Name: Satya Narayan Sahu

Class: XI Science A

Exam No.: 11A40

Subject: Physics

Thrust & Propulsion - Satya Narayan Sahu

Understanding Fighter
Jet Thrust & Propulsion
Systems and Air Avionics
Physics in Fighter Jets
By Satya Narayan Sahu

Thrust & Propulsion - Satya Narayan Sahu

 Introduction
Fighter jet propulsion is a critical area of aerospace engineering that
focuses on generating the powerful force, known as thrust, required
to propel aircraft at high speeds. Fighter jets utilize engines like
turbojets and turbofans, which function based on Newton’s Third
Law of Motion: "For every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction." These engines work by taking in large amounts of air,
compressing it, mixing it with fuel, and igniting it to produce hot
gases that rapidly exit the engine. The fast-moving exhaust gases
create a forward push (thrust) that propels the aircraft.

In this report, we will explore the basic principles of fighter jet

engines, derive key formulas for calculating thrust, and discuss the
factors affecting engine performance and efficiency. This simplified
analysis aims to provide a foundational understanding of fighter jet
propulsion for high school students.

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Thrust & Propulsion - Satya Narayan Sahu
 Basic Physics Concepts and Principles
These principles form the foundation of how engines produce the force necessary to propel an
aircraft:

2.1 Newton's Third Law of Motion

Newton's Third Law of Motion is fundamental to jet propulsion. It states:

"For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction."

In a jet engine:

• Action: The engine expels high-speed exhaust gases backward.

• Reaction: The aircraft experiences a forward push or thrust.
This principle is the basis of how thrust is generated. The engine pushes air and exhaust gases
backward, and in response, the jet is pushed forward.

2.2 Momentum and the Rate of Change of Momentum

Momentum is the product of an object’s mass and velocity:

Where:
• p is momentum (measured in kg·m/s),
• m is the mass of the object (in kg),
• v is the velocity of the object (in m/s).

In a jet engine, we are concerned with how the momentum of air changes as it passes through the
engine. The thrust is generated by changing the momentum of the air and exhaust gases.

The change in momentum (Δp) is given by :

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Thrust & Propulsion - Satya Narayan Sahu
For continuous flow, the rate of change of momentum is what produces force, which can be
expressed as:

Where:

• F is the thrust (in Newtons, N),

• m˙ is the mass flow rate (the amount of mass flowing per unit time, in kg/s),
• V0 is the initial velocity of the air entering the engine (in m/s),

• Ve is the velocity of the exhaust gases exiting the engine (in m/s).

2.3 Conservation of Momentum

The concept of conservation of momentum is also crucial in understanding jet propulsion:

The total momentum of a closed system remains constant if no external forces act on it.

In a jet engine, the system includes the incoming air and the exhaust gases. As the engine expels
exhaust gases backward with high speed, the forward momentum of the aircraft increases, resulting
in thrust.

2.4 Mass Flow Rate (ṁ)

The mass flow rate is a measure of how much air mass enters the engine per second:

Where:

• (ṁ) is the mass flow rate (in kg/s),

• ρ is the air density (in kg/m³),

• A is the cross-sectional area of the air intake (in m²),

• V is the velocity of the incoming air (in m/s).

In jet engines, a higher mass flow rate typically means more thrust, as more air is accelerated
through the engine.

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2.5 Work and Kinetic Energy

The concept of work and kinetic energy also plays a role:

• Work is the energy transferred by a force over a distance:

• Kinetic Energy is the energy possessed by an object due to its motion:

In jet engines, fuel combustion increases the kinetic energy of the exhaust gases, which exit at high
speed, converting thermal energy into kinetic energy and resulting in thrust.

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Thrust & Propulsion - Satya Narayan Sahu

3. Overview of Fighter Jet Engines

Fighter jet engines are designed to produce immense thrust to propel aircraft at high speeds. The
two primary types of engines used in fighter jets are turbojets and turbofans.

3.1 Turbojet Engines

A turbojet engine is the simplest type of jet engine. It operates by compressing incoming air,
mixing it with fuel, and igniting the mixture. The resulting high-temperature, high-pressure gases
expand rapidly and are expelled at high speed through the exhaust nozzle, generating thrust.
Turbojets are efficient at high speeds and altitudes, making them suitable for supersonic jets.

