Semester 6 | Core Course XIII

GPHY6B13T: RELATIVISTIC MECHANICS AND ASTROPHYSICS

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 SYLLABUS

Unit 1

1. Special Relativity 18 Hours

The need for a new mode of thought – Michelson-Morley experiment – Postulates of Special Relativity
– Galilean transformations – Lorentz transformations – Simultaneity – The order of events: Timelike
and spacelike intervals – Lorentz length contraction – The orientation of a moving rod –Time dilation
– Muon decay – Role of time dilation in an atomic clock - Relativistic transformation of velocity – Speed
of light in a moving medium - Doppler effect – Doppler shift in sound –Relativistic Doppler effect –
Doppler effect for an observer off the line of motion – Doppler navigation – Twin paradox – Relativistic
Momentum and Energy – Momentum – Velocity dependence of the electron‟s mass – Energy –
Relativistic energy and momentum in an inelastic collision – The equivalence of mass and energy –
Massless particles – Photoelectric effect –Radiation pressure of light – Photon picture of the Doppler
effect – Does light travel at the velocity of light ? – The rest mass of the photon – Light from a pulsar

Unit 2
2. General Relativity and Cosmology 8 Hours
The principle of equivalence – General theory of relativity – Tests of general relativity – Stellar
evolution – Nucleosynthesis – White dwarf stars – Neutron stars – Black holes – The expansion of the
universe – Cosmic microwave background radiation – Dark matter – Cosmology and general relativity
– The big bang cosmology – Formation of nuclei and atoms – Echoes of the big bang – The future of
the universe

Unit 3
3. Basic Tools of Astronomy 10 Hours
Stellar distance – Relationship between stellar parallax and distance – Brightness and luminosity
Relationship between Luminosity, brightness and distance – Magnitudes – Apparent magnitude and
brightness ratio – Relationship between apparent magnitude and absolute magnitude – Color and
temperature of stars – Size and mass of stars – Relationship between flux, luminosity and radius Star
constituents – Stellar spectra – Stellar classification – Hertzsprung-Russell diagram – H-R diagram and
stellar radius – H-R diagram and stellar luminosity – H-R diagram and stellar mass

4. Stellar Evolution 12 Hours

Birth of a Star – Pre-Main-Sequence evolution and the effect of mass – Galactic star clusters – Star
formation triggers – The Sun – Internal structure of the sun – Proton-proton chain – Energy transport
from the core to the surface – Binary stars – Masses of orbiting stars – Life times of main-sequence
stars – Red giant stars - Helium burning – Helium flash – Star clusters, Red giants and the H-R diagram
– Post-Main-Sequence star clusters : Globular clusters – Pulsating stars – Why do stars pulsate –
Cepheid variables and the period-luminosity relationship – Temperature and mass of Cepheids –
Death of stars – Asymptotic giant branch – The end of an AGB star‟s life – Planetary nebulae – White
dwarf stars – Electron degeneracy – Chandrasekhar limit – White dwarf evolution– White dwarf origins
– High mass stars and nuclear burning – Formation of heavier elements –Supernova remnants –
Supernova types – Pulsars and neutron stars – Black holes

5. Galaxies 6 Hours
Galaxy types – Galaxy structure – Stellar populations – Hubble classification of galaxies – Observing
galaxies – spiral, barred spiral, elliptical, lenticular galaxies – Active galaxies and active galactic
Nuclei (AGN) – Gravitational lensing – Hubble‟s law – Clusters of galaxies

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 Contents
Chapter Title Page

2 General Relativity and Cosmology 4-14

3 Basic Tools of Astronomy 15-20

4 Stellar Evolution 21-38

5 Galaxies 39-42

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 Chapter-2: General Relativity and Cosmology

1. State and explain Hubbles law

Ans: Hubble observed that the farther away a galaxy is from us, the faster it is moving. This
proportionality between the speed of the galaxy and its distance d is known as Hubble’s law
given by
V= H0 d
where V is the recessional velocity of the moving galaxy and d is the distance to the galaxy, H0
is a proportionality constant known as Hubble parameter and its value is given by 70
km/s/Mpc. Using Hubble’s Law, we can determine the distance to a galaxy if we know how
fast it is moving away from us.
2. State and explain the principle of equivalence
Ans: principle of equivalence states that ‘there is no local experiment that can be done to
distinguish between the effects of a uniform gravitational field in a nonaccelerating inertial
frame and the effects of a uniformly accelerating (non-inertial) reference frame’.
3. Explain the concept of Hawing radiation.
Ans: Steven Hawking showed that black holes could be sources of particle emission. According
to quantum mechanics particle and antiparticle spontaneously appear and annihilate each
other borrowing energy of 2mc2 from vacuum as long as the loan is repaid (the particles
vanish) within a time of at most Δt ∼ ħ/2mc2. When this happens near a black hole, normally
both will fall into the black hole but sometimes one is swallowed by the blackhole and other
may have energy to escape to the outside world, taking energy with it. This process appears
as blackhole emitting particle and is called Hawking radiation. In the process, the black hole
loses mass. The rate of mass loss is inversely proportional to the mass of the black hole.
4. Write down any one test of general theory of relativity.
There are tests or experiments that are precise enough to detect the difference between flat
spacetime and curved spacetime or to prove the
Test-1: Deflection of star light
When a beam of light from a star passes close to the Sun, it is deflected from its original
direction, as shown in Figure. The star appears to be displaced from its true position by an
angle θ.

The deflection θ can be analysed using Newtonian gravitation and special relativity by
assigning the photons in the beam an effective mass m = E/c2 and assuming them to be
deflected by the Newtonian gravitational force given by

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 2𝐺𝑀
𝜃=
𝑅𝑐 2
where M is the mass of the Sun and R is its radius. But according to general theory of relativity,
spacetime in the vicinity of the Sun is curved, and the light beam is simply following the most
direct path along the curved spacetime, and the deflection estimated is twice the value
predicted by the Newtonian formula. An experiment performed during a total solar eclipse to
measure the deflection of light gives a result that is in complete agreement with that
estimated by general theory of relativity.

Test-2: Delay of radar echos

When a line joining Earth and another planet (Venus, for example as shown in figure) passes
through the Sun, the situation is known as “superior conjunction”. Based on the orbits of Earth
and Venus, we can calculate how long it takes a radar signal sent from Earth to be reflected
from Venus and return to Earth. Near superior conjunction, the signal passes close to the Sun,
and therefore, according to general relativity, it does not travel in a Euclidian straight line, but
instead follows a path through curved spacetime. It therefore takes the signal a bit longer than
the expected time to make the round trip. This time delay is expected to be about 10−4 s, and
it has been confirmed to within a few percent.

Test-3: Precession of Perihelion of Mercury

According to Newtonian gravitation, orbit of a planet about a star of mass M,say sun is a
perfect ellipse. The equation of the ellipse is given by

where rmin is the minimum distance between planet and star and e is the eccentricity of the
orbit. When r = rmin, the planet is said to be at perihelion; this occurs regularly, at exactly the
same point in space, whenever φ = 0, 2π, 4π, . . .. . According to general relativity, the orbit is
not quite a closed ellipse; the curved spacetime near the star causes the perihelion direction
to precess somewhat especially for mercury as shown in figure. After completing one orbit,
the planet returns to rmin, but at a slightly different φ. The difference φ can be computed from
general relativity, according to which the orbit is

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 Where

For the Sun, even for the smallest value of rmin (mercury) Δɸ is an extremely small quantity
and hence expressed in terms of total precession per century. However, since the effect is
cumulative, it builds up orbit after orbit and after N orbits, the perihelion has advanced by
NΔφ. The experimentally measured values are in agreement with the predictions of general
relativity

5. What are Blackholes, define the terms singularity, event horizon and Schwarzschild radius.
Estimate the Schwarzschild radius of sun (MS= 2 × 1030 kg, RS= 7 × 108 m) and earth (ME= 6 ×
1024 kg, RE= 6 × 106 m)
Ans: For very massive stars, the gravitational force is strong enough to overcome even the
Pauli principle applied to the neutrons, and there is nothing to prevent the material in the star
from suffering complete collapse down to a single point in space and it eventually become a
blackhole. This point where gravity is infinite, and object has no physical size is called
singularity. There will be an area of space (usually spherical) surrounding the singularity where
the escape velocity is so high that even light cannot escape. This sphere of space within which
the escape velocity is equal to, or higher than the escape velocity of light is called a black hole.
The radius of this sphere or black hole is called Schwarzschild radius Inside the blackhole , an
object have to travel faster than light to escape its gravitational pull; whereas outside a black
hole, not. The boundary between these two regions is called the event horizon; any event that
occurs within the horizon is forever invisible to an outside observer.

Use the following equation to estimate the Schwarzschild radius.

6. Expression for relativistic Doppler effect

ν, relative velocity between source (at galaxy) of light and observer

λ, wave length of the emitted light by a moving star or galaxy
λ’, wave length we measure on earth
c is the speed of light
7. Write a note on cosmic microwave background radiation.

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 Radio astronomy studies revealed the presence of a universal background radiation in the
microwave region, which is believed to be the remnant radiation from the Big Bang
corresponding to a blackbody emitting thermal radiation at a temperature of 2.725 K.
During Big bang, the universe is considered hotter and denser and composed of gas of
particles and photons. Normally when a gas expands adiabatically, it cools. The same is true
for the universe: the expansion is accompanied by cooling. When the universe expanded, the
photons that filled the universe remained, but their wavelengths were stretched by the
continuing expansion. Today these photons have a much lower temperature. The wavelength
spectrum of those photons is that of an isolated object (blackbody) emitting thermal radiation
at the temperature T that characterizes the universe at a particular time. The wavelengths
change as the universe expands, but the radiation retains an ideal thermal spectrum at a
temperature that decreases with time. Using antenna and satellite measurements, the
temperature deduced as T= 2.725 from the radiant energy at that wavelength corresponding
to microwave.

Fig: The thermal radiation spectrum for a temperature of 2.725 K.

8. Derive the expression for mean energy per photons for a blackbody
Ans: The number of photons having energy in the range E to E + dE is, according to the Bose-
Einstein distribution and using the density states for the photon gas is given by
8𝜋 1
𝑑𝑁 = 𝑁(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = 𝑉 3 𝑘𝑇/𝐸
𝑑𝐸
(ℎ𝑐) 𝑒 −1
Where T is the temperature of the gas and V is the volume of the container that fills the gas
with a total number of N molecules
Hence the number per unit volume can be written as
8𝜋𝐸 2 1
𝑁(𝐸)𝑑𝐸/𝑉 = 𝑁(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = 𝑑𝐸
(ℎ𝑐)3 𝑒 𝑘𝑇/𝐸 − 1
To find the total number of photons of all energies per unit volume, integrate the above
equation over energy
𝑁 1 ∞ 8𝜋 ∞
𝐸 2 𝑑𝐸 8𝜋 3
∞ 2
𝑥 𝑑𝐸
= ∫ 𝑁(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = 3
∫ 𝑘𝑇/𝐸
= 3
(𝑘𝑇) ∫ 𝑥
𝑉 𝑉 0 (ℎ𝑐) 0 𝑒 − 1 (ℎ𝑐) 0 𝑒 −1
Where x = E/kT. The definite integral is a standard form with a value approximately equal to
2.404. The above equation shows that the total number of photons per unit volume is
proportional to the cube of the temperature, and evaluating the constants we get
𝑁 107 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 3 3
= (2.03 × . 𝐾 )𝑇
𝑉 𝑚3

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 Similarly energy density of blackbody radiation after evaluating the constants can be written
as
8𝜋 5 𝑘 4 4 103 𝑒𝑉 4 4
𝑈= 𝑇 = (4.72 × . 𝐾 )𝑇
15 (ℎ𝑐)3 𝑚3
The mean energy per photon at temperature T is obtained from the ratio of the above two
equations
𝑈
𝐸𝑚 = = (2.33 × 10−4 𝑒𝑉/𝐾 )𝑇
𝑁/𝑉

