Created by Turbolearn AI

Environmental Science: Theory into Practice

Unit V: Global Environmental Issues and
Policies
Causes of climate change, global warming, ozone layer depletion, and acid
rain; Impacts on human communities, biodiversity, global economy, and
agriculture
International agreements and programmes: Earth Summit, UNFCCC, Montreal
and Kyoto protocols, Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), Ramsar
convention, The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), UNEP, CITES, etc.
Sustainable Development Goals: India’s National Action Plan on Climate
Change and its major missions
Environment legislation in India: Wildlife Protection Act, 1972; Water
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974; Forest (Conservation) Act
1980; Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1981; Environment
Protection Act, 1986; Scheduled Tribes and other Traditional Forest Dwellers
(Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006.

Unit VI: Biodiversity and Conservation

Page 1
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Definition of Biodiversity; Levels of biological diversity: genetic, species and

ecosystem diversity
India as a mega-biodiversity nation; Biogeographic zones of India; Biodiversity
hotspots; Endemic and endangered species of India; IUCN Red list criteria
and categories
Value of biodiversity: Ecological, economic, social, ethical, aesthetic, and
informational values of biodiversity with examples; sacred groves and their
importance with examples
Threats to biodiversity: Habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation;
Poaching of wildlife; Man-wildlife conflicts; Biological invasion with emphasis
on Indian biodiversity; Current mass extinction crisis
Biodiversity conservation strategies: in-situ and ex-situ methods of
conservation; National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, and Biosphere reserves;
Keystone, Flagship, Umbrella, and Indicator species; Species reintroduction
and translocation
Case studies: Contemporary Indian wildlife and biodiversity issues, movements,
and projects (e.g., Project Tiger, Project Elephant, Vulture breeding program,
Project Great Indian Bustard, Crocodile conservation project, Silent Valley
movement, Save Western Ghats movement, etc)

Human Communities and the Environment

Human population growth: Impacts on environment, health, and welfare;
Carbon foot-print
Resettlement and rehabilitation of developmental project affected persons and
communities; relevant case studies
Environmental movements: Chipko movement, Appiko movement, Silent
valley movement, Bishnois of Rajasthan, Narmada Bachao Andolan, etc
Environmental justice: National Green Tribunal and its importance
Environmental philosophy: Environmental ethics; Role of various religions and
cultural practices in environmental conservation
Environmental communication and public awareness: case studies (e.g., CNG
vehicles in Delhi, Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, National Environment Awareness
Campaign (NEAC), National Green Corps (NGC) “Eco-club” programme, etc)

Practical Understanding of Environmental

Science

Page 2
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Visit to a Local Area to Document Environmental Assets: River/Forest/

Grasslands/Hill/Mountain
Documenting Environmental Assets of each ecosystem
River Ecosystem
Grassland
Visit to a Local Polluted Site-Urban/Rural/Industrial/Agricultural
Study of Common Plants, Insects, Birds
Study of Simple Ecosystems
Forest
Grassland
Desert and Semi Arid-Areas
Aquatic Ecosystems

Biodiversity and Its Threat

Introduction
Biodiversity or Biological diversity is defined as the variability among all living
organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic
ecosystems and ecological complexes of which they are part.
E.O. Wilson defined ‘Biological diversity’ or ‘biodiversity’ as that part of nature
includes the differences in genes among the individuals of a species, the variety
and richness of all the plant and animal species at different scales in space
local, regional, country wise and global, and various types of ecosystems - both
terrestrial and aquatic - within a defined area.

Levels of Biodiversity
This variety can be observed at three levels:

Genetic
Species
Ecosystem

Genetic Diversity
Refers to the tremendous amount of genetic diversity that exists within
individual species.

Page 3
 Created by Turbolearn AI

This genetic variability is responsible for the different characters in species.

Genetic diversity is the raw material from which new species arise through
evolution.
Today, genetic diversity is used to breed new crop varieties and disease-
resistant crops.

Species Diversity
Refers to the number of species within a region or habitat.

Some areas are richer in species than others.

For example, natural undisturbed tropical forests have much greater species
richness than mono-culture plantations developed by the forest department for
timber products.

The flowchart above illustrates

the key concepts related to biodiversity.

