Viet Nam National University Ho Chi Minh City

University of Science
Faculty of Electronics & Telecommunications

Chapter 2

Physical Layer

Dang Le Khoa
Email: dlkhoa@[Link]
 Outline

⚫ Signals
⚫ Signal impairment
⚫ Digital Transmission

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 Communication at the physical layer

Fig. 1: Communication at the physical layer

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 1. SIGNALS
⚫ What is exchanged between Alice and Bob is data, but what
goes through the network at the physical layer is signals.
⚫ A composite signal is made of many simple sine waves. The
range of frequencies contained in a composite signal is its
bandwidth. The bandwidth of a signal is the difference between
the lowest and highest frequencies in the signal.

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 Digital Signal
⚫ Information can also be represented by a digital signal.
⚫ For example, a value 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage and
a value 0 as zero voltage. A digital signal can have more than
two levels. Fig. 2 shows two signals, one with two levels and the
other with four.

Fig. 2: Digital Signal

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 Bit Rate
⚫ Most digital signal are nonperiodic, and thus period and
frequency are not appropriate characteristics. Another term-bit
rate (instead of frequency) is used. The bit rate is the number
of bits sent in 1 second.
Example 1:
⚫ Assume we have downloaded text documentation at the rate of
100 pages per minute. A page is an average of 24 lines with 80
characters per line. If we assume that one character requires 8
bits, the bit rate is:

100 * 24 * 80 * 8 = 1,536,000 bps = 1.536 Mbps

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 Transmission of Digital Signal
⚫ A digital signal is a composite analog signal with frequency
between zero and infinity. We can have two types of
transmission: baseband and broadband.
– The first means sending the digital signal without changing it
to analog signal.
– The second means changing the digital signal to analog signal and
send the analog signal.

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 2 SIGNAL IMPAIRMENT
⚫ Signals travel through transmission media, which are not
perfect. The imperfection causes signal impairment.
⚫ This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not
the same as the signal at the end of the medium. What is sent is
not what is received.
⚫ Three causes of impairment are attenuation, distortion, and
noise.

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 Attenuation and Amplification
⚫ Attenuation means a loss of energy. To compensate for this loss
we need amplification. When a signal, simple or composite,
travels through a medium, it loses some of its energy in
overcoming the resistance of the medium.
⚫ To compensate for this loss, we need amplification.

Fig 3: Attenuation and amplification

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 Example 2

⚫ Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium and its

power is reduced to one half. This means that P2 = 0.5 P1. In this
case, the attenuation (loss of power) can be calculated as

10 log10 P2 P1 = 10 log10 (0.5P1 ) P1 = 10 log10 0.5 = 10  ( − 0.3) = −3dB.

⚫ A loss of 3 dB (−3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half the

power.

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 Distortion and Noise

Distortion
⚫ Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape.
Distortion can occur in a composite signal made up of different
frequencies.
Noise
⚫ Noise is another cause of impairment. Several type of noise may
occur during the signal transmission.

Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) is defined as

SNR = (average signal power) / (average noise power)

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 Data Rate Limits

⚫ A very important consideration in data communications is how

fast we can send data, in bits per second, over a channel. Data
rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
⚫ Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the data
rate: one by Nyquist for a noiseless channel, another by
Shannon for a noisy channel.

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 Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate

⚫ For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the
theoretical maximum bit rate.
Bit Rate = 2 . B . log 2 L
Example 3
⚫ We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless (ideal) channel with
a bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do we need?
We can use the Nyquist formula as shown:
265,000 = 2  20,000  log 2L → log 2 L = 6.625 L = 26.625 = 98.7 levels

Since this result is not a power of 2, we need to either increase

the number of levels or reduce the bit rate. If we have 128
levels, the bit rate is 280 kbps.

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 Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity

⚫ For a noisy channel, we have

C = B . log 2 (1 + SNR)

Example 4
⚫ Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of the
signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero. In other words, the noise is
so strong that the signal is faint. For this channel the capacity C
is calculated as shown below.

C = B log 2 (1 + SNR) = B log 2 (1 + 0) = B log 2 1 = B  0 = 0

⚫ The data is so corrupted in this channel.

