Chapter 12
Geometric Design Manual-2002 At–Grade Junctions
12 AT-GRADE JUNCTIONS
12.1 Introduction
A junction, or intersection, is the general area where two or more roads join. A
disproportionate amount of traffic accidents occur at junctions, and thus from a traffic safety
aspect junctions require attention and careful design. Good junction design should allow
transition from one route to another or through movement on the main route and intersecting
route with minimum delay and maximum safety. To accomplish this, the layout and
operation of the junction should be obvious to the driver, with good visibility between
conflicting movements.
Differing junction types will be appropriate under different circumstances depending on
traffic flows, speeds, and site limitations. Types of junctions include:
1) T-Junctions
2) Cross-Junctions
3) Roundabouts
4) Grade Separation: Discussed in Chapter 13
This chapter describes the design for all at-grade junctions. A checklist for junction design is
presented in Figure 12-12 at the end of the chapter.
12.2 Design Requirements
The design of junctions must take account of the following basic requirements:
• Safety
• Operational comfort
• Capacity
• Economy
A junction is considered safe when it is visible, comprehensible, and maneuverable. These
three requirements can generally be met by complying with the following guidelines.
12.2.1 VISIBILITY
The junction should be sited so that the major road approaches are readily visible. The angle
of skew of the junction should be no more than 20 degree from perpendicular.
12.2.2 COMPREHENSION
(i) The right of way should follow naturally and logically from the junction layout.
(ii) The types of junctions used throughout the whole road network should be
similar.
(iii) The use of road signs is necessary. Road markings and other road furniture may
also be required.
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12.2.3 MANEUVERABILITY
(i) All traffic lanes should be of adequate width and radius for the appropriate
vehicle turning characteristics. To accommodate truck traffic, turn radii shall be
15 meters minimum.
(ii) The edges of traffic lanes should be clearly indicated by road markings.
The operation of the junction depends principally upon the frequency of gaps that naturally
occur between vehicles in the main road flow. These gaps should be of sufficient duration to
permit vehicles from the minor road to merge with, or cross, the major road flow. In
consequence junctions are limited in capacity, but this capacity may be optimized by, for
example, canalization or the separation of maneuvers.
12.3 Selection of Junction Type
The choice of a junction type requires knowledge of traffic demand, intersection
performance and accident prediction. It is often difficult to determine the best intersection
type of any particular situation, taking into account capacity, delay, safety and physical
layout factors. Several alternatives may be possible at a junction. A guide for the selection of
junction type based on different combinations of traffic flows is presented in Figure 12-1.
For the lower volume junctions, the applicable junction type vs. traffic flow is presented in
further detail in Figure 12-2. Basic advantages and disadvantages of different junction types,
including grade separation, are as follows:
Priority (T-Junction, Cross-Junction). For low flows. Can cause long delays.
Requires sufficient stopping sight distance. Delays can be improved by signal
installation.
Roundabouts. For low to medium flows. Minimal delays at lower flows. Shown
to be safer than priority junctions. Requires attention to pedestrian movements
and accommodation of slow-moving traffic.
Grade-Separation. For high flows. Results in minimal delays. Expensive.
Subsequent text gives further information on each junction type.
12.4 T-Junctions
The basic junction layout for rural roads is the T-junction with the major road traffic having
priority over the minor road traffic. Applications of T-junctions include staggered T-
junction, which caters to cross-traffic. Staggered T-junctions are often the result of a
realignment of the minor route to improve the angle of the skew of the crossing, as shown In
Figure 12-3. Where such staggered T-junctions are used, the left-right stagger is preferred to
the right-left stagger (see Figure 12-3). The reason for this is that, in the latter case, a
crossing vehicle must re-enter the minor road by making a left turn on the major roadway. In
such cases, the inclusion of a left-turning lane between the staggers should be considered.
The minimum distance between the T-junctions is shown in Table 12-1.
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Chapter 12
Geometric Design Manual-2002 At–Grade Junctions
Figure 12-1: Junction Selection Based on Traffic Flows
Figure 12-2: T-Junction Selection for Various Major and Minor Road Traffic Flows
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Chapter 12
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Figure 12-3: Staggered X-Junctions
12.5 Cross Junctions
A cross junction has four legs and is present where two highways cross each other. Overall
principles of design, island arrangements, use of turning lanes, and other parameters are
similar to those used in T-junctions.