9. Explain the concept of dark matter

Ans: It is identified that there is a large quantity of invisible matter in galaxies—matter that
must be present in the galaxy to supply the gravitational force, but that does not give off any
light (or other electromagnetic radiation). To supply the required gravitational force, this dark
matter must have a mass at least 10 times the mass of the visible matter in the galaxy. That
is, more than 90% of the matter in the galaxy is in some unknown and invisible form. This dark
matter permeates the region of space occupied by the galaxy and may surround it in the form
of a halo.
10. From where the evidences of dark matter come ? (How it is first identified that there is
invisible matter (dark matter)) present in space ?
Ans: Since the stars in the galaxy are bound by the gravitational force, Kepler’s laws can be
used to analyze their motion. The gravitational force on stars such as sun in the spiral wing of
a galaxy is primarily due to the dense region at the center of the galaxy. The total mass of the
other stars in the spiral arm is much smaller than the central mass, so they make a negligible
contribution to the force on the Sun. Hence from the Keplers law the tangential velocity given
by V=√(GM/r) where G is the gravitational constant, M refers to the mass contained within
the region of radius r. According to this model, stars beyond the Sun to have tangential
velocities that decrease with increasing radius like r−1/2. However, studies based on doppler
shift indicate a velocity that is constant as a function of radius. For this to happen the mass,
M must increase linearly with r. For this to happen there must be a large quantity of invisible
matter present in galaxies.
11. What kinds of objects make up the dark matter?
Ans: Dark matter is considered to be composed of MACHOs (Massive Compact Halo Objects)
or WIMPs (Weakly Interacting Massive Particles). Possible MACHOs include massive black
holes, neutron stars, burnt-out white dwarf stars, or brown dwarf stars (Jupiter-sized objects
of too small a mass to become a star). The WIMPs include neutrinos, magnetic monopoles,
and other exotic types of stable elementary particles produced during the Big Bang. The major
difference between the two types of objects is that MACHOs are made from baryons (protons
and neutrons, like ordinary matter), while WIMPs are made from some other, more exotic
type of non-baryonic matter.
12. What is Kepler’s third law of planetary motion and write down the expression for tangential
velocities of stars in galaxy ?
Ans: According to Kepler’s law of periods,” The square of the time period of revolution of a
planet around the sun in an elliptical orbit is directly proportional to the cube of its semi-
major axis”

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 4𝜋 2 3
𝑇2 = ( )𝑟
𝐺𝑀
With v=2∏r/T, where v is the tangential velocity which is given by

𝐺𝑀
𝑣=√
𝑟
Where T is the time period of revolution, G is gravitational constant, M is the mass of the
central body, r is the semi major axis
13. Write down Einsteins field equation (relationship between curvature and the density of mass
and energy in space according to general relativity) and its implications ?
8𝜋𝐺
Ans: Curvature of space= (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 − 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦)
𝐶4
If no matter or energy is present, the right-hand side is zero, the curvature is zero and space
is flat. In the limit of classical kinematics (c → ∞) and in the limit of weak gravitational fields
(G → 0), space is nearly flat and we can safely use the Newtonian gravitational theory.
14. What is gravitational lensing?
Ans: Gravitational lensing is an important consequence of Einstein’s general theory of
relativity that gravity has the ability to “bend” light, if the gravitational force is strong enough.
Any object that has sufficient mass can deflect light waves. When light rays from a distant
object pass close to a compact but massive galaxy, the bending of the light can result in the
appearance of multiple or twisted images. It is as if the galaxy were acting like a lens, and so
any object emitting light from behind the galaxy has its light bent as it passes close to the
galaxy. This bizarre effect is called gravitational lensing.
15. How it is proved that there exists dark matter in clusters of galaxy?
Ans: The presence of dark matter is evidenced from the idea of gravitational lensing. When
light from distant galaxy pass by a cluster of galaxies on its way to earth, the light is deflected
by the gravitational field of the cluster, known as “gravitational lensing. From the amount of
the deflection of the light, it is possible to deduce the quantity of matter in the cluster. The
results of these observations show that there is much more matter in the cluster than we
would deduce from the luminous matter alone, suggesting the presence of relatively large
amounts of dark matter.
16. What is gravitational radiation?
Ans: Just as an accelerated charge emits electromagnetic radiation that travels with the speed
of light, an accelerated mass emits gravitational radiation that also travels with the speed of
light. These gravity waves are ripples that travel through spacetime. Waves produced by such
motions as the planets around the Sun are exceedingly weak whereas those produced by
events such as supernova explosion or binary compact objects produce observable strong
gravitational waves.
17. Explain the concept of dark energy?
Ans: It is identified that 28% of the composition of the universe is composed of ordinary
baryonic matter (4.6%) and dark matter (nonbaryonic matter, 23%). The missing 72% of the
composition of the universe is called as dark energy. Dark energy is considered as a mysterious
force responsible for accelerating the expansion of the universe. Experimental observations
indicate that supernovas in distant galaxies were fainter than expected, indicating that the
galaxies were 10 to 15% farther from us than the Hubble law predicts and dark energy is
considered as the root cause for this deviation as predicted from Hubble law.

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18. Write a brief not on the collapse of stars (evolution) into white dwarf, neutron star and
blackhole
Ans: During the stellar evolution, a star collapse into white dwarf, neutron star or to a
blackhole depending on its initial mass.
An ordinary star like sun collapse in to a white dwarf where the particles during the collapse
follows Fermi-Dirac statistics. As the supply of hydrogen fuel in a star begins to be used up,
the star will contract because the radiation pressure that opposes gravitational collapse is
reduced. Eventually the stable white dwarf stage can be reached, at which the Pauli principle
applied to the electrons prevents further collapse. The average density of a white dwarf
is about 106 times the average density of the Sun. An example of white dwarf star is Sirius B.
If the mass of the star is greater than about 1.4 times solar mass (the Chandrasekhar limit).
the gravitational force is sufficient to overcome the Pauli repulsion of the electrons, and
further collapse can occur. For a star of this mass, the Fermi energy of the electrons is 0.30
MeV. Higher-energy electrons in the tail of the Fermi-Dirac distribution will have sufficient
energy to produce the inverse beta-decay reaction:
e− + p → n + νe
where electrons interact with protons converted into neutrons, eventually removes some
electrons from the star, reducing the effects of Pauli repulsion, and allowing the star to
collapse a bit. As a result, the Fermi energy increases, pushing more electrons above the
threshold, resulting in more electrons being lost, and so on, until all (or very nearly all) of the
electrons vanish. The star is now composed of neutrons, instead of protons and electrons. The
Pauli repulsion of the electrons no longer can oppose gravitational collapse, and so the star
contracts until the Pauli principle applied to the neutrons (which also obey Fermi-Dirac
statistics) prevents further collapse. The star is now called neutron star.
If the star is even massive, the gravitational force is strong enough to overcome even the Pauli
principle applied to the neutrons, and there is nothing to prevent the material in the star from
suffering complete collapse down to a single point in space and it eventually become a
blackhole. This point where gravity is infinite, and object has no physical size is called
singularity. There will be an area of space (usually spherical) surrounding the singularity where
the escape velocity is so high that even light cannot escape. This sphere of space within which
the escape velocity is equal to, or higher than the escape velocity of light is called a black hole.
The radius of this sphere or black hole is called Schwarzschild radius Inside the blackhole , an
object have to travel faster than light to escape its gravitational pull; whereas outside a black
hole, not. The boundary between these two regions is called the event horizon; any event that
occurs within the horizon is forever invisible to an outside observer.
19. What is Friedmann equation and what are its implications?
Ans: Friedmann equation is the solution of equation of general theory of relativity for large
scale-structure of the universe given by

It will provide information about change in size of the universe as a function of time. Where
R(t) = the size or distance scale factor of the universe at time t
ρ = the total mass-energy density at t
k=constant; specifies the overall geometrical structure of the universe k
k = 0 if the universe is flat

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 k = +1 if the universe is curved and closed
k = −1 if the universe is curved and open
20. What are the three factors that determine the relative number of neutrons and protons ?
−𝛥𝐸
1. Ans: Boltzmann factor 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 :Protons have less rest energy than neutrons, so there are more of
them at any given temperature. ∆𝐸 = (mn − mp) c2 = 1.3 MeV. So the neutron to proton ratio
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can be expressed as 𝑒 −1.5×10 /𝑇 . For T ~1013 K, the ratio is ~1. 𝑒 −0.0015 = 1
2. Nuclear reactions: Reaction such as 𝑛 + ν𝑒 ⇄ 𝑝 + 𝑒 − 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 + 𝑒 + ⇄ 𝑝 + ν̅𝑒 as long as there
is plenty of e-, e+,ν̅𝑒 and ν𝑒
3. Neutron decay: The neutron half-life is about 10 min, which is going to be important only at
later times. For t < 1 s, there has not yet been enough time for an appreciable number of
neutrons to decay.
21. Estimate the temperature and energy of the universe at t=10-6 of the evolution of universe (at
10-6 sec after Big bang)
1.5×1010 1.5×1010
Ans: 𝑇 = = = 1.5 × 1013 𝐾
√𝑡 √10−6
Energy E=kT/e (eV)= (1.38 × 10-23 X 1.5 X 1013 )/1.6 X 10-19 =2.07 X 10-10 /1.6 x 10-19 eV=1290
MeV~1300 MeV.
22. Prove that the temperature required for nucleosynthesis (deuteron formation) is below 9 X
108 K
Ans: After t=6 sec in the Big bang, it is possible that neutrons and protons collide with one
another to form a deuteron (2H nucleus) via the following reaction
n + p → 2H + γ
but the high density of photons can also produce the inverse reaction:
γ + 2H → n + p
In order to have any appreciable build up of deuterons, the photons present must first cool
until their energies are below 2.22 MeV; otherwise the deuterons will be broken up as quickly
as they can be formed where 2.22 MeV is the deuteron binding energy. The energy 2.22 MeV
corresponds to a temperature T = 2.5 × 1010 K. Since the radiation does not have a single
energy, but rather has a thermal spectrum deuterons will not be formed as soon as the
temperature drops below 2.5 × 1010 K. In this spectrum a small fraction of the photons still has
energies above 2.22 MeV, and these photons continue to break apart the deuterons.

