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The Cell

The document discusses the cell as the basic unit of life, detailing its structure, the emergence of cell theory, and the role of microscopes in studying cells. It explains the differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells, the functions of the plasma membrane, and the composition of the cell wall. Additionally, it covers the structure and function of the nucleus and various cytoplasmic organelles.

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rolaxmuhammad20
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3 views21 pages

The Cell

The document discusses the cell as the basic unit of life, detailing its structure, the emergence of cell theory, and the role of microscopes in studying cells. It explains the differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells, the functions of the plasma membrane, and the composition of the cell wall. Additionally, it covers the structure and function of the nucleus and various cytoplasmic organelles.

Uploaded by

rolaxmuhammad20
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© All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
cccce ccc ee ccccccccesssc sess see assesses sree eee sag (Gr 15 Rat Rok ore by Oo ag) }18 Cell is the smallest entity in which life can exist. It is the least set of chemioy et that with the help of “life” turns into a stable, living systems with the self replicati? 4 property. a ~~ the Scanned with CamScanner CELL AS BASIC UNIT OF LIFE bout which it is believed that ind it fully, they would be able to unravel the secret ‘scientist will und th, The discovery of cells and their structure became possible with ee fe and dea "of life an nd with the construction of avid Jansen!in P| " icist designed it properly- e of cork. Later, in the cells of ‘acellular organization was emphasize (that living organisms have 3) and Schwann |in the c |. His observation thus, jas a structure which changed the definition consists of a nucleus stance enclosed, by a membrane?. Later, it was 1 in animals and plants is similar with only in addition to the cell membrane. i | ne described the } Bo. rounded by a semifluid su pointed out, that the structure ofa cel polnjifference. that plant cell has cell-wall When Robert Hooke first discover ved the cellas basic unit of life in 1663, he calculated vy vine -bilion of calls in a “cubic inch” of cork. ne encounters such astonishing umbers contain frequently in the study of cell biology. A new born human baby -pontain 2trilion cells; an adult 60 trilion. When you donate blood, you give away 5.4 Srion cells. Each day, infact, a human body sloughs offand replaces 1 percent of its ‘cells or about 600 billion. 4.1.1 Emergence of Cell Theory: In 1838, Do a a concluded that, despite differences in the structure 0! issues, plants were made of cells. In 1839, a German 1, published a comprehensive report on the cellular basis of rimals, Both of them proposed the cell theory which state that: * are composed of one or more cells. | and functional unit of life. ? ° found in each-cell, in animal cells single Golg! apparatus is cell, in p cell, epmayis more. Golgi apparatus are especially prominent in glandular cgi The products of E.R. aré modified and stored, and then sent to other destination, ‘They perform the function of collection, packaging and distribution, { addition to its finishing work, the Golgi apparatus manufacture certal macromolecules by itself. Many’ polysaccharides secreted by cells, like cell-wall aryl cell plate material in plant cell are Golgi products. . Plasma (iv) Lysosomes: _ ,_.. These are spherical bodies, a few micrometer in | diameter, surrounded by @ engulfing single membrane, originated ow by Golgi apparatus and Lysosome ‘i containing digestive enzymes. i They occur only in the cytoplasm ofanimal cells, and function in the digestion of material taken into the cell by , as bacteria are ingested by white blood corpuscles. Normally they function as destroyers of foreign particles and worn out cellular components. When the membrane of lysosomes is memberane / 44 Digestion City , > / @ Autophagy (lysosome chemical breakd : i rece So aaa Fig. 4.12 Formation and function af lysosomes cause a cell