Components of a Turbojet:

• Intake: Captures incoming air.

• Compressor: Increases air pressure.
• Combustion Chamber: Mixes air with fuel and ignites it.
• Turbine: Extracts energy to drive the compressor.
• Exhaust Nozzle: Expels hot gases, producing thrust.

3.2 Turbofan Engines

A turbofan engine is an advanced type of jet engine that includes a large fan at the front. This fan
pushes additional air around the engine core (bypass air), increasing overall thrust and improving
fuel efficiency, especially at lower speeds. Turbofans are quieter and more efficient for a wide range
of speeds, making them common in both military and commercial aircraft.

Components of a Turbofan:

• Fan: Accelerates bypass air for additional thrust.

• Core (similar to turbojet components): Contains the compressor, combustion chamber,
and turbine.
• Bypass Duct: Channels bypass air around the engine core.

3.3 Comparison: Turbojets vs. Turbofans

Feature Turbojet Turbofan

Best at supersonic Efficient at subsonic and transonic
Speed Efficiency
speeds speeds
Fuel Efficiency Lower at lower speeds Higher due to bypass air
Noise Level Louder Quieter due to bypass air
Thrust
Core exhaust gases only Core gases + bypass air
Production

Overall, turbojets are used for high-speed military jets that require maximum speed, while turbofans
are preferred for versatile performance and efficiency across different speed ranges. Both engine
types operate on the principles of compressing air, mixing it with fuel, igniting it, and expelling the
exhaust gases to produce thrust.

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4. Deriving the Thrust Equation

The thrust equation is a fundamental formula used to calculate the force generated by a jet engine.
The derivation of this equation is based on the principle of momentum and Newton's Third Law
of Motion.

4.1 Understanding Thrust

Thrust (F) is the force that propels a jet forward. It is produced by accelerating air through the
engine and expelling it at high speed. The faster the exhaust gases are expelled compared to the
incoming air, the greater the thrust.

4.2 Key Variables in Thrust Calculation

• Mass Flow Rate (ṁ): The mass of air passing through the engine per second (measured in kg/s).
• Initial Velocity (V0): The speed of the incoming air relative to the aircraft (in m/s).
• Exit Velocity (Ve): The speed of the exhaust gases exiting the engine (in m/s).
4.3 Derivation of the Thrust Equation

1. Momentum of Incoming Air:

• This represents the momentum of the air entering the engine.

2. Momentum of Exhaust Gases:

• This is the momentum of the air as it exits the engine after being accelerated.

3. Change in Momentum:

• The change in momentum of the air results in a force, which we identify as thrust.

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4. Thrust Equation:

◦ Here, F is the thrust force (in Newtons, N).

4.4 Additional Consideration: Pressure Difference

In real-world applications, there may also be a pressure difference between the exhaust gases and
the surrounding atmosphere. This can contribute to additional thrust, especially in engines with
afterburners. However, for simplicity, this basic derivation focuses only on the velocity change.

4.5 Example Calculation

Example:
• Mass flow rate (ṁ) = 100 kg/s

• Exit velocity (Ve) = 600 m/s

• initial velocity (V0 ) = 200 m/s

Calculate the thrust:

Result: The jet engine produces 40,000 Newtons of thrust.

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5. Efficiency of Jet Engines
Efficiency in jet engines is crucial as it determines how well the engine converts fuel energy into
useful thrust. There are two main types of efficiency to consider: propulsive efficiency and
thermal efficiency.

5.1 Propulsive Efficiency (ηp)

Propulsive efficiency measures how effectively the engine converts the kinetic energy of exhaust
gases into forward thrust. It reflects the relationship between the speed of the aircraft and the speed
of the exhaust gases:

Where:

• ηp is the propulsive efficiency.

• V0 is the speed of the aircraft (in m/s).

• Ve is the speed of the exhaust gases (in m/s).

Explanation:

• When V0 is close to Ve , the engine is more efficient because less kinetic energy is wasted in
accelerating the exhaust gases unnecessarily fast.
• If Ve is much higher than V0 , a lot of energy is lost as excess kinetic energy in the exhaust,
reducing efficiency.

Example: If an aircraft speed V0 is 300 m/s and the exhaust speed Ve is 900 m/s:

The propulsive efficiency is 50%.