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 Example 5

⚫ We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a regular

telephone line. A telephone line normally has a bandwidth of
3000 Hz (300 to 3300 Hz) assigned for data communications.
The signal-to-noise ratio is usually 3162. For this channel the
capacity is calculated as shown below.

C = B log 2 (1 + SNR) = 3000 log 2 (1 + 3162) = 34,881 bps

⚫ This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line is 34.881
kbps. If we want to send data faster than this, we can either
increase the bandwidth of the line or improve the signal-to noise
ratio.

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 Using Both Limits
⚫ In practice, we need to use both limits.
C = B . log 2 (1 + SNR)
Example 5:
⚫ We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth. The SNR for this
channel is 63. What are the appropriate bit rate and signal level?
Solution
⚫ First, we use the Shannon formula to find the upper limit.
C = B log 2 (1 + SNR) = 106 log 2 (1 + 63) = 106 log 2 64 = 6 Mbps

⚫ The Shannon formula gives us 6 Mbps, the upper limit. For

better performance we choose something lower, 4 Mbps, for
example. Then we use the Nyquist formula to find the number of
signal levels.
4 Mbps = 2  1 MHz  log 2L → log 2L = 2 → L = 4
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 Performance

⚫ Up to now, we have discussed the tools of transmitting data

(signals) over a network and how the data behave. One important
issue in networking is the performance of the network—how good
is it?
⚫ One characteristic that measure network performance is
bandwidth.
⚫ For example, one can say that the bandwidth of a fast Ethernet
network is 100 Mbps. This means we can send 100 Mbps through
this network.

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 Throughput and Latency (Delay)

⚫ The throughput is the measure of how fast we can actually

send data through a network. Although, at first glance,
bandwidth in bits per second and throughput seem the same,
they are different. A link may have a bandwidth of B bps, but we
can only send T bps through this link with T always less than B.
⚫ The latency or delay defines how long it takes for an entire
message to completely arrive at the destination from the time the
first bit is sent out from the source. We say that normally have
four types of delay: propagation delay, transmission delay,
queuing delay, and processing delay. The latency or total delay
is
Latency = propagation delay + transmission delay + queuing delay
+ processing delay

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 Example 6

⚫ A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an average

of 12,000 frames per minute with each frame carrying an
average of 10,000 bits. What is the throughput of this network?
Solution
⚫ We can calculate the throughput as

⚫ The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in this case.

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 Example 7

⚫ What is the propagation time if the distance between the two

points is 12,000 km? Assume the propagation speed to be 2.4 ×
108 m/s in cable.
Solution
⚫ We can calculate the propagation time as

⚫ The example shows that a bit can go over the Atlantic Ocean in
only 50 ms if there is a direct cable between the source and the
destination.

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 Example 8
⚫ What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a
2.5-KB (kilobyte) message if the bandwidth of the network is 1
Gbps? Assume that the distance between the sender and the
receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.
Solution
⚫ We can calculate the propagation and transmission time as

⚫ Note that in this case, because the message is short and the
bandwidth is high, the dominant factor is the propagation time,
not the transmission time.

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 Bandwidth-Delay Product

⚫ Bandwidth and delay are two performance metric of a link.

However, what is very important in data communications is the
product of the two, the bandwidth-delay product.
Example 9
⚫ We can think about the link between two points as a pipe. We
can say that the volume of the pipe defines the bandwidth-delay
product

Fig 4: Bandwidth-delay product

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 Jitter

⚫ Another performance issue that is related to delay is jitter. We

can roughly say that jitter is a problem if different packets of
data encounter different delays and the application using the data
at the receiver site is time-sensitive (audio and video data, for
example).
⚫ If the delay for the first packet is 20 ms, for the second is 45 ms,
and for the third is 40 ms, then the real-time application that uses
the packets endures jitter.

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 3 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION

⚫ A computer network is designed to send information from one

point to another. This information needs to be converted to
either a digital signal or an analog signal for transmission.
⚫ In this section, we discuss the first choice, conversion to digital
signals

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 Digital-to-Digital Conversion

⚫ In this section, we see how we can represent digital data by

using digital signals. The conversion involves three techniques:
line coding, block coding, and scrambling.
⚫ Line coding is always needed; block coding and scrambling may
or may not be needed.
⚫ Line coding is the process of converting digital data to digital
signals. We assume that data, in the form of text, numbers,
graphical images, audio, or video, are stored in computer
memory as sequences of bits.