to destroy itselfby digesting its own, eins, lysosomes havebeenrefe as “suicide sacs” Bea arossaa et eee 7 Disturbance in lysosome function has ‘puman heall 1965 [Link] of Belgium explained how the Crete lysosomal enzyme, oc-glucosidase, could lead to the storage of undigested é! accumulate in lysosome causing swelling of the organelles and irreversible d to the cells and tissues. Diseases of this type, characterized by the deficient lysosomal enzyme and He corresponding accumulation of ‘undergraded sul are calle: e disorder, over.30 disorders have been reported, ey Scanned with CamScanner OLOGY om some are described in the following table. <= fable 4.1 Sphingolipid/ storage diseases ‘ ~~ Disease | Consequences : ’ | = Mental retardation, blindness, death by age 3. - Liver and spleen enlargement, erosion of long bones, mental retardation in infantile form only. _ Krabbe’s disease ~ Loss of myelin, mental retardation, death by age 2. Plastids: . ‘They are especial protoyilAsmic double membrant bound organelles which ction as chemical synthesizers and storage bodies. Plastids occur in greatest umberin cells of plants and in the primitive single celled organisms, the Protoctists. ‘There are three types of plastids e.g. Chloroplast, Chromoplast and Leucoplast. i) Chloroplast (Gr: Chloro=green, Plast=living): The most common of plastid is chloroplast containing chlorophyll which gives plant their green Jour and is of great importance in the manufactute of food by the process of — thesis. Chloroplasts contain a substantial amount of DNA and are capable of synthesis of some other new structural components. It has its own (v) ii): | Chromoplast (Gr: Chroma=colour, Plast=living): They have pigments ¢xanthophyll, and carotene. The chromoplasts are responsible for the various olour combinations found in flowers, fruits and other coloured parts except green. iif) Leucoplast (Gr: Leuco=white): These are/¢olourless plastids which levelopin the absence of sunlight and are thus commonly found inall under-ground arts of the plants. They_store the food material_as_carbohydrates, lipids_and Proplastids: Proplastids are immature, colourless plastids occuring in cells f meristematic tissues. They consist of double membrane enclosing granular troma. They multiply by division. In mature cells proplastids develop into chloroplast r chromoplast or leucoplast. . Chloroplasts as energy converting Organelles:; A typical plant cell has especial type of energy converting organelles, chloroplasts, They have an ability to convert solar energy (light energy) me k chemical/food energy by the process of photosynthesis, th called site of hotosynthesis. Chloroplasts belong toa group of double-n ‘bound = °y Contain chlorophyll and its associated proteins. _ ‘ Scanned with CamScanner One lamella Inter-granal lamella, ‘Double membrane bounding chloroplast Fig. 4.13 The site of photosynthesis in a plant During photosynthesis, chlorophyll captures the energy of sunlight aii transfers it to other molecules in the thylakoid membranes. These moleculesia turn transfer the energy to ATP and other energy-carrier molecules. The energ carriers diffuse into stroma, where their energy is used to derive the synthest of sugar from carbon dioxide. Due to this movement of energy from one form’ another, chloroplast is an energy converting organelle. (vi) Peroxisome: Peroxisome are bounded microbodies that contain enzymes’ ’ for transferring hydrogen atom to oxygen;;) 1 forming hydrogen peroxide (H,O,), a toxic | Sag molecule that is immediately broken down ™ towater by the enzyme catalase. Peroxisome. are abundant in cells that hre metabolizing alcohol, Peroxisome are to help in ag detoxification of alcohol. They are found in y Poronsomes plants and animals. “Wig. 4.14 wnciniata Scanned with CamScanner Peroxisomes contain enzymes that breakdown damaging cor peroxisomes ithin liver and kidney cells breakdown and detoxify full of the alcohol a person drink. Glyoxysome:. . another type of microbodies found in plants only which are also consider specialized peroxisomes called glyoxysomes. 