationship.
 The closeness of the relationship is not proportional to r.
The following table lists the interpretations for various correlation coefficients:
Value Comment
0.8 to 1.0 Very strong
0.6 to 0.8 Strong
0.4 to 0.6 Moderate
0.2 to 0.4 Weak
0.0 to 0.2 Very weak

Advantage
 It summarizes in one figure the degree of correlation and whether it
is positive or negative.

Limitations
 It assumes linear relationship regardless of the fact whether that
assumption is true or not.
 The coefficient can be misinterpreted.
 The value of the coefficient is unduly affected by the extreme
values.
 It is time consuming.
Method of least squares

Spearman’s Rank Correlation

Definition
 It is the correlation between the ranks assigned to individuals by
two different characters.
 It is a non-parametric technique for measuring strength of
relationship between paired observations of two variables when the
data are in ranked form.

It is denoted by R or p

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In rank correlation, there are two types of problems:-

i. Where actual ranks are given
ii. Where actual ranks are not given

Where actual ranks are given

Steps:
 Take the differences of the two ranks i.e. (R1-R2) and denote these
differences by d.
 Square these differences and obtain the total

 Use the formula

Example
The ranks given by two judges to 10 individuals are given below.
Individua 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
l
Judge 1 2 7 9 8 6 4 3 10 5
1(X)
Judge 2 7 5 8 10 9 4 1 6 3 2
(Y)
Calculate the spearman’s rank correlation.

Where ranks are not given

Ranks can be assigned by taking either the highest value as 1 or the
lowest value as 1. the same method should be followed in case of all
the variables.

Example
Calculate the Rank correlation coefficient for the following data of
marks given to 1st year B Com students:
CMS 100 45 47 60 38 50
CAC 100 60 61 58 48 46
Merits of the Rank method
 It is simpler to understand and easier to apply compared to the Karl
Pearson’s method.
 Where the data are of qualitative nature like honesty, efficiency,
intelligence etc, the method can be used with great advantage.
 It is the only method that can be used where we are given the ranks
and not the actual values.
Limitations
 The method cannot be used for finding out correlation in a grouped
frequency distribution.

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 Where the number of observations exceeds 30, the calculations

become quite tedious and require a lot of time.

Coefficient of determination (r2)

It is the square of the correlation coefficient. It shows the proportion of
the total variation in the dependent variable Y that is explained or
accounted for by the variation in the independent variable X. e.g. If the
value of r = 0.9, r2 = 0.81, this means 81% of the variation in the
dependent variable has been explained by the independent variable.

REPORT WRITING TECHNIQUES

A quality presentation of research findings can have an inordinate
effect on a reader’s or a listener’s perceptions of a study’s quality.
Recognition of this fact should prompt a researcher to make a special
effort to communicate skillfully and clearly. Research reports contain
findings, analysis, interpretations, conclusions and recommendations.
Research reports differ depending on their aims and their readership.
Reports should be clearly organized, physically inviting and easy to
read. Writers can achieve these goals if they are careful with
mechanical details, writing style and comprehensibility.

Writing a research proposal and research reports

A proposal is a document, which details an intended activity. The
formats for writing proposals differ from institution to institution or
from department to department. Generally, a research proposal should
include the following prefatory items; the title page, declaration, table
of contents, list of figures and tables, list of acronyms and
abbreviations and an abstract. It will also have chapter one:
Introduction, Chapter Two: Literature review and Chapter Three:
Methodology. In addition it will also have the references, time
schedule, budget and any appendices.

The final research report will have what is contained in the proposal
(apart from the time schedule and budget) and in addition dedication,
acknowledgement, chapter four: Data analysis and findings and
chapter five: Summary, conclusions and recommendations.

Prefatory items
Prefatory items do not have a direct bearing on the research itself.
They assist the reader in using the research report. They can include: -
Title page:
The title page should include the title of the report, the date and for
whom and by whom it was prepared. The title should be brief but
should include the variables included in the study, the type of