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Line coding and decoding

Fig. 5: Line coding and decoding

 Signal element versus data element

Fig. 6: Signal element versus data element

 Effect of lack of synchronization

Fig. 7: Effect of lack of synchronization

4.28
 Example 10
⚫ In a digital transmission, the receiver clock is 0.1 percent faster
than the sender clock. How many extra bits per second does the
receiver receive if the data rate is 1 kbps? How many if the data
rate is 1 Mbps?
Solution
At 1 kbps, the receiver receives 1001 bps instead of 1000 bps.

At 1 Mbps, the receiver receives 1,001,000 bps instead of

1,000,000 bps.

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Line coding schemes

Fig 8 Line coding schemes

 Nonreturn to Zero-Level (NRZ-L)
⚫ Two different voltages for 0 and 1 bits
⚫ Voltage constant during bit interval
⚫ no transition, no return to zero voltage
e.g. Absence of voltage for zero, constant positive voltage
for one
⚫ More often, negative voltage for one value and positive for the
other
⚫ This is NRZ-L

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 Polar NRZ-L and NRZ-I schemes

Fig. 9 Unipolar NRZ scheme

Fig 10. Polar NRZ-L and NRZ-I schemes

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 Nonreturn to Zero Inverted
⚫ Nonreturn to zero inverted on ones
⚫ Constant voltage pulse for duration of bit
⚫ Data encoded as presence or absence of signal transition at
beginning of bit time
⚫ Transition (low to high or high to low) denotes a binary 1
⚫ No transition denotes binary 0
⚫ An example of differential encoding

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 NRZ-L and NRZ-I

In NRZ-L the level of the voltage determines the

value of the bit. In NRZ-I the inversion or the
lack of inversion determines the value of the
bit.

NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have an average

signal rate of N/2 Bd.

NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have a DC

component problem.

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 NRZ-L and NRZ-I
Example 12
⚫ A system is using NRZ-I to transfer 10-Mbps data. What are the
average signal rate and minimum bandwidth?
Solution
⚫ The average signal rate is S = N/2 = 500 kbaud. The minimum
bandwidth for this average baud rate is Bmin = S = 500 kHz.

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 NRZ pros and cons
⚫ Pros
– Easy to engineer
– Make good use of bandwidth
⚫ Cons
– dc component
– Lack of synchronization capability
⚫ Used for magnetic recording
⚫ Not often used for signal transmission

In bipolar encoding, we use three levels:

positive, zero, and negative.

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 Differential Encoding
⚫ Data represented by changes rather than levels
⚫ More reliable detection of transition rather than level
⚫ In complex transmission layouts it is easy to lose sense of
polarity

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 Multilevel Binary
⚫ Use more than two levels
⚫ Bipolar-AMI
– zero represented by no line signal
– one represented by positive or negative pulse
– one pulses alternate in polarity
– No loss of sync if a long string of ones (zeros still a problem)
– No net dc component
– Lower bandwidth
– Easy error detection

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 Pseudoternary
⚫ One represented by absence of line signal
⚫ Zero represented by alternating positive and negative
⚫ No advantage or disadvantage over bipolar-AMI

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Bipolar schemes: AMI and pseudoternary

Figure 11 Bipolar schemes: AMI and pseudoternary

 Trade off for Multilevel Binary
⚫ Not as efficient as NRZ
– Each signal element only represents one bit
– In a 3 level system could represent log23 = 1.58 bits
– Receiver must distinguish between three levels
(+A, -A, 0)
– Requires approx. 3dB more signal power for same probability of
bit error

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 Biphase
⚫ Manchester
– Transition in middle of each bit period
– Transition serves as clock and data
– Low to high represents one
– High to low represents zero
– Used by IEEE 802.3(ethernet) standard for baseband coaxial cable
and twisted-pair CSMA/CD bus LANs
⚫ Differential Manchester
– Midbit transition is clocking only
– Transition at start of a bit period represents zero
– No transition at start of a bit period represents one
– Note: this is a differential encoding scheme
– Used by IEEE 802.5 token ring LAN, using shielded twisted pair
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 Manchester Encoding and Differential Manchester
Encoding