'g, Each glyoxysome hasa single layered bounding membrane enclosing a ar stroma. Glyoxysome contain enzymes that initiate the conversion of fatty_ Cytoskeleton: ‘The cytosol is organised into a three dimensional network of brous proteins called cytoskeleton. It plays fundamental roles in mitosis, meiosis, esis, cell-wall deposition, the maintenance ofcell-shapeand cell differentiation. ‘There are three types of cytoskeleton elements found in cells. Microfilaments are solid strand of: ‘about 7 nmin diameter and several qitiséle cells. They are consists of two actin chain that tertwine in a helical fashion, some microfilaments also contain sin ith actin. They perform function of muscle contraction, changes in cell sha] (cluding division of cytoplasmic in dividing animal cells, cytoplasmic streaming ovement of pseudopodia. a = 7 1) Intermediate filaments are solid strands of to 11 nmin diameter, D to 100 um in length. They are intermediate in between microtubules and crofilaments. They are made up of atleast five different types of protein. form rope polymer of fibrous protein. Unlike the other two types of cytoskeleton elements, itermediate filaments do not assemble and disassemble._Therefore, they are pportant in maintaining the shape of cell, attachment of muscle cells, support of cell processes (axon). ‘ ¢) Microtubules are hollow tubes with an outel more than 50 umin length. They are composed of prot bule consists of hundreds of thousands of tubulin sul columns called proto filaments, they are respon omosomes during cell division, movement of o1 pvement of cilia and flagella. a) m in length especially 1 Scanned with CamScanner 70 i THE I Contriolo Intermediate filament Microtubule Plasma membrane filament bundle vament Microtubule Intermediate filament jotamavet Protofiament — = | Fig. 4.18" Thiree dimensional structure of cell. Showing distribution of cytoskeleton and structure of micro tubules and micro fuament . . SY . (iit) Ribosbines!=> Patadatiscovece . coma ‘These are so named because they contain high concentrati acid (RNA). small structures are sites of protein synthesis in all cell Sroulonan Scanned with CamScanner oL0GY I okaryotic as well as cukaryotic cells. Ribosomes a a fhe cytoplasm in prokaryotic cells. But in cuka tle sate nee, oe well as attached to endoplasmic reticulum. Biercround free ¢ different kinds of proteins. There are mi si ee a _ us the: me y produce the protein needed by the cell. subunit GOS © S— Ribosome ‘ Transport \ Vesicle formation vesicie Receptor protein : ‘ Fig. 4.16 Structure of ribosomes and attachment of ribosome with ER. Eachribosome consists of two unequal subunits. ‘Thelarger subunit is dome- shaped and cap on the flat surface of larger subunit. Some dhere themselves to endoplasmic reticulum ty the larger subunits. ibosomes at Although ribosomes are among the smallest organelles, they are among the most vital cellular components. Recent investigations reveal that the ribosomes are ufactured in the nucleolt ferred to the cytoplasm. hrough nucleopores. rection 0! tis from where they are trans . Within ¢ centrosome of an animal cell is a pair of centrioles. Centrioles are short; barrel + shaped structures of microtubules, lying perpendicular to one another. Each entriole is composed of nine se triplet microtubules arranged in a ring. hen a cell divides, the centrioles Teplicate, move to opposite side of the cell and thread like fibres begin to radiate from centrioles in all directions called (x) Vacuoles: soy, 1 : Genrally vacuoles (except food vacuole) are ‘nonprotoplasthic liquid 4 cavities in the cytoplasm and are surrounded by a meni paimBeatiee ta. i The tonoplast is selectively permeable, it allows certain substances to enter ij vacuole. In animal cells they are temporarily formed at the time of their need. rm are conspicuous organelles of plant cells. They are more Prominent in maj They whereas less prominent in immature cells. The vacuoles in plant cells are i el cell sap and act as store house, which often plays role in Plant defen “a necessary for plant cell enlargement. In animal cells, lysosomes are i Which} lytic enzymes, including proteases, ribonucleases and glycosidases, aS = parapet act as lysosome as they contain hydrolytic enzymes and Prt ° tonoplast lose its differential permeability and its Fig. 4.18 Plant cell vacuole. Scanned with CamScanner

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