Experience in some countries has shown that converting crossroads into roundabouts can
reduce accident costs by more than 80 percent.
Where more complex junction layouts involving the intersection of four or more roads are
encountered, these should be simplified by redesign to two junctions, or a roundabout should
be used.
Having selected the basic junction layout, it is necessary to adapt this basic layout in
accordance with the following principles to ensure that a safe, economic and geometrically
satisfactory design will be produced.
12.6 Distance between Adjoining Junctions
Level of service and driver perception is affected by the spacing of junctions. It certain
cases, it may be necessary to limit the junctions for reasons of safety and serviceability.
Table 12-1 gives a guide to the minimum spacing for each road design standard, and should
be used for the design of new roads or when reviewing junction layouts.
Table 12-1: Access Control
DESIGN STANDARD MINIMUM SPACING OF
JUNCTION (M)
DS1 1000
DS2 500
DS3- DS4 300
DS5- DS6 100
DS7- DS10 20
Note: Classifications and spacing are for the major elements of the junction
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Chapter 12
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12.7 Visibility Splay
At all junctions, adequate visibility splay must be provided. For conditions where the minor
road yields to the major road traffic, drivers of vehicles on the major road must be able to see
traffic on the minor road, and vice-versa, as indicated in yield conditions in Figure 12-4 and
Table 12-2. For conditions where the minor road stops before proceeding to the major road,
drivers must have a sight distance for stop conditions as indicated in Figure 12-5 and Table
12-3. If the minor road approach is on a curve, the stopping sight distance for the minor road
design speed must be maintained, and a Stop Ahead sign must be employed.
Figure 12-4: Visibility Splay for “Yield” Conditions
Table 12-2: Visibility Splay for “Yield” Conditions
Junction Design speed (km/h) 40 50 60 70 85 100 120
Approach Length, LA (m) 110 135 160 185 225 260 310
Figure 12-5: Visibility Splay for “Stop” Conditions
Table 12-3: Visibility Splay for “Stop” Conditions
Junction Design speed (km/h) 40 50 60 70 85 100 120
Stop Length, LS (m) 120 145 185 230 315 400 500
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12.8 Turning Lanes
Left and right turning lanes are of particular value on the higher speed and volume roads
when a vehicle slowing down to turn and leave the major road may impede following
vehicles. These are incorporated into the Standard Detail Drawing for all junctions on trunk
and link roads.
12.8.1 RIGHT TURN LANE
Right turn lanes, comprising a taper section and deceleration lane, shall be provided for all
trunk and link road DS1, DS2, and DS3 junctions, and for other road standards meeting any
of the following conditions:
On four or more lane roads and divided highways
When the major road design speed is 100 km/hr or greater, and the present year
AADT on the major road is greater than 1500 AADT
When the present year AADT of the right-turning traffic is greater than 750
AADT
A detail of the layout for the Right Turn Lane is given in Figure 12-6. The length of the right
turn lane including the taper, measured as shown in the figure, is related to design speed as
indicated in Table 12-4. The width of the major approach lane shall be the same as the width
of the traffic lanes.
Figure 12-6: Layout for Right Turn Lane
Table 12-4: Length of Right Turn Lane
Design Speed of Major Road Diverging Section Deceleration Section Total Length
(km/h) Length (LC) m Length (LD) (L) m
70 or less 30 30 60
85 40 50 90
100 50 70 120
120 60 110 170
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12.8.2 LEFT TURN LANES
Warrants are the same as for a right-turning lane. A separate lane for left turning traffic
(traffic turning left from the major road into the minor road) shall be provided for all trunk
and link road DS1, DS2, and DS3 junctions. Warrants for inclusion of left turn lanes for
other road standards are under any of the following conditions:
¾ On four or more lane roads and divided highways
¾ When the major road design speed is 100 km/hr or greater, and the present year
AADT on the major road is greater than 1500 AADT
¾ When the present year AADT of the left-turning traffic is greater than 750
AADT
A left turn lane will consist of a taper section, a deceleration section and a storage section.
The minimum lengths for taper sections are as for right turn lanes. A detail of the layout for
a Left Turn Lane for a single carriageway is given in Figure 12-7; the configuration for dual
carriageways is shown in Figure 12-8. The length of the left turn lane including the taper,
measured as shown in the figure, is related to design speed as indicated in Table 12-5. The
length of the storage section is as indicated in Table 12-6.