After t = 0.01 s, the ratio of nucleons to photons is about 10−9; about 1/6 of the nucleons are
neutrons. If the fraction of photons above 2.22 MeV is greater than 1/6 × 10−9, there will be
at least one energetic photon per neutron, which effectively prevents deuteron formation.
Hence it is important to estimate the temperature at which fewer than 1/6 × 10−9 photons
have energy above 2.22 MeV. Since we are estimating only the high energy tail of thermal
spectrum, E>> kT. The equation for number density of photons is given by

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23. Prove that the temperature required for neutral atom formation is 6070 K and time taken is
190, 000 yrs
Ans: In the previous problem, substitute f=1/6 which given E/kT=26. Taking E= 13.6 eV
(ionization energy of hydrogen), so that T=6.1 X 1012 s=190,000 years.
24. What are the implications of critical density in the geometry of the universe ?
3𝐻 2
Ans:The expression for critical density is given by 𝜌𝑐𝑟 = 8𝜋𝐺.
If the density of the universe is greater than this value, the universe is closed and less than
than critical value, the universe is open. If we define the density of the universe as the ratio
between actual density and critical density given by
𝜌
𝛺=𝜌
𝑐𝑟
If 𝛺 > 1, the gravitational interaction will eventually halt and reverse the expansion. If 𝛺 < 1,
the expansion will continue until the components are separated by infinite distances. If 𝛺 is
exactly equal to one, the expansion will also continue forever, but the components will arrive
at their infinite separation just as they lose the last bit of kinetic energy.
25. Why universe is considered as flat?
Ans: If we define the density of the universe as the ratio between actual density and critical
density given by
𝜌
𝛺=
𝜌𝑐𝑟
If 𝛺 = 1 initially, it remains exactly 1 always, but if either 𝛺 > 1 or 𝛺 < 1, it grows further away
from 1. If the early universe had = 1.000001, after the passage of 14 billion years 𝛺 would
have grown very large; similarly, if the initial value of 𝛺 were 0.999999, by now it would be
very close to 0.
26. What is the horizon problem?
Ans: The universe appears pretty much the same in all direction with same types of galaxies
and the same temperature of the background radiation. If the universe had been expanding

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 throughout its history at a uniform rate, those opposite regions of the sky could never have
been connected by any signal and thus had no way to achieve the common characteristics
that we now observe. This isotropy in the cosmic microwave background (CMB) temperature
across the entire sky, despite the entire sky not being in causal contact to establish thermal
equilibrium is called the horizon problem.
27. What is inflation hypothesis? (Solution for horizon problem)
Ans: The inflation hypothesis proposes that in the early universe rather than a constant
expansion rate there was a sudden rapid growth (by perhaps 50 orders of magnitude) in a
short interval of time between 10−35 s and 10−32 s. Before the time of inflation, the size of the
universe was less than the distance through which distant parts could exchange energy since
the time of the Big Bang. Thus all parts of the universe were able to achieve a common set of
characteristics. After inflation, the size of the universe exceeded the maximum range of
communication signals, but the homogeneous characteristics had already been achieved.
28. What are the implications of general theory of relativity ?
Ans: Special theory of relativity considers only inertial frame of reference (frames moving with
constant velocity, no accelaration). Whereas general theory of relativity accommodate
accelerated frames also so that so that motion would be relative for all observers. Ultimately,
general relativity is a theory of geometry. The motion of a particle is determined by the
properties of the space and time coordinates through which it moves. Because space and time
are intimately coupled in relativity, we regard them as components of a combined coordinate
system called spacetime. According to general relativity, the presence of matter (and energy)
causes spacetime to warp or curve ; the motion of particles is then determined by the shape
of the coordinate system.
29. What is Pulsar ?
Ans: Pulsars are rotating neutron stars that gives rise to regular pulsations. The collapse of a
rotating star to a neutron star causes the neutron star to rotate much more rapidly. Angular
momentum is conserved during the collapse, so the rotational angular velocity increases as
the rotational inertia decreases. The intense magnetic field of such a rapidly rotating object
traps any emitted charged particles and accelerates them to high speeds, especially near the
magnetic poles, where they give off radiation. As the star rotates, this beam of emitted
radiation sweeps around, and we see a pulse of radiation whenever the beam sweeps through
the Earth. The observed interval between the pulses is, according to this interpretation, the
rotational period of the neutron star. As the radiated energy is compensated by a decrease in
the neutron star’s rotational kinetic energy, pulsars slow down after a particular time. Pulsars
have been observed at many different wavelengths such as optical, X ray, γ ray, radio waves.
30. What are binary pulsars ?
Ans: It is observed that some of the pulsars have period as low as 59 ms (fast rotation). Their
pulse rate was observed to slows down by about 0.1 % per hour and also increases about the
same amount. This increase and decrease of pulse rate is explained as change in doppler shift
when a neutron star moving away from earth and later towards earth. For this to happen
pulsar must be orbit around an unseen companion. Such a system where pulsar is a part of a
binary system is called binary pulsar.
31. What is pair production and annihilation ?
Ans: It is the process by which interaction between matter and radiation takes place given by
photons → particle + antiparticle

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particle + antiparticle → photons

That is, photons can engage in pair production, in which their energy becomes the rest energy
of a particle-antiparticle pair, or a particle and antiparticle can annihilate into photons. In each
case, the energy of the photons must be at least as large as the rest energy of the particle and
antiparticle.

Follow all the solved problems in

chapter_2 (general relativity and
cosmology) & 3 (basic techniques used
in astronomy)

14
 Chapter-3: Basic Tools of Astronomy
1. Explain the term stellar parallax, what is its drawback?
Ans: Stellar parallax: It is basically the angular measurement when the star is observed from
two different locations on the Earth’s orbit. These two positions are generally six months
apart, and so the star will appear to shift its position with respect to the more distant
background stars. The parallax (p) of the star observed is equal to half the angle through which
its apparent position appears to shift. The larger the parallax (p), the smaller the distance (d)
to the star. The distance (d) of a star in parsecs is given by the reciprocal of its parallax (p), and
is usually expressed as thus
d=1/p

Drawback: Angles smaller than 0.01 arcseconds are very difficult to measure from Earth due
to the effects of the atmosphere; this limits the distance measured to about 100 pc.
2. Explain the term Luminosity and Brightness and give the relationship between Luminosity and
Brightness.
Luminosity: This is the amount of energy that the star emits each second. we cannot measure
a star’s luminosity directly because its brightness as seen from Earth depends on its distance
as well as its true luminosity. Luminosity is usually measured in watts (W), or as a multiple of
the Sun’s luminosity. To determine a star’s luminosity, we need to know its distance (d) and
apparent brightness (b).

Brightness (b): It is the amount of light reaching the earth per unit area. It is the amount of
energy that arrives at our eye. It is measured in watts per square meter (W/m2 ). Brightness
follows inverse square law.
𝑳=𝒃𝟒𝝅𝒅𝟐

3. Derive the expression for distance to a star using stellar parallax.

Stellar parallax: It is basically the angular measurement when the star is observed from two
different locations on the Earth’s orbit. These two positions are generally six months apart,
and so the star will appear to shift its position with respect to the more distant background
stars. The parallax (p) of the star observed is equal to half the angle through which its apparent
position appears to shift.

15
 In the figure
𝑜𝑝𝑝. 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 1𝐴𝑈
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑝 = =
𝑎𝑑𝑗. 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑑
For small angle P, tan p= p
1𝐴𝑈
𝑝=
𝑑
𝟏
d= 𝒑
4. Write a short note on Apparent magnitude (m) and Absolute magnitude (M) of a star. Provide
the relationship between m and M.
Ans:
Apparent magnitude (m): Magnitude or apparent magnitude is the brightness of stars or
stellar object when observed with naked eyes. The brightest stars in the sky are considered as
first-magnitude stars; those that were about half as bright as first-magnitude stars were called
second-magnitude stars and so on. Since these the scale relates to how bright a star appears
to an observer on Earth, the term is more correctly called apparent magnitude.

If m1 and m2 are the apparent magnitude and b1 and b2 are the brightness of the two stars,
then they are related by
𝒃𝟏
𝒎𝟏 − 𝒎𝟐 = −𝟐. 𝟓 𝐥𝐨𝐠( )
𝒃𝟐
Absolute magnitude (M) is defined as the brightness an object would have at a distance of 10
pc.
Relationship between absolute magnitude (M) and apparent magnitude (m) is
𝒎 − 𝑴 = 𝟓 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒅 − 𝟓
5. State Wien law. Estimate the peak wavelength using Wien law and then roughly predict the
corresponding region of EM spectrum of the stars having surface temperature (a) Sun: 5800
K (b) α Canis Majorsis: 9200 K and (c) o Ceti: 1900 K. [Hint. 380 nm-750 mn: Visible; < 380 nm:
UV; >750 nm:IR]. (5 mark)
Ans: The wavelength of light emitted by a blackbody depends on the temperature of the
object. The law states that low-temperature stars emit most of their energy in the red to
infrared part of the spectrum, while much hotter stars emit in the blue to ultraviolet part of
the spectrum.
2,900,000
λ= 𝑛𝑚
𝑇 (𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛)
(a). Sun: T=5800 K

16
 2,900,000
λ= 5800
𝑛𝑚=500 nm; visible
(b). α Canis Majoris: T=9200 K
2,900,000
λ= 𝑛𝑚=315 nm;UV
9200
(c). O ceti: T=1900 K
2,900,000
λ= 1900
𝑛𝑚=1526 nm;IR
6. Define Stefan-Boltzmann law and provide the relationship between flux (F), luminosity (L) and
radius (R) of a star (How to determine the size of a star).
Ans: The law states that the amount of energy that a star radiates per second from a square
meter of its surface is proportional to the fourth power of the temperature (T) of its surface
or in another words It just tells us that the energy flux (F) is proportional to the temperature.
𝑭=𝝈𝑻𝟒 .
Luminosity is the flux (F) multiplied by the number of square meters there are on the star’s
surface. Hence the relationship between flux, luminosity and radius is given by (A=𝟒𝝅𝑹𝟐,
where R is the radius of the star)
𝑳=𝑭 𝑨
𝑳=𝝈𝑻𝟒 𝟒𝝅𝑹𝟐
From the known values of Luminosity L and surface temperature T of a star, the radius R and
hence the size of the star can be calculated.

7. Distinguish between emission and absorption spectrum?

Ans: Emission spectrum: A pure gas, when heated, emits light with specific wavelength (and
thus specific energy per photon) e.g. Sodium and Mercury vapour lamp spectrum. Emission
lines are simply the result of downward jumps, or transitions, of electrons between the energy
levels. Emission lines are the pattern of lines formed when this light passes through a
prism/grating to separate it into the different frequencies of light it contains.
Absorption spectrum: When light with a continuous spectrum of wavelengths passes through
a gas, certain wavelength will be absorbed by the gas. The spectrum consists of continuous
spectrum with few black lines corresponding to the absorbed wavelengths. They are simply
the result of upward transition of electrons between the different energy levels.

8. What is stellar classification?

Ans: Based on spectral type and temperature or colour, stars have been classified as follows
‘OBAFGKMLRNS’ where temperature increases from left to right. The sequence goes from hot
blue stars (types O and A) to cool red stars (types K, M, and L). The star types R, N, and S
actually overlap the class M, and so R and N have been reclassified as C-type stars, the C
standing for carbon stars. Spectra of the hotter star of types O, A, and B are sometimes
referred to as early-type stars, while the cooler ones (K, M, L, C, and S) are later-type. F and G

17
 stars are designated intermediate-type stars Explain the reason why Balmer lines does not
appear in the spectrum if the surface temperature of the star is higher than 10,000 K.
9. Why blamer lines Balmer lines do not always appear in some class of a star’s?
Ans: Hydrogen gas makes up 75% of a star, yet the Balmer lines do not always appear in a
star’s spectrum. The Balmer absorption lines are produced when an electron undergoes a
transition from the 2nd energy level to a higher level by absorbing a photon with the correct
amount of energy.
If, the star is hotter than 10,000 K, the photons coming from the star’s interior have such a
high energy that they can easily knock electrons out of hydrogen atoms in the star’s
atmosphere. This process is called ionization. Now that the hydrogen atom has lost its
electrons, it cannot produce absorption lines. So, the Balmer lines will be relatively weak in
the spectra of such hot stars (e.g., type-O stars, up to type B2).
On the other hand, if the atmosphere of a star is cooler most of the hydrogen atoms are in
the 1st energy state. Many of the photons passing through the atmosphere do not have
enough energy to boost the electron from the 1st to the 2nd energy level. Therefore, very few
atoms will have electrons in the 2nd level, and only these electrons will absorb the photons
characteristic of the Balmer lines. This results in the lines’ being almost absent from the
spectrum of cool stars, such as M0 and M2 stars.
For the Balmer lines to be prominent, a star must be hot enough to excite the electrons out
of level 1 (also known as the ground state), but not so hot that the hydrogen becomes ionized.
If a star has a surface temperature of around 9,000 K, it will have the strongest hydrogen lines
(e.g., the A0 to A5 stars).