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relationship among the variables and the population to which the

results may be applied.
Declaration
This is whereby the researcher declares that the work s his/her original
work.
Dedication
Some researchers would always wish to dedicate their work to a
person or persons they deem special in their lives.
Acknowledgements
During the research process, the researcher may require help from
other individuals or organisations. It would be necessary if the
researcher acknowledged received from these individuals and
organisations.
Table of contents and list of figures and tables
Any report with several sections that total more than six to ten pages
should have a table of contents. If there are many tables, charts or
other exhibits, they should also be listed after the table of contents in a
separate list of tables or list of figures.
List of abbreviations and acronyms
All abbreviations and acronyms used in report should be explained. An
abbreviation is a short form of a word while an acronym is a
contraction formed by taking the first letter of several words.
Abstract
A proposal abstract is a summary of what the researcher intends to do.
It should be brief, precise and to the point.
Chapter One
1.0 Introduction
The introduction prepares the reader for the report by describing the
parts of the report.
1.1 Background to the problem
In the background, the researcher should broadly introduce the topic
under investigation. The researcher introduces briefly the general area
of study, and then narrows down to the specific problem to be studied.
The background enables the reader to have an idea of what is
happening regarding the area under investigation.
1.2 The problem Statement
The researcher states the problem under investigation. The researcher
should describe the factors that make the stated problem a critical
issue to warrant the study. Relevant literature can be referred to. It
should be brief and precise.
1.3 The objectives of the study
Research objectives are those specific issues within the scope of the
stated purpose that the researcher wants to focus upon and examine
in the study. The objectives should be specific, measurable,
achievable, reliable and time bound. Objectives guide the researcher in

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formulating testable hypotheses.

1.4 Research questions
These are the questions, which the researcher would like to be
answered by undertaking the study. They should be formulated from
the objectives of the study.
1.5 Research Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a researchers prediction regarding the outcome of the
study. It states possible differences, relationships or causes between
two variables or concepts. Hypothesis are derived from or based on
existing theories, previous research, personal observations or
experiences. The test of a hypothesis involves collection and analysis
of data that may either support or fail to support the hypothesis. If the
results fail to support a stated hypothesis, it does not mean that the
study has failed but it implies that the existing theories or principles
need to be revised or retested under various situations.
1.6 Scope of the study
This section indicates the boundary of the study
1.7 Significance / Justification of the study
The justification helps to answer the following questions. Why is this
work important? What are the implications of doing it? How does it link
to other knowledge? How does it stand to inform policy making? The
significance must be strong enough to warrant the use of time, energy
and money in carrying out the research.
1.8 Assumptions and limitations of the study
An assumption is any fact that a researcher takes to be true without
actually verifying it. It puts some boundary around the study and
provides the reader with vital information, which influences the way
results of the study are interpreted. A limitation is an aspect of a
research that may influence the results negatively but over which the
researcher has no control. A common limitation in social science
studies is the scope of the study, which sometimes may not allow
generalizations. Sample size may also be another limitation.

Chapter Two
4.0 Literature Review
The purpose of the literature review is to situate your research in the
context of what is already known about a topic. It need not be
exhaustive, it needs to show how your work will benefit the whole. It
should provide the theoretical basis for your work, show what has been
done in the area by others, and set the stage for your work.
In a literature review you should give the reader enough ties to the
literature that they feel confident that you have found, read, and
assimilated the literature in the field. It should probably move from the
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more general to the more focused studies, but need not be exhaustive,
only relevant.
The literature review should clearly present the holes in the knowledge
that need to be plugged and by so doing, situate your work. It is the
place where you establish that your work will fit in and be significant to
the discipline.
Chapter Three
3.0 Research Methodology
This section should make clear to the reader the way that you intend
to approach the research question and the techniques and logic that
you will use to address it.
3.1 Research design
The coverage of the design must be adapted to the purpose. In an
experimental study, the materials, tests, equipment, control conditions
and other devices should be described. In descriptive or ex post facto
designs, it may be sufficient to cover the rationale for using one design
instead of competing alternatives. The strengths and weaknesses of
the design can be identified and the instrumentation and materials
discussed.
3.2 The target population
The researcher should explicitly define the target population being
studied
3.3 Sampling strategy
Explanations of the sampling methods, uniqueness of the chosen
parameters or other points that need explanation should be covered
with brevity.
3.4 Data Collection Tools and Techniques
This part of the report describes the specifics of gathering the data. Its
contents depend on the design. This might include the data that you
anticipate collecting and a description of the instruments you will use.
Detailed copies of the data collection tools e.g. questionnaires,
interview schedule or observation schedule should be attached as an
appendix.
3.5 Data Analysis
This section summarizes the methods used to analyze the data. It
describes data handling, preliminary analysis, statistical tests,
computer programs and other technical information. The rationale for
the choice of analysis approaches should be clear. A brief commentary
on assumptions and appropriateness of use should be presented.