Page 4
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Countries with the highest species richness are referred to as ‘mega diversity
nations’.
India is among the world’s 15 nations that are exceptionally rich in species
diversity.
The earth’s biodiversity is distributed in specific ecological regions.
There over a thousand major eco-regions in the world.
Of these, 200 are said to be richest, rarest, and most distinctive natural areas
and are referred to as ‘Global 200’.
It has been estimated that 50,000 endemic plants which comprise 20% of the
global plant life, probably occur in only 25 ‘hot spots’ in the world.
These hotspots harbour many rare and endangered species.
Two criteria help defining hotspots namely rich endemism and the degree of
threat.
To qualify hotspot, an area must contain at least 0.5 percent or 1500 of the
world’s 3,00,000 plant species as endemics.

Ecosystem Diversity
Refers to the complement of distinctive interlinked species based on
differences in the habitat.

Ecosystem diversity can be described for a specific geographical region political

entity such as a country, a state, or a taluk.
Distinctive ecosystems include landscapes like forests, grasslands, deserts,
mountains, etc. as well as aquatic ecosystems like rivers, lakes, and seas.
Each region also has man-modified areas such as farmland or grazing pastures.
It refers to the variation in the structure and functions of the ecosystem.
It describes the number of niches, trophic levels, and various ecological
processes that sustain energy flow, flood webs, and recycling of nutrients.
It has focus on various biotic interactions and the role functions of keystone
species (species determining the ability of a large number of other species to
persist in the community), eg. fig, peepal etc.

Types of Ecosystem Diversity

These are:

Page 5
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Alpha diversity
Beta diversity
Gamma diversity

As shown in the
diagram, biodiversity can be understood at three different levels: genetic, species,
and ecosystem.

Alpha diversity refers to the diversity of organisms sharing the same

community or habitat.
Combination of species richness and equitability/evenness is used to
represent diversity within a community or habitat.
Beta diversity indicates diversity between communities.
Species frequently change when habitat or community changes.
There are differences in species composition of communities along with
environmental gradients, e.g. altitudinal gradient, moisture gradient, etc.
The higher heterogeneity in the habitats of a region or greater
dissimilarity between communities exhibit higher beta diversity.
Gamma diversity refers to the diversity of the habitats over the total scope or
geographical area.
The sum of alpha and beta diversities of ecosystems is an expression of
the biodiversity of the landscape, which considered as Gamma Diversity.
Community diversity refers to the variations in the biological communities
in which species live.
Higher diversity at the community level provides stability and higher
productivity.
In temperate grasslands, it has been observed diverse communities are
functionally more productive and stable, even under environmental
stresses such as prolonged dry conditions.

Page 6
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Biogeographic Classification of India

Each region contains a variety of ecosystems such as forests, grasslands, lakes, rivers,
mountains, and hills which have specific plant and animal species.

The image above shows the

biogeographical zones of India, highlighting the diverse ecosystems throughout the
country.

1. The cold mountainous Zones: Ladakh.

2. The Himalayan ranges and valleys of Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
Assam, and other north-eastern states.
3. The Terai, the lowland where the Himalayan rivers flow into plains.
4. The Thar Desert of Rajasthan.
5. The semi-arid grassland region of the Deccan plateau, Gujarat, Maharashtra,
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamilnadu.
6. The north eastern states of India.
7. The Western Ghats in Maharastra, Karnataka, and Kerala.
8. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
9. The long western and eastern coastal belt with sandy beaches, forests,
mangroves.

Page 7
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Values of Biodiversity
The value (ecological, economic, social, and aesthetic values) is enormous.

Page 8
 Created by Turbolearn AI

1. Consumptive value:
Biodiversity is an essential.
The main sources of human food include animals, fish, and plant products.
A large number of plants are consumed by human beings as food.
A few animal species are consumed by people which comes from cattle,
pigs, sheep, goats, buffaloes, chickens, ducks, geese, and turkey species.
Example: Fish -about half of their fish from aquaculture.
Drugs and medicines-About 75% of the world’s population depends upon
plants or plant extracts for medicines.
The drug Penicillin is used as an antibiotic which is derived from a fungus
called Penicillium.
Likewise, Tetracycline, antibiotic, obtained from bacteria is used to treat
wide variety of infections, Quinine, which is used to cure malaria is
obtained from the bark of cinchona.
These products all come from biodiversity.
2. Productive value:
Some of the organisms and sold.
The animal products like tusks of elephants, musk from deer, silk from the
silkworms, wool from sheep or goats, fur of many animals, etc. all are
traded in the market.
Example: CalabarDaisy plants were first used as a lice remedy in the
Middle led to the discovery of Pyrethrum.
Mosquito coils made from Pyrethrum sold in the market.
The bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis produces toxic proteins that kill
certain insects.
3. Social value:
These are the of the people.
Many of the plants are considered to be sacred in our country like Tulasi,
Mango leaves, Banana leaves, etc.
The leaves, fruits, and flowers some of the plants are used in worship.
Many animals like cows, snakes, bulls, and peacocks also have a
significant place in spirituality and thus hold special importance.
Thus, biodiversity has distinct social values attached to different societies.
4. Ethical value:
The ethical value but knowing the very fact that this species exists in
nature gives pleasure.
Example: A peculiar this earth.
Human beings do not derive anything directly but strongly feel that these
species should exist in nature.