Note: Where:
Central reservation to be formed by road markings Lc = Length of diverging section
LD = length of deceleration section
LS = Length of storage section
WL = width of through traffic lanes
Figure 12-7: Layout for Left-Turn Lane: Single Carriageway
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Notes: Where:
Edges of central reserve may be curbed in Lc = Length of diverging section
vicinity of junction. If raised curbs are LD = length of deceleration section
used then they must be set back 0.25m LS = Length of storage section
from lane edges. WL = width of through carriageway
WC = width dependent upon width of central
reserve
CR = Normal central reserve width
Figure 12-8: Layout for Left-Turn Lane: Dual Carriageway
Table 12-5: Length of Left-Turn Lane
Design Speed of Major Diverging Section Deceleration Section
Road (km/h) Length (LC) m Length (LD) m
40 30 30
50 30 50
60 30 60
70 30 70
85 40 85
100 50 100
120 60 120
Table 12-6: Lengths of Storage Sections for Left-Turn Lanes
Left-Turning Traffic (AADT) Length of Storage Section
(LS) m
0-1500 20
1500-3000 40
>3000 60
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Provision of left turn lanes can be made for both the major and minor road. On single
roadway roads where a left turn lane is to be provided, a painted central reserve shall always
be used.
In order to accommodate a left turn lane on a single roadway road the roadway has to be
widened to provide the required width. The widening shall be designed so that the through
lanes are given smooth and optically pleasing alignments. The width of the through lanes at
the junction shall be the same as the approach lanes.
The widening shall be provided by the deviation of both through lanes from the centerline.
This shall be achieved by introducing a taper of 100-meter length at the beginning and
ending of the widening.
12.9 Traffic Islands
A traffic island is a defined area between traffic lanes for the control of vehicle movements
and which may also be used as a pedestrian refuge. Traffic islands may take the form of an
area delineated by barrier curbs or a pavement area marked by paint or a combination of
these.
Traffic islands may be included in the design of junctions for one or more of the following
purposes:
¾ Separation of conflicts
¾ Control of angle of conflict
¾ Reduction of excessive pavement areas
¾ Regulation of traffic and indication of proper use of junction
¾ Arrangements to favor a predominant turning movement
¾ Protection of pedestrians
¾ Protection and storage of turning and crossing vehicles
¾ Location of traffic signs
Islands are either elongated or triangular in shape and are situated in areas not normally used
as vehicle paths, the dimensions depending upon the particular junction or bus stop layout.
The layout of an island is determined by the edges of the through traffic lanes, turning
vehicles and the lateral clearance to the island sides. Island curbs should be offset a
minimum of 0.3 meters from the edge of through traffic lanes even if they are mountable. A
sample of a junction including divisional traffic islands is given in the Standard Detail
Drawings.
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12.10 Private Access
A private access is defined as the intersection of an unclassified road with a classified road.
An access shall have entry and exit radii of 6 meters or greater, depending upon the turning
characteristics of the expected traffic. The minimum width shall be 3m. A typical access is
show in Figure 12-9; dotted lines show possible edge of corresponding shoulders. The
location of the access must satisfy the visibility requirement for "stop conditions" given in
Figure 12-4. A drainage pipe shall be placed as required. The access shall be constructed
back to the right-of-way line, with a taper to match the existing access.
Figure 12-9: Typical Access
12.11 Roundabouts
A roundabout is a one-way circulatory system around a central island, entry to which is
controlled by markings and signs. Priority is given to traffic already in the roundabout.
Roundabouts provide high capacity and minimal delay. Roundabouts have a good safety
record.
12.11.1 USE OF ROUNDABOUTS
Near built-up areas and in village centers where the through road may be crossed by local
roads carrying heavy traffic, the use of roundabouts may be considered.
The following factors influence the choice of selecting a roundabout over some other form of
intersection control:
12.11.2 SAFETY
Roundabouts should not be introduced on rural roads where the design speeds of adjacent
sections are 90 km/h or greater. For design speeds approaching this value, consideration
should be given to the use of rumble strips and warning signs at the approaches to warn the
driver to anticipate the roundabout.
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Roundabouts are usually more difficult for pedestrians to cross than normal junctions.