10. Briefly describe Hertzsprung-Russel diagram (HR) and write a note on the four grouping of
stars found from HR diagram.
Ans: H-R diagram, in astronomy, is a graph in which the absolute magnitudes (intrinsic
brightness) of stars are plotted against their spectral types (temperatures). When absolute
magnitude of stars is plotted against colours (temperature or spectral type) certain patters is
observed in the diagram and understanding of these patterns are crucial to the study of stars
where Each dot on the diagram represents a star whose properties, such as spectral type and
luminosity, have been determined. Some key features of the diagram are the following.

• The horizontal axis (x-axis) represents stellar temperature or, equivalently, the
spectral type.
• The temperature increases from right to left. Hot O-type stars are on the left and cool
M-type stars on the right.
• The vertical axis (y-axis) represents stellar luminosity measured in the unit of Sun’s
luminosity, Lʘ.The luminosities cover a wide range, so the diagram makes use of the
logarithmic scale.
• Each dot on the H-R diagram represents the spectral type and luminosity of a single
star. For example, the dot representing the Sun corresponds to its spectral type G2
with luminosity Lʘ = 1

18
Because luminosity increases upward in the diagram and surface temperature increases
leftward, stars near the upper left corner are hot and luminous. Similarly, stars near the upper
right corner are cool and luminous; stars near the lower right corner are cool and dim; and
finally stars near the lower left corner are hot and dim.

The grouping of stars that can be found in the H-R diagram are the following.
• The band that stretches diagonally across the H-R diagram is called the Main
Sequence, and it represents about 90% of the stars in the night sky. It extends from
hot and luminous blue stars in the upper left corner to cool and dim red stars in the
bottom right. Any star located in this part of the H-R diagram is called a main-
sequence star. Main sequence stars are stars in which hydrogen burining is
undergoing in their cores. Eg. Sun
• Stars in the upper right are called giants. These stars are both cool and luminous.
According to the Stefan– Boltzmann Law, which states that a cool star will radiate
much less energy per surface area than a hot star. Hence, for these stars to appear as
luminous as they look, they must be immense, and so they are called giants. They may
be anywhere from 10 to 100 times as big as the Sun. Most giant stars are about 100
to 1000 times more luminous than the Sun and have temperatures of 3000 to 6000 K.
Many of the cooler members of this class are reddish and have temperatures of 3000
to 4000 K—these are often referred to as red giants. Eg. Arcturus and Aldebaran.
• At the extreme upper right corner of HR diagram, few stars that are even bigger than
the giants. These are the supergiants, which have radii up to 1000 Rʘ. Giants and
supergiants make up about 1% of stars in the night sky. Nuclear fusion taking place in
supergiant stars is significantly different in both character and position than the
reactions taking place in the stars on the main sequence. Eg. Antares and Betelgeuse.
• Stars in the lower left of the H-R diagram are much smaller in radius and appear white.
These are the white dwarf stars. As we see from the H-R diagram, they are hot stars
with low luminosities; therefore, they must be small and hence the name dwarf stars.
They are faint stars, and so they can be seen only with telescopes. They are
approximately the same size as the Earth. There are no nuclear reactions within white
dwarfs; rather, they are the still-glowing remnants of giant stars. White dwarfs
account for about 9% of stars in the night sky. Eg. Sirius.

19
11. What is the difference between Betelgeuse, Sun and Sirius B according to their location in HR
diagram?
Ans: Betelgeuse lies in the top right of the HR diagram meaning that it has left the main
sequence and has become a red giant star; the hydrogen-burning at the center of its core has
stopped, and now helium is burning by fusion processes. But Sirius B lies in the bottom left
which has evolved far from the main sequence and has become a white dwarf star, with no
nuclear fusion occurring within it. Whereas sun is a main sequence star with hydrogen burning
going on
12. Why stars with different size (luminosity) gives rise to spectral lines with different
spectral width?
Ans: The surface temperature of a star determines which spectral lines are most
prominent in its spectrum. The measurable differences in spectra are due to
differences in stars’ atmospheres where absorption lines are produced. The density
and pressure of hot gases in the atmosphere affect the absorption lines and hydrogen
in particular. If the pressure and density are high, hydrogen atoms collide more
frequently, and they interact with other atoms in the gas. The collisions cause the

20
 energy levels in hydrogen atoms to shift, resulting in broadened hydrogen spectral
lines.
In a giant luminous star, the atmosphere will have a very low pressure and density
because the star’s mass is spread over such an enormous volume. Therefore, the
atoms (and ions) are relatively far apart. This means that collisions between atoms are
far less frequent, which produces narrow hydrogen lines.
In a main-sequence star, the atmosphere is denser than a giant or supergiant, with
collisions occurring more frequently, thereby producing broader hydrogen lines.

Chapter-4: Stellar Evolution

1. What does it mean by hydrostatic/gravitational equilibrium? When one can say a star is born?
Ans:
• With the thermal energy created by nuclear fusion, the star’s interior structure is stabilized by a
balance between gravity and pressure. This act of balancing is called gravitational equilibrium or
hydrostatic equilibrium.
• A new star will born when the core temperature of the protostar reaches about 10 million K.
2. What is a main sequence star? What is the factor that determines the time taken for a protostar
to become the main sequence star.
Ans:
• The main sequence star represents those stars in which nuclear fusion reactions are producing
energy by converting hydrogen to helium.
• The time taken for a protostar to become main sequence star depends on the mass of the
protostar. Larger stars take shorter time and smaller stars take longer time.
3. Briefly describe the evolutionary track or life track of sun or a star with mass Mʘ (four phases of
evolutionary track of sun).
Ans:
• The protostar forms from a cloud of cold gas and thus is on the far right side of the H-R diagram;
however, its surface area is enormous, and so its luminosity can be very large—it may be 100
times more than luminous when it becomes a star.
• Due to its large luminosity, the young protostar rapidly loses the energy it generated via
gravitational collapse, and so further collapse proceeds at a relatively rapid rate. Its surface
temperature increases slightly during the next several million years, but its diminishing size
reduces the luminosity. The evolutionary track now progresses almost vertically downward on
the H-R diagram.
• Now that the core temperature has reached 10 million K, hydrogen nuclei fuse into helium. The
rate of nuclear fusion, however, is not sufficient to halt the collapse of the star, although it is
slowed down considerably. As the star shrinks, its surface temperature increases. The process of
shrinking and heating will result in a small increase in luminosity over the next 10 million years.
The evolutionary track now progresses leftward and slightly upward on the H-R diagram.

21
 • Both the rate of nuclear fusion and the core temperature increase over the next tens of millions
of years. Once the rate of fusion is high enough, gravitational equilibrium is achieved, and fusion
becomes self-sustaining. The result is that the star settles onto the hydrogen burning main
sequence.
4. Write a short note on the pre-main sequence of stars and effect of mass (What are the processes
that govern the clumping and fragmentation of the cloud into protostars of widely differing
masses? or
Describe the pre-main sequence evolution of (a) a low-mas star (mass ~1Mʘ) (b) high-
mass star (mass >4 Mʘ ) (c) very low-mass star (mass < 0.8 Mʘ ). Give a schematic of
the interior structure of all three category of stars.

Ans:

a) For a proto-star of mass Mʘ

Outer part
• The outer layers of such a protostar are cool and opaque, which means that energy released as
radiation due to the shrinkage of the inner layers cannot reach the surface.
• Thus, the only way of moving this energy toward the surface layers must be by the less-efficient
and slower method of convection.
• The result of this process is that the temperature remains more or less constant as the protostar
shrinks, while the luminosity decreases because the radius decreases, and the evolutionary track
moves downward on the H-R diagram. The surface temperature almost remains constant
Inner part

22
 • The internal temperature starts to increase during this time, and the interior becomes ionized.
This reduces the opacity within the protostar and allows the transfer of energy by radiation in
the interior regions.
• The net result of these changes is that energy can escape much more easily from the protostar,
and thus the luminosity increases. This increase in energy transport is represented by the
evolutionary track’s bending upward (meaning higher luminosity) and to the left (higher
temperature).
• After an interval of a few million years, the temperature within the protostar is high enough—
10 million K—for nuclear fusion to begin and, eventually, enough heat and associated internal
pressure are created so as to balance the gravitational contraction of the star. We can say that
at this point, hydrostatic equilibrium has been reached, and the protostar has reached the main
sequence—it is now a main-sequence star.
b) Protostar with a mass greater than 4Mʘ
• The net result is that the luminosity stabilizes at approximately its final value, but the surface
temperature continues to increase as the protostar continues to shrink. In the HR diagram the
luminosity is nearly horizontal (meaning nearly constant luminosity) from right to left
(increasing surface temperature). This is especially true for the stars at mass 9Mʘ and 15 Mʘ.
• An increase in mass will result in a corresponding increase in pressure and temperature in the
interior of a star. This is very significant because it means that in very massive stars, there is a
much greater temperature difference between the core and its outer layers as compared to,
say, the Sun. This allows convection to occur much deeper into the star’s interior regions.
• In contrast, the massive star will have very low-density outer layers, and so energy flow in these
regions is more easily performed by radiative methods than by convective methods. Thus, stars
on the main sequence with a mass greater than about 4 Mʘ will have convective interiors and
radiative outer layers.
c) Protostar with a mass less than 0.8Mʘ
• In these objects, the interior temperature of the protostar is insufficient to ionize the inner
region, which is thus too opaque to allow energy transport by radiation.
• The only possible method to transport the energy to the outer layers is by convection. In
these stars, convective methods are the only means of energy transport.

5. What is the reason a star with mass 150–200 Mʘ or 0.08 Mʘ cannot form ?(What is a failed star
or brown dwarf star)
Ans:
• 150–200 Mʘ :They generate so much energy that gravity cannot contain their internal
pressure. These stars literally tear themselves apart.
• 0.08 Mʘ :Can never achieve the 10 million K core temperature necessary to initiate nuclear
fusion. So, what is actually formed can be thought of as a “failed star,” which will slowly
radiate away all of its internal energy, gradually cooling with time. These objects have been
called Brown dwarfs and seem to occupy a strange area between what we think of as a
planet and a star.

6. Distinguish between Galactic cluster and Globular star cluster. Give few examples
each.(distinguish between open and closed cluster)
Ans:
Globular cluster (closed cluster):

23
 • Globular clusters/closed cluster are old clusters of stars that have remained in a
gravitationally bound system.
• These clusters are usually roughly spherical and can contain anywhere from a few thousand
to a million stars.
• Globular clusters are found in our galaxy’s spherical halo, so they are distributed above,
below, and level with the plane of our flat, disk-shaped Milky Way.
• They are typically on the order of 13 billion years old, meaning they contain some of the
oldest stars in our galaxy.
• [Link] 54
Galactic cluster (open cluster:
• Open clusters or galactic cluster are much younger and smaller than globular clusters.
• They are the recent birthplaces of new stars, which form out of clouds of dust and
gas, and contain only hundreds or thousands of stars.
• Though the stars in an open cluster formed together out of the same material, they
do not remain gravitationally bound over time and spread out, scattering their stars
far and wide. Because they are not gravitationally bound, these clusters can have
random and irregular shapes.
• They are located in the plane of our galaxy, along the spiral arms where the gas and
dust in the Milky Way resides.
• Because open clusters are both younger and shorter lived, astronomers use them to
study young stars and the processes of star formation, as well as the dynamics of how
material spreads out in our galaxy.
• Eg. Messier 11, Messier 29
7. What is Trumpler classification of stars?
Ans:
• Because open clusters display such a wealth of characteristics, different parameters are
assigned to a cluster that describe its shape and content. For instance, a designation called
the Trumpler type is often used.
• Concentration
I. Detached cluster with strong concentration of stars towards the centre
II. Detached-Weak concentration of stars towards the centre
III. Detached-No concentration of stars towards the centre
IV. Poor detachment from background star field
• Range of brightness
I. Small range
II. Moderate range
III. Large range
• Richness of cluster
I. p poor (with fewer than 50 star)
II. m moderate (with 50-100 stars)
III. r rich(with more than 100 stars)
IV. n cluster within nebulosity

8. Write a note on stellar association?

Ans:
• Stellar association is a grouping of stars which is spread over a large region in the sky and
an integral part of star evolution. It is a loosely bound group of young stars. They may still

24
 be swathed in the dust and gas cloud within which they formed, and star formation may
still be occurring within the cloud. They differ from open clusters in their enormity,
covering both a sizable angular area of the night sky and at the same time encompassing
a comparably large volume in space. For example, the Scorpius-Centaurus Association is
about 700 by 760 l.y. in extent, and it covers about 800. Stellar association is of three type
1. OB associations, containing very luminous O- and B-type main-sequence, giant, and
supergiant stars.
2. B associations, containing only B-type main-sequence and giant stars but with an
absence of O-type stars. These associations are just older versions of the OB
association, and thus the faster-evolving O-type stars have been lost to the group as
supernovae.
3. T associations, which are groupings of T Tauri-type stars. These are irregular variable
stars that are still contracting and evolving toward being A-, F-, an G-type main-
sequence stars. As they are still in their infancy, more often than not they will be
shrouded in dark dust clouds, and those that are visible will be embedded in small
reflection and emission nebulae.