Page 9
 Created by Turbolearn AI

5. Aesthetic value:
Every one of us.
People from farther areas spend a lot of time and money to visit wildlife
areas where they can enjoy the aesthetic value of biodiversity and this
type of tourism is known as eco-tourism.
Eco-tourism is estimated to generate 12 billion dollars of revenue
annually which roughly gives the aesthetic value of biodiversity.
A study of the impact of environment on the psyche was undertaken by
Kaplan and Kaplan (1989) which they found that being near nature
relieved working stresses while people who worked in a closed
environment or human-made structures experienced much more job
stress and illnesses.

Threats to Biodiversity
Changes in land use patterns, poaching of wildlife, and man-wildlife conflicts.

Man has begun to overuse or misuse most of these natural ecosystems.

Due unsustainable resource use, once productive forests and grasslands have
been turned into deserts and wastelands have increased all over the world.
Scientists have estimated that human activities are likely to eliminate
approximately million species by the year 2050.

Page 10
 Created by Turbolearn AI

1. Human population growth, industrialisation, and changes in the land- use

patterns:

Page 11
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Around 1.8 million species of plants and animals are known to science.
The actual number of species that have been existing is more than million.
Though new species have been continually identified, the rate extinction
is very high (10-20,000 species per year i.e., 1000 to 10,000 times faster
rate).
Human actions are expected to exterminate 25% of related to human
population growth, industrialisation, and changes in land use patterns in
India.
The reasons are:

Page 12
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Forests and grasslands are changed to agricultural land.

Encroachments are being repeatedly legalised.
Natural wetlands are drained to establish crop lands leading to loss
aquatic species.
Mangroves have been cleared for fuel wood and prawn farming,
which has led to a decrease in the habitat essential for the breeding
of marine fish.
Grasslands are changed to other forms, degraded by overgrazing
leading loss of cattle, goat, and sheep.
Natural forests are being deforested for timber and replanted for
teak, sal, etc.
Such monoculture does not support biodiversity in forests which has
closed canopy and rich undergrowth.
Excess collection of firewood by lopping off branches of trees’
canopy is opened up altering the local biodiversity.
Foraging cattle retard the regeneration of forest as young seedlings
trampled.
Ever increasing population gradually decreased the buffer zones
forested areas.
A prime example is Gir national park, the last bastion of Asiatic lion
with a meter gauge railway line, state expressway, 3 temples.
Repeated fires by local grazers to increase growth of grass
ultimately reduce regeneration of grasses.
Introductions of exotic weeds like Lantana bushes, Eupatorium
shrubs, and ‘congress’ grass are invading at the expense of
indigenous undergrowth species.
Following traditional farming techniques slash and burn in
Himalayas, and rab, lopping of tree branches making wood ash
fertilizer in Western Ghats are now leading to of biodiversity.
of fish stocks.
Marine turtles caught in the net are massacred of coast of Odisha.
The rare whale shark, a highly endangered species, being killed off
the coast of Gujarat.
2. Poaching:

Page 13
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Specific.
The skin and bones from tigers, ivory from elephants, horns from rhinos,
and perfume from the musk deer are extensively used abroad.
Bears killed for their gall bladders.
Corals and shells are also collected for export or sold on the beaches of
Chennai, Kanyakumari, and the Andaman Nicobar islands.
Tortoises, exotic birds, and other small animals are packed into tiny
containers and smuggled abroad for the pet trade.
A variety wild plants with real or sometimes, dubious medicinal values are
being over harvested.
The commonly collected plants include Rauwolfia, vomica, Datura, etc.
The garden plants collected for illegal trade include orchids, ferns, and
mosses.
3. Man wild life conflicts:

Conflicting situations danger to man.