Interpretation: Half of the kinetic energy from the exhaust contributes to thrust, and the other half
is wasted as excess exhaust velocity.

5.2 Thermal Efficiency (ηt )

Thermal efficiency measures how effectively the engine converts the chemical energy of the fuel
into kinetic energy of the exhaust gases:

Thrust & Propulsion - Satya Narayan Sahu

Where:

• ηt is the thermal efficiency.

• T0 is the temperature of the incoming air (in Kelvin).

• Te is the temperature of the exhaust gases (in Kelvin).

Explanation:

• The higher the exhaust temperature (Te ), the more energy is generated from fuel
combustion, increasing thermal efficiency.

• A low incoming air temperature (T0 ) also helps to maximize this efficiency.

Example: If the temperature of incoming air T0 is 300 K and the exhaust temperature Te is 1500 K:

The thermal efficiency is 80%.

Interpretation: The engine converts 80% of the fuel’s energy into useful kinetic energy.

5.3 Overall Efficiency (ηoverall):

The overall efficiency of a jet engine combines both propulsive and thermal efficiency:

This gives a measure of how much of the fuel’s total energy is actually converted into useful work
to propel the aircraft.

Example Calculation: If ηt = 0.8 and ηp = 0.5:

The overall efficiency is 40%.

Interpretation: Only 40% of the fuel’s chemical energy is converted into useful thrust, while the
rest is lost as heat and excess kinetic energy.

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6. Factors Affecting Thrust and Efficiency
The performance of a fighter jet engine, particularly its thrust and efficiency, depends on several
interrelated factors. These include engine design, air properties, and operational conditions.
Understanding these factors is crucial for optimizing engine performance.

6.1 Factors Affecting Thrust

1. Mass Flow Rate (ṁ):

◦ The mass flow rate, which is the amount of air flowing through the engine per
second, directly affects thrust.
◦ A higher mass flow rate increases the amount of air accelerated by the engine,
resulting in greater thrust.
◦ Influenced by: Air intake design, altitude (air density), and engine size.

2. Exhaust Velocity (Ve):

◦ Thrust is directly proportional to the difference between the exhaust velocity (Ve )
and the intake velocity (V0 ).
◦ Increasing the exhaust velocity raises thrust, but this may reduce propulsive
efficiency if the velocity difference is too large.

3. Intake Velocity (V0):

◦ The speed of the incoming air (relative to the engine) affects the thrust generated.
◦ Higher intake speeds can reduce the effective difference between Ve and V0,
lowering thrust unless the exhaust velocity is increased proportionally.

4. Air Density (ρ):

◦ Thrust is also influenced by the density of the air entering the engine. At higher
altitudes, where the air is less dense, thrust decreases because there is less mass flow
through the engine.
◦ Influenced by: Altitude, temperature, and atmospheric conditions.

5. Afterburner Usage:
◦ Many fighter jets use afterburners to temporarily increase thrust by injecting
additional fuel into the exhaust stream. This can significantly boost thrust but at the
cost of reduced fuel efficiency.

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6.2 Factors Affecting Efficiency

1. Engine Bypass Ratio (Specific to Turbofans):

◦ The bypass ratio is the ratio of the mass flow of bypass air (air that bypasses the
engine core) to the mass flow through the core.
◦ Higher bypass ratios improve propulsive efficiency at subsonic speeds by producing
more thrust from the bypass air and reducing fuel consumption.

2. Combustion Efficiency:
◦ Combustion efficiency refers to how completely the fuel is burned within the
combustion chamber.
◦ Higher combustion efficiency increases thermal efficiency as more chemical energy
from the fuel is converted into useful heat.

3. Engine Design (Compressor and Turbine Efficiency):

◦ The design and efficiency of the compressor (which increases air pressure) and the
turbine (which extracts energy from the exhaust gases) significantly affect the
engine's overall performance.
◦ Improved compressor and turbine designs reduce energy losses, enhancing both
thrust and efficiency.

4. Operational Conditions:
◦ Altitude: As altitude increases, air density decreases, reducing mass flow rate and
thus thrust. However, thermal efficiency can improve due to lower intake air
temperatures.
◦ Speed: The engine's efficiency varies with the speed of the aircraft. At subsonic
speeds, turbofans are more efficient due to their higher bypass ratio. At supersonic
speeds, turbojets may perform better because they are designed for high-speed
airflow.
◦ Temperature: High intake air temperatures can reduce engine efficiency because
they lower the pressure ratio achievable by the compressor.