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Chapter Four
4.0 Data analysis and Findings
The objective is to explain the data rather than draw interpretations or
conclusions. When quantitative data can be presented, it should be
done as simply as possible with charts, graphics and tables. The data
need not include everything collected. Only material important to the
reader’s understanding of the problem and the findings should be
included. Both findings that support or do not support the hypothesis
should be included.
Chapter Five
5.0 Summary and Conclusions
The summary is a brief statement of the essential findings. Sectional
summaries may be used if there are many specific findings. These may
be combined into an overall summary. Conclusions represent
inferences drawn from the findings. Conclusions may be presented in a
tabular form for easy reading and reference. Summary findings may be
subordinated under the related conclusion statement.
Recommendations
There are usually a few ideas about corrective actions. In academic
research, the recommendations are often further study suggestions
that broaden or test understanding of the subject area. In applied
research, the recommendations will usually be for managerial action
rather than research action. The writer may offer several alternatives
with justifications.
References
The use of secondary data requires a reference or a bibliography.
Proper citation, style and formats are unique to the purpose of the
report. The
Appendixes
The appendixes are the place for complex tables, statistical tests,
supporting documents, copies of forms and questionnaires, detailed
descriptions of the methodology, instructions to field workers and other
evidence important for later support. The reader who wishes to learn
about technical aspects of the study and to look at statistical
breakdowns will want a complete appendix.
Time schedule
It is a listing of the major activities and the corresponding anticipated
time period it will take to accomplish that activity. The time is usually
given in months. Activities to be undertaken can always overlap.
Budget
A budget is a list of items that will be required to carry out the
research and their approximate cost. It should be detailed enough and
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precise on items needed, prices per unit and total cost. Details of
requirements in each budget will be governed by the type of research.
Characteristics of a Good Proposal:
a) The need for the proposed activity is clearly established,
preferably with data.
b) The most important ideas are highlighted and repeated in
several places.
c) The objectives of the project are given in detail.
d) There is a detailed schedule of activities for the project, or at
least sample portions of such a complete project schedule.
e) Collaboration with all interested groups in planning of the
proposed project is evident in the proposal.
f) The commitment of all involved parties is evident, e.g., letters of
commitment in the appendix and cost sharing stated in both the
narrative of the proposal and the budget.
g) The budget and the proposal narrative are consistent.
h) The uses of money are clearly indicated in the proposal narrative
as well as in the budget.
i) All of the major matters indicated in the proposal guidelines are
clearly addressed in the proposal.
j) The agreement of all project staff and consultants to participate
in the project was acquired and is so indicated in the proposal.
k) All governmental procedures have been followed with regard to
matters such as civil rights compliance and protection of human
subjects.
l) Appropriate detail is provided in all portions of the proposal.
m) All of the directions given in the proposal guidelines have been
followed carefully.
n) Appendices have been used appropriately for detailed and
lengthy materials which the reviewers may not want to read but
are useful as evidence of careful planning, previous experience,
etc.
o) The length is consistent with the proposal guidelines and/or
funding agency expectations.
p) The budget explanations provide an adequate basis for the
figures used in building the budget.
q) If appropriate, there is a clear statement of commitment to
continue the project after external funding ends.
r) The qualifications of project personnel are clearly communicated.
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s) The writing style is clear and concise. It speaks to the reader,

helping the reader understand the problems and proposal.
Summarizing statements and headings are used to lead the
reader.

Guidelines for writing a good research report

a) Break large units of text into smaller units with headings to show
organisation of the topics
b) Relieve difficult text with visual aids when possible
c) Emphasize important material and de-emphasize secondary
material through sentence construction and judicious use of
italising, underlining, capitalizing and parentheses.
d) Use ample space and wide margins to create a positive
psychological effect on the reader.
e) Choose words carefully, opting for the known and short rather than
the unknown and long.
f) Repeat and summarize critical and difficult ideas so readers can
have time to absorb them.
g) Review the writing to ensure the tone is appropriate
h) Proof read the final document to correct any errors.
i) Use short paragraphs
j) Indent parts of text that represent listings, long quotations or
examples.
k) Use headings and subheadings to divide the report and its major
sections into homogeneous topical parts.

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