Example: In Sambhalpur, Odisha, 195 humans are killed in last 5 years by

elephants and in retaliation villagers killed 98 elephants and badly injured
more than 30 elephants.

Similarly incidents with tigers, leopards, etc. are in news.

Shrinking forest cover, human encroachment, ill and weak animals, lack of
food (one adult elephant needs 200 kg green fodder and 150 kg of clean
water) for animals, protecting villagers putting electric fence, etc. are the
main reasons for such happenings.

the compensation by government is not enough, conflicts occur between

forest department and villagers.

Page 14
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Endangered & Endemic Species In India

Species that are at risk of extinction are called endangered species.

These endangered species have been categorized into four viz,

Vulnerable
Rare
Intermediate
Threatened
Endangered species.
Today most of the endangered species are found only in protected areas (PAs).
Some examples of the species being tiger, rhino, elephant; species include
siberian crane, great Indian bustard, florican, vultures; reptiles and amphibians.
Habitat loss caused by human activity is causing threat plants species like
orchids.
Over harvesting of medicinally important plants as ingredients in medical
products or cosmetics is also threatening species.
protect endangered species India has created a wildlife protection act.
Under this plants and animals are characterized according to the threat to their
survival. species.
Some species are found only in India and are thus endemic (restricted to our
country).
Some have very localized distribution and are considered highly endemic.
Some species of this category being Indian wild ass, angular Kashmiri stag,
golden langur, pigmy hog, etc.

Summary

Page 15
 Created by Turbolearn AI

1. To group threats into the categories of habitat destruction, invasion by

nonnative species, overhunting, pollution, and climate change.
2. Habitat loss presents the single greatest threat to world biodiversity, the
magnitude of this threat can be approximated from species-area curves and
rates of habitat loss. The spread of non-native species threatens many local
species with extinction, and pushes the world’s biota towards a more
homogeneous and widely distributed subset of survivors.
3. Climate change threatens to force species and ecosystems to migrate towards
higher latitudes with no guarantee of suitable habitat or access routes.
4. Many species have gone extinct, some naturally and others because human
activities i.e. deforestation, desertification, and destruction wetlands and coral
reefs.
5. Habitats that are vulnerable to greater species extinction are referred to fragile
habitats. Coral reefs, oceanic islands, mountain tops, and habitat islands are
considered as fragile habitats.

Biodiversity and Its Conservation

Learning Objectives
1. List various causes of biodiversity losses and on the whole world.
2. Explain the need and concept of biodiversity conservation.
3. Enumerate the needs for in-situ conservation of species along with various
measures and mechanisms.
4. Appreciate the need for ex-situ conservation of species and the various
mechanisms that are involved in this process of conservation.

In-situ and Ex-situ Conservation of Biodiversity

In-situ conservation refers to the conservation of species, especially the
wild and endangered species in their natural habitats environment.

Page 16
 Created by Turbolearn AI

In-situ conservation of biodiversity includes biosphere reserves, national parks,

wildlife sanctuaries, etc.
Habitat is protected with all the other species that is in nature.
Biodiversity at all levels can be best preserved in-situ setting aside wildness as
protected areas in national parks and wildlife sanctuaries with distinctive
ecosystem included in the network.
India has 589 PAs (Protected Areas) of which 89 are national parks and are
wildlife sanctuaries.
Over 100 PAs are created in Andaman and Nicobar preserve the special island
ecosystem.
The great Himalayan national park is largest sanctuary in the ecosystem and is
the home of snow leopard.
Dachigam sanctuary for hangul or kashmiri stag; Kaziranga national park for
animals elephant, guar, wild boar and swamp deer, and birds like ducks geese,
pelicans and storks; Manas sanctuary for Golden langur, pigmy hog, and wild
boar some of the examples worth mentioning under in-situ conservation.

Ex-situ conservation: Conserving the species outside the natural habitat

carefully controlled situation.

Page 17
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Examples include botanical garden for plants or zoological parks for animals.

Expertise exists to multiply species under artificially managed condition.

Germplasm is preserved in a gene bank for future needs, this is taken for
expensive endangered/extinct species.