Size of association: The OB associations are truly enormous objects, often covering many
hundreds of l.y. This is a consequence of the fact that massive O- and B-type stars can only
be formed within the giant molecular clouds which are themselves hundreds of l.y. across.
On the other hand, the T associations are much smaller affairs, perhaps only a few l.y. in
diameter. In some cases, the T association is itself located within or near an OB
association.

Eg. The Orion Association, The Scorpius-Centaurus Association

9. What is a stellar stream?

Ans:
• The coherence and identity of a group of stars can only exist for as long as the brighter
components stay in the same general area of a spiral arm, as well as having a similar space motion
through the Galaxy. As time passes, the B-type stars will disappear through stellar evolution, and
the remaining A-type and later stars will now be spread over an enormous volume of space, and
the only common factor among them will be their motion through space. At that point, the
association is called a stellar stream. A stellar stream is an association of stars orbiting a galaxy
that was once a globular cluster or dwarf galaxy that has now been torn apart and stretched out
along its orbit by tidal forces. [Link] Major stream.
• Eg. The Ursa Major Stream, The Hyades Stream
10. What are the locations where star formation takes place? Explain the mechanism of star formation
in these regions.

Ans: Stars are formed from clouds of dust and gas, and these clouds clump together under the force
of gravity to form protostar . The evolution of a protostar to a main sequence depends on the initial
mass of the protostar and so determines where it will arrive on the main sequence. Star formation
takes place in three different region

• The spiral arms of a galaxy

• Expanding HII regions (HII regions are emission nebulae created when young, massive stars
ionise nearby gas clouds with high-energy UV radiation. They are composed primarily of
hydrogen, hence the name (astronomers use the term HII to refer to ionised hydrogen, HI for

25
 neutral hydrogen), and have temperatures of around 10,000 Kelvin. Its size ranging from one to
hundreds of light years, and density from a few to about a million particles per cubic cm)
• Supernovae

The physical mechanism which leads to the star formation in these region is described below.

• The spiral arms of a galaxy: Spiral arms of galaxies are a prime location for star formation because
the gas and dust clouds temporarily “pile up” as they orbit around the center of a galaxy. In such
a spiral arm, the molecular clouds are compressed as it passes through the region. In the molecular
cloud’s densest regions, vigorous star formation can then occur.
• Expanding HII regions :Massive stars, such as O-type and B-type stars, emit immense amounts of
radiation, usually in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum. This, in turn, causes the surrounding gas
to ionize, and an HII region is formed within the larger molecular cloud. The strong stellar winds
(fast moving flows of material such as protons, electrons and atoms of heavier metals that are
ejected from stars) and ultraviolet radiation that O- and B-type stars possess can carve out a cavity
within the molecular cloud into which the HII region expands. The stellar wind is moving at such a
high velocity that it is supersonic (i.e., faster than the speed of sound in that particular region). A
shock wave associated with this supersonically expanding HII region then collides with the rest of
the molecular cloud. In doing so, it compresses the cloud, and so further star formation occurs.
The new O- and B-type stars that result from this induce further star formation, but at the same
time, the precursor O- and B-type stars that originally started the procedure may well have
dispersed by this point. In this manner, an OB association “devours (destroy)” a molecular cloud,
leaving older stars in its wake.
• Supernovae: A supernova is the death of a star and results in a catastrophic explosion, usually
blowing the star to bits. The resulting outer layers of the star are ejected into space at incredible
speeds, may be several thousand kilometers per second!. This shock wave, an expanding shell of
material, will be moving at supersonic velocities and, in a similar manner as mentioned above, will
impact the material in the interstellar medium, and in doing so will compress and heat it. In doing
so, it will stimulate further star formation.
11. With the help of a schematic, explain the internal structure of Sun.
• Ans: The visible surface of the Sun, called the photosphere, has a temperature of about 5800 K,
and although it may look like a well-defined surface from the Earth, it is in fact a gas, less dense
than the Earth’s atmosphere.
• Both the density and temperature increase steadily as we progress from the surface to the core.
Beneath the photosphere is a very turbulent area called the convection zone, where energy
generated in the core travels upward, transported by rising columns of hot gas and the falling of
cool gas. This process is called convection. So the photosphere is in fact the top of the convection
zone.

26
 • Descending deeper through the convection zone, the pressure and density increase quite
substantially, along with the temperature. The density is far greater than that of water, but a
very strange state called plasma. The temperature in this region is about 2 million K, and the
solar plasma absorbs the photons.
• About one-third of the way down to the center, the very turbulent convection zone gives way to
the more stable plasma of the radiation zone. Here the energy is transported outward primarily
by photons of X-ray radiation. The temperature in this region is now about 10,000,000 K.
• At the central region, the core of the Sun, the temperature is now 15,000,000 K, and it is here
that hydrogen is being transformed to helium. The pressure in this region is nearly 200 billion
times the surface pressure found on the Earth. The central temperature and pressure are both
impressive, with the core compressed to a density of about 150 000 kg m 3, which is about 150
times the density of water. All of the Sun’s energy is produced in the inner 25% of its radius,
which corresponds to about 1.5% of its volume.
• About 1/4 the distance from the center of the Sun to its surface, the temperature would have
fallen to about 8,000,000 K, and at this lower temperature nuclear fusion energy production
would have fallen to practically zero. So, virtually no energy is produced beyond the inner 25%
of the solar radius.
• At the surface of the Sun, each kilogram of gas contains about 71% hydrogen, whereas in the
core, the percentage of hydrogen will be much lower, around 34%. The reason for this is
obvious—hydrogen has been the fuel for nuclear fusion for the past 4.6 billion years.
12. Explain proton-proton chain in Sun, explain with the help of a schematic. Provide the net reaction
equation.

Ans: Fusion of hydrogen into helium, the reason for sun’s energy was first proposed by Arthur
Eddington in 1920s. A hydrogen nucleus consisting of one proton participate in a series of reactions
involving two reactions at a time is called proton-proton chain. The reactions begin with an interaction
between two protons that must come within 10−15 meters of each other for a nuclear reaction to occur.
Since protons are positively charged, they repel each other and most collisions between protons do
not result in any reaction. At room temperature, there is absolutely no possibility that two protons
would collide with enough energy to get close enough to instigate a reaction.

27
 • Step-1:Two protons fuse to form a nucleus consisting of one proton and one neutron. This is
the isotope of hydrogen called deuterium 2H. The other products formed are a positively
charged electron, called a positron (β+), and a neutrino (ν) , a minuscule particle with a tiny
mass. The positron does not last long, however; it soon meets up with an ordinary electron,
and the result is the creation of two gamma rays that are rapidly absorbed by the surrounding
gas, which consequently heats up.
• Step-2:The deuterium now fuses with a proton, producing a helium nucleus 3He and gamma
rays. The 3He nucleus consists of two protons and one neutron, whereas an ordinary helium
nucleus has two protons and two neutrons. This step of producing 3He from a deuteron occurs
very rapidly, so that a typical deuteron in the core of the Sun will survive for only 4 seconds
before reacting with a proton.

• Step-3: The final reaction in the proton-proton chain requires the addition of another neutron
to the 3He nuclei, thereby making normal 4He. This final step can proceed in several ways, with
the most common involving a collision of two 3He nuclei. Each of these 3He nuclei resulted
from a prior, separate occurrence of step 2 somewhere else in the core. The final result is a
normal 4He nucleus and two protons. On average, a 3He nucleus must wait 4 million years
before it participates in this reaction.
• The net result of the chain of reaction is:

13. How energy is being transported from the core of Sun to the surface. Write a brief note.

Ans: Energy produced in the central region of the Sun flows outward toward the surface. If the Sun
were transparent, the photons, or gamma rays, emitted by the extremely hot gases in the core would
travel straight out at the speed of light, 2 seconds after being emitted. The Sun’s gases, however, are
not very transparent, and so a typical photon only travels about 10−6 meters before it is re-absorbed.
In being absorbed, it heats up the surrounding gases, which in turn emit photons, which are then
subsequently re-absorbed. The emitted photon will not necessarily be emitted in an outward direction

28
but rather a totally random direction, which means that at least 1025 absorptions and re-emissions
occur before energy reaches the surface. This slow, outward migration of photons is often called a
random walk.

This process means that there is a considerable time delay before energy produced at the core reaches
the surface. On an average, about 170,000 years will pass before energy created at the core eventually
reaches the surface.

The energy produced in one second does not erupt from the surface all in one go; it appears that it is
radiated from the surface over a period of more than 100,000 years. Some energy appears in about
120,000 years, while other energy takes 220,000 years. But the bulk of it is emitted after 170,000
years.

14. What are Binary stars? Write a note on the different type of Binary stars.

Ans: Binary stars are also known as double stars, are stars that may appear to the naked eye to be just
one star, but on observation with either binoculars or telescopes resolve themselves into two stars.
Some apparently single stars turn out to be several stars. Many appear as double stars due to their
position in the same line of sight as seen from the Earth, and these are called optical doubles. It may
well be that the two stars are separated in space by a vast distance. Others, are actually gravitationally
bound and may orbit around each other over a period of days, or even years.

• Spectroscopic Binaries: Binaries that cannot be resolved by even the largest telescopes and are
called Spectroscopic Binaries, the double component only being fully understood when the
spectra are analysed.
• Eclipsing Binaries: Eclipsing Binaries such as Algol (β Persei), where one star moves during its
orbit in front of its companion, thus brightening and dimming the light observed.
• Astrometric Binary: Astrometric Binary such as Sirius (α Canis Majoris), where the companion
star may only be detected by its influence on the motion of the primary star.
• Significance of binary stars: By observing their motion, it is possible to determine their mass also
important in determining the evolutionary processes of stars.
• Visual binaries: Binary stars that are physically associated and can be split with either the naked
eye or with the use of some sort of optical equipment. The brighter of the two stars is usually
called the primary star, while the fainter is called the secondary or companion.
•
15. Explain why shrinking of the core of a star leads to expansion of the surface and increases in
surface temperature during the main sequence life time?
• Ans: Due to the hydrogen-burning at the core, the total number of atomic nuclei decreases
with time, and so with fewer particles in the core to provide the internal pressure, the core
will shrink very slightly under the weight of the star’s outer layers. This has an effect on the
star’s appearance. The outer layers expand and become brighter. This is because the core
shrinkage increases its density and temperature, which causes the hydrogen nuclei to collide
with each other much more often, which in turn increases the rate of hydrogen-burning. The
resulting increase of core pressure causes the star’s outer layers to expand slightly, and as
luminosity is related to the surface area of a star, the increase of the star’s size will result in
an increase in luminosity. In addition, the surface temperature will increase. In the case of the
Sun, astronomers have calculated that its luminosity has increased by 40%, its radius by 6%,
and its surface temperature by 300 K, all during the past 4.6 billion years.