5. Fuel Type and Quality:

◦ The type and quality of fuel used also affect efficiency. Higher energy-density fuels
provide more energy per unit of mass, enhancing thermal efficiency.
◦ Military jet fuels like JP-8 and JP-5 are designed for high performance, optimizing
combustion and reducing thermal losses.

6. Drag and Aerodynamic Design:

◦ The aerodynamic design of the engine nacelle and air intake affects the overall drag
experienced by the aircraft.
◦ Minimizing drag increases propulsive efficiency, as more of the engine's thrust
contributes to forward motion rather than overcoming resistance.

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Conclusion

Fighter jet propulsion is a highly sophisticated field of aerospace engineering that combines
advanced physics principles with cutting-edge technology to achieve high-speed and high-
performance flight. The primary mechanism driving this propulsion system is the generation of
thrust, a force produced by expelling exhaust gases at high velocities through jet engines, adhering
to Newton's Third Law of Motion. Through this detailed investigation, we explored the
fundamental aspects of jet propulsion, deriving the key thrust equation and analyzing the efficiency
parameters crucial for the operation of fighter jet engines.

Key Takeaways

Engine Types:

• Turbojets and turbofans are the two primary types of engines used in fighter jets, each with
distinct design characteristics and applications. Turbojets excel in high-speed, supersonic
environments due to their simplicity and direct thrust generation from exhaust gases. In
contrast, turbofans provide better efficiency at a range of speeds, particularly subsonic and
transonic, thanks to their bypass airflow, which increases propulsive efficiency.

Efficiency Analysis:

• Efficiency is a key performance metric for fighter jet engines, encompassing both thermal
efficiency and propulsive efficiency. Thermal efficiency is influenced by the engine’s
ability to convert fuel energy into kinetic energy of the exhaust gases, while propulsive
efficiency reflects how well this kinetic energy is used to produce thrust.
• Overall engine efficiency is a product of both these efficiencies, and optimizing it involves
carefully balancing the speed of the aircraft, the exhaust velocity, and the design parameters
of the engine components.

Factors Influencing Performance:

• Several factors, including mass flow rate, exhaust velocity, air density, combustion
efficiency, and engine design, play crucial roles in determining the thrust and efficiency of
the engine. Operational conditions such as altitude and speed further impact engine
performance, making real-time adjustments necessary for optimal thrust generation.

Technological Implications:

• Advanced technologies, such as afterburners and variable bypass ratio engines, allow
modern fighter jets to achieve both high thrust and flexible performance across different
flight regimes. Innovations in materials, aerodynamics, and fuel types continue to enhance
engine efficiency, contributing to better overall performance and lower fuel consumption.

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Broader Impact

The efficiency and performance of jet engines have significant implications not only for military
applications but also for the commercial aerospace industry and environmental sustainability.
Enhanced fuel efficiency leads to reduced operational costs and lower greenhouse gas emissions,
aligning with global efforts to mitigate climate change. In the military context, increased thrust and
efficiency contribute to superior aircraft maneuverability, speed, and range, offering tactical
advantages in combat scenarios.

Future Directions

Looking ahead, the field of fighter jet propulsion is poised to benefit from advancements in
aerodynamics, materials science, and alternative fuels. Research into hypersonic propulsion
and adaptive cycle engines promises to push the boundaries of speed and efficiency even further.
Furthermore, the exploration of sustainable aviation fuels and electric hybrid propulsion
systems may revolutionize jet engine technology, balancing high performance with environmental
considerations.

Thrust & Propulsion - Satya Narayan Sahu

8. References
• Halliday, D., Resnick, R., & Walker, J. (2013).
Fundamentals of Physics. Wiley.

• Sutton, G. P., & Biblarz, O. (2017). Rocket Propulsion

Elements. Wiley.

• Cumpsty, N. (2003). Jet Propulsion: A Simple Guide to the

Aerodynamics and Thermodynamics Design and
Performance of Jet Engines. Cambridge University Press.

Thrust & Propulsion - Satya Narayan Sahu