Care is taken to avoid inbreeding such that weak offspring would not develop.

Breeding programmes in zoos provide animal needs including enclosures that

simulate their wild habitat.

Modern zoo’s function is to breed endangered species as a conservation.

Successful examples are:

1. Madras crocodile trust bank has successfully bred the 3 crocodiles. Here
crocodiles lay two clutches of eggs in one year instead of one in wild.
2. Guchali zoo has bred pigmy hog.
3. Delhi zoo has bred the rare Manipur brow antlered deer.

Species are then introduced into wild habitat with simultaneous removal of
problems like poaching disturbances and man-made influences.

Conservation of Cultivators and Livestock Breeds

Many of these are cultivated.

The new varieties being developed use the germplasm these original types.
But if all these traditional types vanish, it would be difficult to develop new
disease resistant varieties for future.
Use of varieties from gene banks have been expensive and risky.
Farmers need to be encouraged to grow traditional varieties.
Traditional breeds/varieties have to be encouraged for genetic variability.
In contrast men interested in cash returns in short time wouldn’t appreciate the
benefits of growing indigenous varieties.

Biological Diversity Act 2002

Conservation of biodiversity assumes greater significance.

Page 18
 Created by Turbolearn AI

The first attempt to bring biodiversity into the legal frame work was made by
the Biodiversity bill 2000 which was passed by the Lok sabha on 2nd
December

Biological Diversity Act of 2002

The Biological Diversity Act of 2002 was passed by the Lok Sabha in December
2002 and by the Rajya Sabha also in December 2002.

Its objectives are:

1. Conservation of biological diversity.

2. Sustainable use of the components of biodiversity.
3. Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use of the Biological
Diversity.

A National Biodiversity Authority has been established by the Biodiversity Act 2002
to regulate act implementing rules 2004 has been operationalised since-
documentation of biological resources and traditional practices through diversity
registers at the local and databases at the national levels, respectively. It further
probes the extent to which the principles of conservation have been realised.

Provisions of the Act:

Page 19
 Created by Turbolearn AI

1. Prohibition without specific approval of the Indian Government.

2. Prohibition of anyone claiming an (IPR) such as a patent over biodiversity or
related knowledge without permission of the Indian Government.
3. Regulation of collection and use of biodiversity by Indian nationals while
exempting local communities from such restrictions.
4. Measures for sharing of benefits from use of biodiversity including transfer of
technology, monitory returns, joint research and development, joint IPR
ownership, etc.
5. Measuring to conserve sustainable use of biological resources including habitat
and species protection (EIP) of projects, integration of biodiversity into the
plans, and policies of various departments and sectors.
6. Provisions for local communities to have a say in the use of their resources and
knowledge and to charge fees for this.
7. Protection of indigenous or tradition laws such as registration of such
knowledge.
8. Regulation of the use of the genetically modified organisms.
9. Setting up of National, state, and local Biodiversity funds to be used support
conservation and benefit sharing.
10. Setting up of Biodiversity Management Committees (BMC) at local village
levels, State Biodiversity Boards at state level, and National Biodiversity
Authority.

Role of the National Biodiversity Authority:

Page 20
 Created by Turbolearn AI

1. Advise the central government on matters relating to the conservation of

biodiversity, sustainable use of its components and fair as well equitable
sharing of benefits arising out of the use of biological resources and knowledge.
2. Coordinate the activities of state biodiversity.
3. Provide the technical assistance and guidance to the state biodiversity boards.
4. Sponsor investigation and research.
5. Engage consultants for a specific period and not exceeding 3 years providing
technical assistance to the authority in the effective discharges of its functions.
6. Collect, compile, and publish technical and statistical data, manuals, codes or
guides relating to conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of components
and fair as well as equitable sharing of benefits arising out the use of biological
resource and knowledges.
7. Organise through mass media, a comprehensive programme regarding
conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of components, and fair and
equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use of biological resources and
knowledge.
8. Plan and organize training of personal engagement or likely to be engaged
programmes for the conservation of biodiversity and sustainable use of
components.
9. Prepare the annual budget of the authority including its own receipts the
devaluation from the central government provided that the allocation by the
central government shall be operated in accordance with budget provisions
approved by the central government.
10. Recommend creation of posts to the central government for effective discharge
of the functions by the authority.
11. Approve the method of recruitment to the officers and servants of
[Link] for biological resources and associated traditional knowledge
through biodiversity.
12. Register electronic databases to ensure effective management, promotion, and
sustainable uses.
13. Give directions to the State Biodiversity Boards and the Biodiversity
Management Committees in writing for effective implementation of the Act.
14. Report to the central government about the functioning of the authority and
implementation of the act.
15. Sanction grants to the State Biodiversity Board and Biodiversity Management
Committees for specific purposes.
16. Take necessary measures including appointment of legal experts to oppose the
grant of intellectual property right in any country outside India any biological