16. What is a Red Giant star? Explain in detail with the help of schematic of internal structure.

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Ans:

• Although the amount of hydrogen in a star’s core is vast, it will used up after a very long time.
Once all the hydrogen in the core is converted into helium, star uses gravitational contraction
to supply its energy needs. Thus, the core will start to cool down, which means that the
pressure also decreases, with the result that the outer layers of the star begin to weigh down
on the core and compress it. This has the effect of causing the temperature within the core
to rise again, and for heat to flow outward from the core. In this process, it is not due to
nuclear reactions but to gravitational energy being converted into thermal energy.
• In a relatively short time, the region around the star’s hydrogen-depleted core will become
hot enough to begin nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium, in a thin shell around the core,
in a process called shell hydrogen-burning. The core will consist of helium, but the outer
layers are hydrogen rich.
• For a star like the Sun, this hydrogen-consuming shell develops almost immediately from the
moment nuclear fusion stops in the core, and so the supply of energy is more or less constant.
For massive stars, there can be an interval of perhaps a few thousand years to a few million
years from the end of the core nuclear-fusion phase to the beginning of the shell hydrogen-
burning phase.
• The new supply of energy, and thus heat, has the effect of causing the rate of shell hydrogen-
burning to increase, and so it begins to eat further into the surrounding hydrogen. The helium
that is the by-product of the hydrogen fusion in the shell falls to the center of the star, where,
along with the helium already there, it heats up as the core continues to contract and increase
its mass. In the case of, say, a 1𝑀ʘ star, the core will be compressed to as much as one-third
of its original size. The result of this core compression is an increase in the temperature, from
about 15 million K to nearly 100 million K.

• The star’s outer layers expand as the core contracts. With the increased flow of heat from
the contracting core, and the ever-expanding shell of hydrogen-burning, the star’s luminosity
increases quite substantially. This causes the star’s internal pressure to increase and makes
the outer layers of the star expand to many times their original radius. The tremendous
expansion actually causes the outer layers to cool, even though the inner core temperature
has risen dramatically. The new, much-expanded, and cooler outer layers can reach
temperatures as low as 3500 K and will glow with a very distinctive reddish tint, as can be
explained by Wien’s Law (mentioned earlier). The star has now become a red giant star.

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 • Red giant stars are former main-sequence stars that have evolved into a new phase of their
lives. Due to the large diameter and thus weaker surface gravity of the red giant, quite a
substantial amount of mass loss can occur. This means that gases can escape from the surface
of a red giant star. Such an effect is relatively easy to observe by looking at the absorption
lines produced in the star’s spectrum. Calculations and measurements have shown that a
typical red giant star can lose 10-7 𝑀ʘ each year. Compare this with the much-smaller 10-17
𝑀ʘ that the Sun loses each year. From this, we can see that as a star evolves from the main
sequence to the red-giant stage, it can lose quite a lot of its mass.

17. Describe the terms Helium burning, triple alpha process and Helium flash
• Ans: Helium can be thought of as the “ash” left over from the hydrogen-burning reactions,
and can in fact be used as the fuel for another nuclear fusion reaction, which, this time, uses
helium. This is the helium-burning phase. As a star approaches and becomes a red giant, its
core temperature is too low to initiate helium-burning. But the hydrogen-burning shell that
surrounds the dormant helium core adds mass to the core, with the result that it contracts
further becomes denser, and increases the temperature substantially. As the temperature
increases—the electrons in the gas become degenerate. When the electrons become
degenerate, they in effect resist any further contraction of the core, and the internal
temperature of the core will no longer affect the internal pressure.
• As the hydrogen shell continues to burn, the degenerate core grows even hotter, and when it
reaches 100 million K, and has a mass of about 0.6 𝑀ʘ (i.e., the inner 60% of the hydrogen in
the star has been converted to helium), core helium-burning begins, converting helium into
carbon, and producing nuclear energy. During this stage of a star’s life, it can be nearly 1 AU
in radius and almost 1000 times as luminous as the Sun. By now the old star has once again
obtained a central energy source for the first time since it left the main sequence.
• The helium-burning in the core fuses three helium nuclei to form a carbon nuclei and is called
the triple α process. This occurs in two steps. In the first step, two helium nuclei combine to
form an isotope of beryllium

• This isotope of beryllium is very unstable and very quickly breaks into two helium nuclei. But
in the extreme conditions in the core, a third helium nucleus may strike the 8Be nucleus before
it has had a chance to break up. If this happens, a stable isotope of carbon is formed, and
energy is released as a gamma-ray photon (γ)

• The phrase “triple α” comes about because helium nuclei are also called alpha particles. The
carbon nuclei formed in this process can also fuse with additional helium nuclei, producing a
stable isotope of oxygen, and supply additional energy

• So the “ash” of helium-burning is carbon and oxygen. The formation of carbon and oxygen not
only provides more energy but also re-establishes thermal equilibrium in the core of the star.
This prevents the core from any further contraction due to gravity. The duration of time a red
giant will spend burning helium in its core is about 20% as long as the time it spent burning
hydrogen on the main sequence.
• In a high-mass star (that is, with a mass greater than 2–3 𝑀ʘ ), the helium-burning begins
gradually as the temperature in the core approaches 100 million K. The triple α process is
initiated, but it occurs before the electrons become degenerate. However, in low-mass stars
(that is, with a mass less than 2–3 𝑀ʘ ), the helium-burning stage can begin suddenly, in a

31
 process called the helium flash. This stage, the helium flash, occurs due to the most unusual
conditions found in the core of a low-mass star as it becomes a red giant.
• The energy produced by helium-burning heats up the core of the star and raises its
temperature. Normally this results in increases in pressure and leads to an expansion and
subsequent cooling of the core. But this will not happen because gas in the core of a 1 𝑀ʘ red
giant is degenerate electrons. Hence any increase in temperature does not increases the
internal pressure. The effect of temperature is to strongly affect the rate at which triple α
process occurs (carbon and oxygen). A doubling of the temperature will increase the triple α
production rate by about 1 billion times.
• The energy that is produced by the triple α process heats up the core, and its temperature
begins to rise even more. This increase and the subsequent rise in energy production can
cause the temperature to reach an amazing 300 million K. Due to the rapid heating of the
core, a nearly explosive consumption of helium occurs. This is called helium flash. At the peak
of the helium flash, the core of the star has, very briefly, an energy output that is some 10 11
to 1014 times solar luminosity. This converts to a rate of energy output that is about 100 times
greater than the entire Milky Way.
• Eventually, however, the high temperature becomes so high that the electrons in the core can
no longer remain degenerate. They then behave normally for electrons in a gas, with the result
that the star’s core expands, which ends the helium flash. These events occur very quickly, so
the helium flash is over in a matter of seconds, and the star’s core settles down to a steady
rate of helium burning.
• Ultimately the effect of helium burning is to reduce the stars luminosity. Here’s what happens:
the superheated core expands, and this core expansion pushes the hydrogen-burning shell
outward, lowering its temperature and burning rate. The result is that even though the star
has both helium fusion in its core and a shell of hydrogen-burning taking place simultaneously,
the total energy production falls from its peak during the red-giant phase. This reduced total
energy output of the star therefore reduces the luminosity and allows its outer layers to
contract from their peak size during the red-giant phase. As the outer layers contract, the
star’s surface temperature will increase slightly.
• A 1 𝑀ʘ star like the Sun, the period after the helium flash will only last about 100 million years,
which is 1% of its main-sequence lifetime

18. What is turnoff point in a post main sequence star cluster?

Ans: HR diagram of a globular cluster is known as color magnitude diagram. Since the globular clusters
are old, as it ages, the stars will move away from the main sequence, with the high-mass, high-
luminosity stars being the first to become red-giant stars. As time passes, the main sequence will get
increasingly shorter. The top of the main sequence, which remains after the specified time, can be
used to determine the cluster’s age and is called the turnoff point. The stars that are at the turnoff
point are those that are just exhausting the hydrogen in their cores, so the main-sequence lifetime is
in fact the age of the star cluster.

19. What are pulsating stars and explain different type of pulsating stars with the help of an HR
diagram. Why do stars pulsate?

Ans: Stars far more massive than the Sun that contract, and move horizontally across the H-R diagram,
while at the same time they get hotter but remain at a constant luminosity. As they move across the
H-R diagram, they can also become unstable and vary in size. Some stars change their size quite
considerably, alternatively shrinking and expanding as their surface moves in and out. As the stars vary

32
in size, so does their brightness. These stars are the pulsating variable stars. There exist several classes
of pulsating variable stars.

• The long-period variables

• The Cepheid variables
• The RR Lyrae stars.

Figure shows where on the H-R diagram these pulsating stars reside.

• Cepheid variable: Cepheid variables are named after Cephei, which was the first star of its
type to be discovered. It is a yellow giant star that varies by a factor of two in brightness over
5.5 days. Figure shows the variations of δ Cephei in luminosity, size, and temperature. The
figure shows that luminosity and temperature have a maximum value when its size has a
minimum value, and vice-versa. its size is at maximum when its luminosity and temperature
are at minimum.
• Cepheids are very important for astronomers for two reasons. They can be seen at extreme
distances, perhaps as great as a few million pc. This is because they are very luminous, with
a range from a few hundred to a few tens of thousands of solar luminosity (100𝐿ʘ to 10,000𝐿ʘ
).

33
•
• Second, there exists a relationship between the period of a Cepheid and its average
luminosity. The very faintest Cepheids (which are in fact hundreds of times brighter than the
Sun) pulsate with a very rapid period of only one or two days, while the brightest (as much
as 30,000 times brighter than the Sun) have a much slower period of about 100 days.
• The correlation between the pulsation period and luminosity is called the period-luminosity
relationship. If a star can be identified as a Cepheid, and its period measured, then its
luminosity and absolute magnitude can be determined. This can then be used, along with its
apparent magnitude, to determine its distance.
• The amount of metals in a Cepheid star’s outer layers will determine how it pulsates. This
occurs because the metals can have a substantial effect on the opacity of the gas. They can
then be classified according to their metal content. If a Cepheid is a metal-rich Population I
star, it is called a Type I Cepheid, and if it is a metal-poor Population II star, it is called a Type
II Cepheid. Figure shows a period-luminosity diagram for the two types of Cepheids. So, an
astronomer must first determine what type of Cepheid he or she is observing before the
period-luminosity relationship can be applied.
• The period-luminosity relationship comes about because the more massive stars are also the
most luminous stars as they cross the H-R diagram during core helium-burning. These massive
stars are also larger in size and lower in density during this period of core-helium-burning,
and the period with which a star pulsates is larger for lower densities; so, the massive
pulsating stars have greater luminosities and longer periods. This is shown in Figure.
• We have seen that old, high-mass stars have evolutionary tracks that cross back and forth in
the H-R diagram, and thus will intercept the upper end of the instability strip. Such stars
become Cepheids when the helium ionizes at just the right depth to drive the pulsations.
Those stars on the left (high temperature) of the instability strip will have helium ionization
occurring too close to the surface and will involve only a small fraction of the star’s mass. The
stars on the right (low-temperature) side will have convection in the star’s outer layers, and
this will prevent the storage of the heat necessary to drive the pulsations. Thus, Cepheid
variable stars can only exist in a very narrow temperature range.
• RR Lyrae: The faintest and hottest stars on the instability strip are the RR Lyrae stars. These
stars have a much lower mass than Cepheids. After the helium flash occurs, their evolutionary
tracks pass across the lower end of the instability track as they move across the horizontal

34
 branch of the H-R diagram. The RR Lyraes, named after the prototype in the constellation
Lyra, all have periods shorter than Cepheids, of about 1.5 hours to 1 day. They are small and
dense stars compared with the Cepheids. The RR Lyrae region of the instability strip is in fact
a segment of the horizontal branch. They are all metal-poor Population II stars, and so many
are found in globular clusters.
• The long-period variables are cool red giant stars that can vary by as much as a factor of 100,
in a period of months or even years. Many have surface temperatures of about 3500 K and
average luminosities in a range of 10 to as much as 10000 L. They’re placed on the middle
right-hand side of the H-R diagram. Many are periodic, but there are also a few that are not.
A famous example of a periodic long-period variable star is Mira (o Ceti) in Cetus. A famous
nonperiodic long-period variable star is Betelgeuse ( Orionis) in Orion.