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 Biphase Pros and Cons
⚫ Con
– At least one transition per bit time and possibly two
– Maximum modulation rate is twice NRZ
– Requires more bandwidth
⚫ Pros
– Synchronization on mid bit transition (self clocking)
– No dc component
– Error detection
– Absence of expected transition

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Polar RZ scheme

Figure 12 Polar RZ scheme

 Polar biphase: Manchester and differential
Manchester schemes

Figure 13 Polar biphase: Manchester and differential Manchester

schemes
 Manchester and differential Manchester schemes

In Manchester and differential

Manchester encoding, the transition
at the middle of the bit is used for
synchronization.

The minimum bandwidth of Manchester

and differential Manchester is 2 times
that of NRZ.

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 A summary of line coding

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 Multilevel

In mBnL schemes, a pattern of m data

elements is encoded as a pattern of n
signal elements in which 2m ≤ Ln.

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Multilevel: 2B1Q scheme

Figure 14 Multilevel: 2B1Q scheme

 Multilevel: 8B6T scheme
⚫ The idea is to encode a pattern of 8 bits as a pattern of six signal
elements, where the signal has three levels (ternary).

Figure 15 Multilevel: 8B6T scheme

 Multilevel: 4D-PAM5 scheme
⚫ 4D-PAM5: 4-dimensional PAM code with 5 voltage levels
⚫ It uses five voltage levels, such as −2, −1, 0, 1, and 2. However,
one level, level 0, is used only for forward error detection

Figure 16 Multilevel: 4D-PAM5 scheme

 Multitransition: MLT-3 scheme

⚫ MLT-3: Multi-Level Transmit, MLT-3 encoding uses three levels

(+V, 0, -V)

Figure 17 Multitransition: MLT-3 scheme

 Summary of line coding schemes
Table 1 Summary of line coding schemes
 Block Coding

⚫ We need redundancy to ensure synchronization and to provide

inherent error detecting.
⚫ Block coding can give us this redundancy and improve the
performance of line coding.
⚫ In general, block coding changes a block of m bits into a block
of n bits, where n is larger than m. Block coding is referred to as
an mB/nB encoding technique.
⚫ Block coding is normally referred to as mB/nB coding; it
replaces each m-bit group with an n-bit group.
– 4B/5B
– 8B/10B

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 Block coding concept

Figure 12 Block coding concept

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 Using block coding with NRZ-I

Figure 13 Using block coding 4B/5B with NRZ-I line coding

scheme
Table 2 4B/5B mapping codes
 Substitution in 4B/5B block coding

Figure 14 Substitution in 4B/5B block coding

 Example 13
⚫ We need to send data at a 1-Mbps rate. What is the minimum
required bandwidth, using a combination of 4B/5B and NRZ-I
or Manchester coding?
Solution
⚫ First 4B/5B block coding increases the bit rate to 1.25 Mbps.
The minimum bandwidth using NRZ-I is N/2 or 625 kHz.
⚫ The Manchester scheme needs a minimum bandwidth of 1 MHz.
⚫ The first choice needs a lower bandwidth, but has a DC
component problem; the second choice needs a higher
bandwidth, but does not have a DC component problem.

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 8B/10B block encoding

Figure 15 8B/10B block encoding

 Scrambling
⚫ Scrambling is based on the AMI rule. Note that scrambling, as
opposed to block coding, is done at the same time as encoding.
The system needs to insert the required pulses based on the
defined scrambling rules. Two common scrambling techniques
are B8ZS and HDB3.

Figure 16 Scrambling
 Two cases of B8ZS scrambling technique

B8ZS substitutes eight consecutive zeros with

000VB0VB.

B8ZS is commonly used in North America

Figure 17 Two cases of B8ZS scrambling technique

Different situations in HDB3 scrambling technique

HDB3 substitutes four consecutive zeros with 000V or

B00V depending on the number of nonzero pulses after
the last substitution.
HDB3 is commonly used outside of North America

Figure 18 Different situations in HDB3 scrambling technique

Ethernet
Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps)
Gigabit Ethernet
10 Gigabit Ethernet