Page 21
 Created by Turbolearn AI

outside India on any biological resource and associated knowledge obtained

from India in an illegal manner.
17. Do other functions that may be assigned by the central government direct from
time to time.
18. Regulates the commercial utilasation or biosurvey and bio-utilasation any
biological resource by Indians.

Note: International day for Biological Diversity – 22nd May

Need for Conserving Biodiversity

There are many factors that underlie the need to conserve biodiversity, such as:

1. Present and potential uses of the components of biological diversity especially

as we have no way of knowing or predicting what will be used in the future.
2. Biodiversity is essential to maintain the earth’s life support systems enable the
biosphere to support human life.

In-Situ vs. Ex-Situ Conservation

The diagram above illustrates the conservation of biodiversity through two primary
methods: in-situ and ex-situ conservation.

In-Situ Conservation
In-situ conservation means “on-site conservation”. It is the process of
protecting an endangered plant or animal species in its natural habitat,
either by protecting or cleaning up the habitat itself or by defending the
species from predators.

Page 22
 Created by Turbolearn AI

One benefit of in-situ conservation is that it maintains the recovering populations in

the surroundings where they have developed their distinctive properties. Wildlife
conservation is mostly based on in-situ conservation. This involves the protection of
wildlife habitats. Also, sufficiently large reserves maintained to enable the target
species to exist in large numbers. The population size must be sufficient to enable the
necessary genetic diversity to survive within the population.

Ex-Situ Conservation
Ex-situ conservation is the process of protecting an endangered species of
plant or animal by removing it from an unsafe or threatened habitat and
placing it or a part of it, under the care of humans.

While ex-situ conservation is comprised of some of the oldest and best-known

conservation methods known to humans, it also involves newer, sometimes
controversial laboratory methods. It is to be used as a last resort as a supplement to
in-situ conservation because it cannot recreate the habitat a whole: the entire genetic
variation of a species, its symbiotic counterparts, those elements which over time
might help a species to adapt to its changing surroundings. Furthermore, ex-situ
conservation techniques are often costly. Plants and animals living in ex-situ
breeding grounds have no natural defense to the diseases and pests that are new to
the species.

Project Tiger

The image above depicts a tiger, which is the animal being conserved in Project Tiger.

Project Tiger was launched by the government of India to maintain a viable

population of tigers and its natural habitat.

Page 23
 Created by Turbolearn AI

The main objective of this scheme is to ensure that a viable population of tigers in
India is preserved for scientific, economic, aesthetic, cultural, ecological values and to
also preserve the areas of biological importance as natural heritage for the benefit,
education, and enjoyment of the people. Main objectives under the scheme include
wildlife management and protection.

Initially, the project started with nine tiger reserves, covering an area of 16,339 [Link]
with a population of 268 tigers. At present there are 27 tiger reserves covering an
area of 37,761 [Link]. with a population of 2967 tigers. This amounts to almost
1.14% of the total geographical area of the country. Selection of reserves was guided
by the representation of Eco typical wilderness areas across the biogeographic range
of tiger distribution in the country.

Project Tiger is undisputedly a custodian of a major gene pool in the country. It is a

repository of some of the most valuable ecosystems and habitats for wildlife. The
Tiger Reserves are constituted on a ‘core-buffer strategy’. The core area is kept free
of biotic disturbances and forestry operations, collection minor forest produce,
grazing, and human disturbances are not allowed within. However, the buffer zone is
managed as a ‘multiple use area’ with twin objectives of providing habitat
supplement to spill over the population of wild animals from the core conservation
unit and to provide site specific eco-developmental inputs to surrounding villages for
relieving the impact on the core. No relocation is visualized in the buffer area and
forestry operations. Non-Timber Forest Produce (NTFP) collection and other rights
and concessions to the indigenous communities are permitted in a regulated manner
to complement the initiatives in the core unit. The effective protection and intensive
conservation measures inside the reserves have brought about considerable
indescribable achievements. The project has been instrumental in mustering local
support for conservation programme in general.