Why does stars pulsate:

The pulsations of a star are not caused by variations in the rate of energy production deep in its core
but due to changes in the rate at which energy can escape from the star. The explanation is given
below.

In a normal star at hydrostatic equilibrium, there is a balance between the downward-pulling force of
gravity and the upward force of pressure. When the pressure in the outer layers exceeds the force of
gravity in those layers, the star’s outer layers would begin to expand (as shown in figure).

As the star expands, its gravity will naturally fall, but the pressure force will fall at a faster rate. A time
would then come when the star will have expanded to a larger size where, once again, hydrostatic
equilibrium would reign. But this does not necessarily mean that the star would stop expanding.

The inertia of the outward moving outer layers will carry the expansion past the balance point. By the
time gravity will have brought everything to a stop, the pressure would now be too small to balance
the gravity, and so the outer layers would begin to fall inward. At this point gravity will rise again, but
less than the pressure will. The outer layers will fall past the balance point until eventually the force

35
of pressure would prevent any further fall, and so would come to a halt. And this is where we came
in—the pulsations would start all over again.

For a star to be susceptible to pulsations, it must have a layer beneath its surface in which the helium
is partially ionized. The existence of such a layer will depend not only on the size and mass of a star,
but also on its surface temperature, which, in most cases, will be in the range of 5000 to 8000 K. There
is a region on the H-R diagram where such an area exists, and it is the location of the pulsating stars.
It is called the instability strip. In this region are found the Cepheid variable and RR Lyrae stars.

20. What do you mean by an AGB star.

• Ans: After the helium burning stage of a star (horizontal branch) the by-product is carbon and
oxygen, i.e., after 100 million years helium in the core have been converted into carbon and
oxygen. Hence the core helium-burning cease. Now there is no nuclear fusion process in the core
and no energy sources to provide internal pressure necessary to balance the force of gravity. This
leads to core contraction and release of heat into the helium gas surrounding the core, so the
helium burning begins in a thin shell around the carbon-oxygen core. This is called shell helium
burning.
• Now the star enters a second red-giant phase. The helium shell burning phase provides energy,
causing the outer layers of the star to expand and cool. This leads the low mass star rises into the
red-giant region of the H-R diagram for the second time but with even greater luminosity. This
phase of a stars life is called the asymptotic giant branch phase or AGB. Thus these stars are called
AGB star and are on the asymptotic giant branch of the main sequence.

21. What is a planetary nebulae?

Ans: After the AGB phase of a star the aging star will also undergo a series of bursts in luminosity, and
during each burst, eject a shell of material into interstellar space. The star now begins to move rapidly
toward the left of the H-R diagram, at an approximately constant luminosity but at an increasing
temperature (30,000/100,000 K).

At these high temperatures, the exposed core of the star will emit prodigious amounts of ultraviolet
radiation, which can excite and ionize the expanding shell of gas. The shell of ionized and heated gas
will begin to glow and produce what is called a planetary nebula.

22. Explain the terms white dwarf star and Chandrasekhar limit? What are the special features of
white dwarf star?
Ans:
• White dwarf star: Stars with a mass of less than 4 𝑀ʘ never manage to produce the internal
pressure and temperature necessary to provide the means to burn the carbon and oxygen in the
core. What happens instead is an ejection of the star’s outer layers, leaving behind the very hot
carbon-oxygen-rich core. In such a scenario, the core has stopped producing energy by nuclear
fusion and so just cools down, admittedly over a vast time scale. These cooling relics are called
white dwarf stars. In many instances, they are no bigger than the Earth.
• Features of white dwarf star: For most of astronomical objects, the mass of an object increases
with its size. The case is opposite for white dwarf star The more massive a white dwarf star, the
smaller it is. This is due to the degeneracy effect of the electrons in the white dwarf. In a main
sequence star, the gravitational contraction is supported by radiation pressure. As white dwarf
gets smaller, both the gravity and pressure increase further and come into balance with each

36
 other, but at a smaller size for the white dwarf. Bu in a white dwarf star, the pressure is produced
by degenerative electrons. This means the more massive a white dwarf star, the smaller it is. As
an example, a 0.5 𝑀ʘ white dwarf star is about 90% larger than the Earth, whereas a 1 𝑀ʘ white
dwarf star is only about 50% larger than the Earth. If the white dwarf is 1.3 𝑀ʘ , then it is only
40% as large as the Earth.

• Chandrasekhar limit: It is the mass for which the mass-radius relationship drops to zero, so that
a white dwarf star with a mass equal to the Chandrasekhar limit will shrink to a very small size
(as shown in the above figure). But no star with a mass greater than 1.4 𝑀ʘ can be supported
against the crush of gravity by the pressure of the degenerate electrons. In in such cases where
the contraction cannot be stopped by degenerate electrons, the stars collapse even further to
become neutron stars, and perhaps even black holes.
•
23. Explain the post main sequence evolution of a high mass star and the nuclear burning process.
Show the internal structure of high mass star.
Ans:
• Throughout the entire life of a low-mass star (that is, one that is less than 4 𝑀ʘ ), only two
nuclear reactions occur: hydrogen-burning and helium-burning, and the only elements
besides hydrogen and helium that are formed are carbon and oxygen.
• Stars that have a zero-age mass greater than 4 𝑀ʘ the carbon-oxygen core is more massive
than the Chandrasekhar limit of 1.4 𝑀ʘ , and so the degenerate pressure cannot stop the core
from contracting and heating.
• The nuclear reactions that take place in such star’s final phase is termed helium capture; this
is the fusing of helium into progressively heavier elements. The core continues to collapse
with an accompanying rise in temperature to about 600 million K. At this high temperature,
the helium capture can give rise to carbon-burning, and the carbon can be fused into heavier
elements. The elements oxygen, neon, sodium, and magnesium are produced. The carbon
fusion provides a new source of energy restores the balance between pressure and gravity.
• If the star, however, has a mass greater than 8 𝑀ʘ , even further reactions can occur. In this
phase, the carbon-burning may only last a few hundred years. As the core contracts further,
the core temperature reaches 1 billion K, and neon-burning begins. In this manner, the neon
produced by the earlier carbon-burning reaction is used up, but at the same time, there is an
increase in the amount of oxygen, and magnesium in the star’s core. This reaction lasts as little

37
 as 1 year. As you can imagine, with each stage of element burning, higher temperatures are
reached, and further reactions occur; Oxygen-burning will occur when the temperature
reaches 1.5 billion K, with the production of sulphur.
• Silicon-burning can also occur if the core reaches the staggering temperature of 2.7 billion K.
Despite the very dramatic events that are occurring inside the high-mass star, its outward
appearance changes only slowly. When each stage of core nuclear fusion stops, the
surrounding shell-burning intensifies and therefore inflates the star’s outer layers. Then, each
time the core flares up again and begins further reactions, the outer layers may contract
slightly. This results in the evolutionary track of the star zigzagging across the top of the H-R
diagram.
• Some of the reactions that occur also release neutrons, which are particles similar to protons,
but they do not have an electric charge. This neutrality means that they can, and do, collide
with positively charged nuclei and combine with them. The absorption of neutrons by nuclei
is termed neutron capture. In this way, many elements and isotopes that are not produced
directly in the fusion reactions are produced.
• Each stage during this phase of a high-mass star’s life helps to initiate the subsequent phase.
As each phase ends due to the star’s using up the specific fuel in its core, gravity will cause the
core to contract to an ever-higher density and temperature, which in turn is responsible for
starting the next phase of nuclear-burning. In effect, you can think of each stage burning the
“ash” of the previous one.
• When we are dealing with high-mass stars, events can proceed at a very fast pace, with each
successive stage of nuclear-burning proceeding at an ever-increasing rate. One calculation has
been made in detail for 20–25 𝑀ʘ zero-age stars, and the results are very surprising. The
carbon-burning stage can last for about 600 years, while the neon-burning stage can be as
short as 1 year. Then things start to speed up! The oxygen-burning lasts only 6 months, and
the silicon-burning only 1 day. Figure shows the internal structure of high mass star.

24. Explain the terms neutronization and photodisintegration.

Ans: Neutronization in high-mass stars is a significant process that occurs during stellar evolution,
particularly during the later stages of massive stars. It is a critical step in the formation of neutron stars
and plays a role in the supernova explosion that marks the end of massive star lifecycles.
Neutronization refers to the conversion of protons into neutrons. . Each neutronization
reaction will also produce a neutrino.

38
Photodisintegration: For a high mass star with mass greater than 8𝑀ʘ , large amount of gravitational
energy is released as a result of core collapse. Some of this energy is in the form of gamma rays, which
are created due to the extremely hot core temperature. These gamma ray photons in turn have so
much energy that when they collide with the iron nuclei, the nuclei are broken down into alpha
particles (which are 4He nuclei). This process is called photodisintegration.

25. What are pulsars and Binary pulsars?

Ans: Answer is already given in chapter 2

26. What is a supernova and core bounce?

Ans: During the post main sequence evolution of a high mass star, the 0.6 to 0.8 𝑴ʘ of the collapsing
core will reach a density equal to that of atomic nuclei, that is, some 4 × 1027 kg m−3. At this point,
the neutrons become degenerate and strongly resist any further attempts of compression. This core
is known as a neutron star, and the innermost part of the core suddenly becomes rigid, and the
contraction abruptly halts. This innermost part actually rebounds outward and pushes back against
the rest of the infalling core, driving it outward in a pressure wave. This is called the core bounce. This
inward-moving material encounters the outward-moving pressure wave, which, incidentally, can be
moving at one-sixth the speed of light. In just a fraction of a second, the falling material now moves
back outward toward the star’s surface. The upward-moving wave of pressure speeds up as it
encounters the less-dense regions of the star and achieves a speed in excess of the speed of sound in
the star’s outer regions. The pressure wave now behaves like a shock wave. Most of the material of
the star is pushed outward by this shock wave and is expelled from the star at many thousands of
kilometers per second. The energy released during this event is 100 times more than the entire output
of the Sun during the last 4.6 billion years. It is estimated that 96% of the material making up the star
may be ejected into the interstellar medium will be used in future generations of star formation. But
before this matter is ejected, it is compressed to such a degree that new nuclear reactions can occur
within it, and it is these reactions that form all the elements that are heavier than iron. Elements such
as tin, zinc, gold, mercury, lead, and uranium, to name a few, are produced. This powerful and
cataclysmic stellar explosion that occurs at the end of a high mass star is called supernova.

27. What are supernova remanents (SNRs)?

Ans: The supernova remnant (usually abbreviated to SNR) represents the debris of the supernova
explosion, the layers of the star that have been hurled into space, and the remains of the core is a
neutron star. The visibility of the remnant actually depends on several factors: its age, whether there
is an energy source to continue making it shine, and the original type of supernova explosion.