12.11.3 TRAFFIC FLOW
High proportions of turning movements favor roundabouts. Roundabouts should generally
be used if the minor road flow is greater than one third of the major road flow. Roundabouts
are also an advantage where peak flows are 50 percent greater than the average flows. The
roundabout depicted in Figure 12-10 and in the Standard Detail Drawings is acceptable for
traffic volumes of up to 15,000. This is based on empirical regression theory, rather than
gap-acceptance theory.
12.11.4 SITE CONDITIONS
Roundabouts generally take up more land than fully canalized junctions do. The additional
land acquisition costs for roundabouts should be balanced against the increased capacity
offered.
12.11.5 DRIVER BEHAVIOR
Roundabouts regularize traffic flow and should reduce accidents as well as increase capacity.
12.11.6 THE GENERAL LAYOUT
The general layout of a roundabout should provide for the following (see Figure 12-12):
• Adequate entry widths
• Adequate circulation space compatible with entry widths
• Central islands of diameter sufficient only to give drivers guidance on the
maneuvers expected.
• Deflection of the traffic to the right on entry to promote movement and ensure
low traffic speeds.
• A simple and clear layout
• Suitable visibility at any entry of each adjacent entry
• Entry and exit deflection angles and central island radius should prevent
through speeds in excess of 50 km/h. This is accomplished by maximizing the
difference between the shortest track a driver can take through the roundabout,
vs. the straight-line distance from an entry to the opposite exit. No vehicle path
should allow a vehicle to traverse the roundabout at a radius greater than 100
meters (see Figure 12-11).
A standard design for the layout of a roundabout suitable for use in villages is given in the
Standard Detail Drawings.
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Chapter 12
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Figure 12-10: Roundabout Layout
Figure 12-11: Vehicle Path through Roundabout
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Geometric Design Manual-2002 At–Grade Junctions
Figure 12-12: Roundabout Dimensions
The following steps may be followed in laying out a trial geometry for a roundabout:
1. Select the general design criteria to be used
2. Select the appropriate design vehicle for the site. This will generally be the DV4 for all design
standards.
3. Adopt a minimum design vehicle turning radius. This will generally be 15m radius. Check the
design using the template from Figure 5-11.
4. Determine from traffic flows the number of lanes required on entry, exit and circulation
5. Identify the needs of pedestrians
6. Identify the location of controls such as right-of-way boundaries, utilities, access requirements,
and establish the space available
7. Select a trial central island diameter and determine the width needed of the circulating
carriageway
8. Draw the roundabout
9. Check that the size and shape is adequate to accommodate all intersecting legs with sufficient
separations for satisfactory traffic operations
10. Lay out the entrance/exit islands
11. Check the achievement of adequate deflection (Figure 12-11). Adjust as required.
12. Check site distances at approaches and exits.
13. Layout lane and pavement markings.
14. Layout lighting plan
15. Layout sign plan.
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Chapter 12
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FIGURE 12-13: CHECKLIST FOR JUNCTION DESIGN
1. Will the junction be able to carry the expected/future traffic levels without becoming
overloaded and congested?
2. Have the traffic and safety performance of alternative junction designs been
considered?
3. Is the route through the junction as simple and clear to all users as possible?
4. Is the presence of the junction clearly evident at a safe distance to approaching
vehicles for all directions?
5. Are warning and information signs placed sufficiently in advance of the junction for
a driver to take appropriate and safe action given the design speeds on the road?
6. On the approach to the junction, is the driver clearly aware of the actions necessary
to negotiate the junction safely?
7. Are turning movements segregated as required for the design standard?
8. Are drainage features sufficient to avoid the presence of standing water?
9. Is the level of lighting adequate for the junction, location, pedestrians, and the
design standard?
10. Are the warning signs and markings sufficient, particularly at night?
11. Have the needs of pedestrian and noon-motorized vehicles been met?
12. Are sight lines sufficient and clear of obstructions including parked and stopped
vehicles?
13. Are accesses prohibited a safe distance away from the junction?
14. Have adequate facilities such as footpaths, refuges, and crossings, been provided
for pedestrians?
15. Does the design, road marking and signing clearly identify rights of way and
priorities?
16. Is the design of the junction consistent with road types and adjacent junctions?
17. Are the turning lanes and tapers where required of sufficient length for speeds and
storage?
Date: ................................ Designer Date: ..................... Responsible Engineer
...........................................................................................................................................
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