28. What are the type of supernovas?

Ans: There are two types of supernovae based upon whether the supernova has emission lines of
hydrogen in its spectrum. Type I supernovae do not have these lines, whereas Type II do. Type II
supernova has lots of hydrogen left in their outer layers. Type I stars, on the other hand, do not have
hydrogen emission lines and can be further divided into Types Ia, Ib, and Ic. Type Ia has absorption
lines of ionized silicon, and Types Ib and Ic do not. The difference between Ib and Ic is that the former
has a helium absorption line, whereas the latter does not. Types Ib, Ic, and II are massive stars, but
Type I stars have had their outer layers stripped away either by a strong stellar wind or by the action
of a nearby star. All three are usually found near sites of star formation. This is to be expected, as we
know that massive stars have short lives, and so we do not expect them to move far from their

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birthplace. Type I supernovae are found in galaxies where star formation may be minimal or has even
stopped altogether

Chapter-5: Stellar Evolution

1. What are galaxies ?
Ans: Galaxies are vast, immense collections of stars, gases, and dust. They are the sources of
all stars. Some giant galaxies contain as many as over a trillion stars and whereas dwarf
galaxies consists of only few hundred thousand stars.
2. Write a note on the type of galaxies ?
Ans: Since galaxies exists in variety of size and shape they have been grouped into few distinct
classification as follows
Spiral galaxies: They appear as flat white discs with yellowish bulges at their centers. The disc
regions are occupied by dust and cool gas, interspersed with hotter ionized gas, as is the case
in the Milky Way. Their most obvious characteristic is the beautiful spiral arms. [Link] 7,
Messier 81, Caldwell 48
Elliptical galaxies: They are somewhat redder and more rounded in appearance like a football.
Compared with spiral galaxies, ellipticals contain far less cool gas and dust, but very much
more hot ionized gas. Eg. Messier 84, Messier 86, Messier 49
Irregular galaxies : Galaxies that appear neither disc-like nor rounded are classified as irregular
galaxies.
Barred spiral galaxies: Some spiral galaxies exhibit a straight bar of stars that cuts across the
center with spiral arms curling away from the ends of the bars. Galaxies with these features
are known as barred spiral galaxies. Eg. Messier 95, Messier 108, Messier 109
Lenticular galaxies: Galaxies that possess discs but not spiral arms are called lenticular
galaxies, because they look lens-shaped when seen edge-on. Eg. Caldwell 53, Caldwell 61,
Messier 85
The classification system is further subdivided and specialized to take account of, the
brightness of the nuclear region (the tight compact central region of the galaxy), the tightness
of the spiral arms, and so on.
3. Write a note on the structure of spiral galaxy ?
Ans: Spiral galaxies have a thin disc extending outward from a central bulge. The bulge merges
smoothly into halo extending a radius in excess of 100,000 l.y. Both the disc and halo make up
the spheroidal component. There are no clear boundaries as to what divides this component
up into its constituent parts, but a ball-park figure often used is that stars within 10,000 l.y. of
the center can be considered to be bulge stars, whereas those outside this radius are members
of the halo. The disc component of a spiral galaxy cuts through both the halo and the bulge,
and can, in a large spiral galaxy such as the Milky Way, extend 50,000 l.y. from the center. The
disc area of all spirals contains a mixture of gas and dust, called the interstellar medium, but
the amounts and proportions of the gas, whether atomic, ionized, or molecular, will be
different from galaxy to galaxy.
4. What are the classification of stars in spiral galaxy ?
Ans: The stars contained within a spiral galaxy can be classified by where they reside.
Population I stars: Those that lie in the disc region are called Population I stars and are often
young, hot, and blue stars. Often the spiral arms colored blue, due to the Population I stars.

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 The spiral arms may also be dotted with pink and red HII regions, areas of star formation.
Thus, new stars are usually formed in the spiral arms of galaxies, seldom in the bulge.
Population II stars: Those in the bulge region are old, red giant stars called Population II stars.
Due to the presence of population II stars the bulge region is coloured as orange.
5. Write a note on (the structure of) elliptical galaxy ?
Ans: Elliptical galaxies differ significantly from spirals in that they do not have a significant disc
component. Therefore, an elliptical has only the spheroidal component. The interstellar
medium is also different from that in spirals; it is a mixture of low-density, hot, X-ray-emitting
gas. Ellipticals do possess a little gas and dust, and some have a small gaseous disc at their
center, which is believed to be the remains of spiral galaxies that the elliptical has consumed.
The stars in the spheroidal population of elliptical galaxies give a clue to possible star
formation, if any. Such stars are orange and red; the absence of blue stars indicates that they
are old, and that star formation occurred a long time ago. Elliptical galaxies are often found in
large clusters of galaxies, usually located near their center. They make up about 15% of the
large galaxies found outside the clusters, but about 50% of the large galaxies within a cluster.
Very small galaxies, called dwarf elliptical galaxies, are often found accompanying large spiral
ones. A perfect example of such an arrangement, and one that is visible to an amateur, is the
Great Andromeda Galaxy, M31, which is a classic spiral galaxy, and its attendants, M32 and
M110, both dwarf ellipticals.
6. What are population-I and population-II stars? (there are two answers)

Ans: Population 1 stars: The stars that make up an open cluster are called Population I stars,
which are metal-rich and usually found in or near the spiral arms of the Galaxy.

Population I stars: Those that lie in the disc region are called Population I stars and are often
young, hot, and blue stars;

Population II stars: Those in the bulge region are old, red giant stars called Population II stars.

Often the spiral arms colored blue, due to the Population I stars, with the bulge colored orange
because of the Population II stars.

7. Write a note on Hubble classification of galaxies and draw the corresponding Hubbles tuning
fork diagram.
Ans: Elliptical Galaxy: Basically, the classification is as follows. An upper-case letter followed
by either a number or a lower-case letter is assigned to the galaxy in question, and this
identifies its morphology. For instance, in the case of an elliptical galaxy, the letter E is used
followed by a number. The larger the number, the flatter the galaxy. An E0 galaxy is round,
whereas an E7 galaxy is very elongated as shown in the tuning fork diagram given below. There
exists a subgroup for the ellipticals with the following nomenclature: D signifies a diffuse halo,
c is a supergiant galaxy, and d represents a dwarf galaxy. Thus, some of the largest elliptical
galaxies have a cD classification.

Fig: Hubble’s diagram for elliptical galaxies

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 Spiral Galaxy: A spiral galaxy is assigned the letter S, but it can also be assigned SA to signify
that it is an ordinary spiral, or SB where B indicates that it has a bar. It is then followed by a
lower-case letter: a, b, c, or d. Intermediate classes also exist, namely, ab, bc, cd, dm, and m.
The lower-case letters a to d indicate the size of the bulge region, the dustiness of the disc,
and the tightness of the spiral arms, while m denotes a stage where the spiral shape is barely
discernible. An Sa galaxy will usually have a large bulge, a modest amount of dust, and tightly
wound arms, whereas an Sd galaxy will have a small bulge and very loosely wound arms. An
SBc galaxy will have both a bar and a small bulge. Tuning for diagram for ordinary spiral
galaxies (Sa,Sb and Sc) and spiral barred galaxies (SBa, SBb and SBc) is shown below

Fig: Hubble’s diagram for spiral galaxies

Lenticular galaxies: Galaxies that are intermediate between spirals and ellipticals, called the
Lenticular galaxies, are classified as SOs; for instance, SAOs those that are ordinary, and SBɸs
those that are barred. In addition, for galaxies intermediate between types SA and SB, there
is the classification SAB. Both lenticular and spiral galaxies can be surrounded by an outer ring,
and the spiral arms can nearly close upon themselves, thus forming a pseudo-ring. These new
features are classified as R and R’, respectively.
Pec and Irr: there are classifications for galaxies that do not easily fall into any of the above
three! These include Pec, for peculiar galaxies, which have a distorted form. Some galaxies
have an irregular morphology, classed as Irr. They can also be further classified as
unstructured, IA, and barred, IB. Dwarf galaxies are classified as d. The difference between a
Pec and an Irr can be very small, but it appears that a peculiar galaxy is one that may have
suffered considerable tidal distortion for the passage of another galaxy nearby.
8. What are active galaxies and active galactic nuclei?
Ans:In radio astronomy, it is observed that certain galaxies emit vast amounts of radio energy,
in some cases as much as 10 million times more radio energy than a normal galaxy.
Spaceborne telescope studies further clarified that galaxies emit energy in infrared, ultraviolet
and x-ray. Such galaxies are known as active galaxies and the central region of this galaxies
are known as active galactic nuclei (AGN). The source for all the energy in active galaxies is the
presence of a supermassive black holes at the center. Most active galaxies are interacting or
merging with nearby smaller galaxies, and these events provide a source of material that can
feed the central supermassive black hole.
9. What is the structure of an AGN ? (Also write what is Quasars if it is a 5 mark question)
Ans: At the center of the galaxy is a supermassive black hole surrounded by an accretion disc.
This disc is very hot toward the black hole but cooler farther out. Theoretical studies suggest
that the inner part of the disc can be very narrow, and that the black hole is hidden deep
within this narrow central area. The outer part of the disc is believed to be a large, dense
torus-shaped object consisting of dusty gas. Material falls into the black hole via the accretion
disc, and prestigious amounts of energy are emitted. Sometimes this energy is focused into

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 jets, as in Messier 87, which we can sometimes see. Moreover, this energy causes nearby
clouds of fast-moving hydrogen to emit very strongly in the hydrogen alpha wavelength.
10. What is quasars or quasi-stellar objects (QSO)
Ans: Quasars are super luminous nuclei of galaxies that lie at tremendous distances from us.
Despite being the fact that quasars are far way, they appear as bright as stars with luminosities
10 to 1000 times as large as that of galaxy hence the name quasi-stellar object. The possibility
that make quasars have nearly 1000 times more energy than all the stars in a galaxy, yet be
so small is that it must be a supermassive blackhole. Since these objects are far away they
have large red shifts. Eg.3C 273.
11. What is gravitational lensing ?
Ans: Gravitational lensing is an important consequence of Einstein’s general theory of
relativity that gravity has the ability to “bend” light, if the gravitational force is strong enough.
Any object that has sufficient mass can deflect light waves. When light rays from a distant
object pass close to a compact but massive galaxy, the bending of the light can result in the
appearance of multiple or twisted images. It is as if the galaxy were acting like a lens, and so
any object emitting light from behind the galaxy has its light bent as it passes close to the
galaxy. This bizarre effect is called gravitational lensing.
12. What are the type of galactic clusters ?
Ans:Giant and small galaxy: Giant clusters may have thousands of members in it . In addition,
small clusters occupy only a relatively small region of space, say 1 Mpc, while the largest
clusters cover an immense 10 Mpc.
Rich clusters: Rich clusters may consist of more than 1000 galaxies, lots of ellipticals, and cover
an area of over 3 Mpc in diameter. In this type of cluster, the galaxies are more often
concentrated towards the cluster center. At the center itself, there may be one or two giant
elliptical galaxies. A fine example is the Virgo cluster, with the giant elliptical M87 at its center.
Rich clusters contain about 80–90% E-type and S0-type galaxies, with a few spirals.
Poor clusters: Poor clusters, as the name suggests, contain fewer than a thousand members
that cover an area as big as that of a rich cluster, thus making the galaxies more spread out.
Poor clusters have a larger proportion of spiral galaxies.
Few examples of galaxy clusters are: Hickson group 68, Copelands septet, coma cluster,
stephen’s quintet, Seyfert’s sextet, Fornax cluster
13. What are dwarf elliptical galaxies ?
Ans: The dwarf elliptical are small galaxies that have lost their gas and dust due to interactions
with several larger galaxies.

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