Ex-Situ Conservation Techniques:

Botanical Gardens

Page 24
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Together, the world’s collections maintain the largest array of plant diversity outside
of nature, and have major, if often overlooked, potential as resource centers for
conservation, education, and development. If the infrastructure and technical facilities
of most of these institutions can be strengthened, they can conserve ex-situ stocks of
most of the world’s endangered plant species. Already, individuals of an estimated
12,000 to 15,000 threatened species are being cultivated in botanic gardens
arboreta.

Zoological Parks
The basic philosophy is to create an understanding of the environment and ecological
balance of meaning strengthening the bond between people and the living earth.
These zoological parks are no mere picnic spots. They are now centers for ex-situ
wildlife conservation and environmental education. The history of modern zoos
started around 200 years ago with the creation of the first public zoo. Since then
every part of world has developed their zoological parks with great diversity such as
aquaria, bird-parks, private zoos safari parks. The World Zoo Conservation Strategy
concludes that the evolutionspecies of wildlife which would have been extinct today
except for efforts zoos and animal reserves.

Other Ex-Situ Techniques

Some important techniques used in ex-situ conservation:

Page 25
 Created by Turbolearn AI

1. Captive breeding: It is one of the important strategies used government and

non-government organizations. Captive-breeding programs of endangered and
threatened species have become familiar programs that strive to preserve
biodiversity and species survival plans such as cheetah.
2. Embryo Storage and transfer technology: Techniques for embryo transfer and
artificial insemination, which have been developed for laboratory animals and
farm animals, are potentially very useful for improving reproductive potential of
captive populations of endangered species. These kinds of techniques have
been worked out mainly for mammals.
3. Artificial insemination: It is another useful technology. Sperm can be frozen
and used later, or transferred to another breeding facility to increase genetic
diversity. Sometimes, the sperm can be added to the eggs in a and fertilization
will occur. In other cases (for example, horses) the sperm has to be injected into
the egg. Few years ago, the black-footed ferret down to six individuals, but
artificial insemination has now been used produce 16 kittens. Elephants and
cheetahs have conceived, and a cheetah cub has been born following artificial
insemination. Elephants have bred naturally in captivity, so this method may be
useful simply to make captive breeding possible.
4. Somatic cell cloning: It holds some promise for propagating from or a few
survivors of an almost extinct species. This was first done with domestic sheep
at the Roslyn Institute in Edinburgh (from University Virginia) but since then it
has been done with other mammals. It has already been used to rescue a rare
breed of cattle that had been reduced to a single old female (“Lady”) and some
frozen sperm. Granulosa cells (somatic cells in the ovary) from Lady were fused
with enucleated eggs (lacking an Angus cow (a common breed). The first calf
born from these cells genetically identical to the Lady, as expected, although
her markings were slightly different.
5. Fostering: Many egg-laying animals (i.e. birds and reptiles) are capable
producing many more eggs than they can rear. This raises the possibility
collecting the extra eggs and hatching and rearing the animals in captivity with
a foster parent, then using them to supplement wild populations. It worked
extremely well with some birds, particularly the peregrine falcon, which is now
doing so well that the fostering programme is being phased out. Rearing of
whooping cranes has also been successful, and the species recovered from a
population of 21 birds in 1941 to over 300 in 1996
6. Translocations: Sometimes conservation of faunal species involves or
necessitates translocation of animals. This means the movement of individuals
from its natural habitat or captivity to another habitat. Translocations are carried

Page 26
 Created by Turbolearn AI

out in connection with introductions reintroductions, and should be handled

with extreme caution.
7. Introduction: This involves the translocation of a species (from its natural
habitat or from captivity) into an area outside its historical distribution. Such
species would then become an “exotic” to the area. This should handled with
extreme care and needs. Extensive study of the habitat the behaviour and social
organization of the species to be introduced to be done to ensure that the
species has a good chance of adapting to habitat.
8. Reintroduction: This involves the translocation of a species (from its natural
habitat or from captivity) into an area within its historical distribution, either to
boost existing populations or to establish new populations when the original
population has died out. This too should handled with extreme care and needs
extensive study of the habitat and behaviour and social organization of the
species to be reintroduced.
9. Seed Bank: The preservation of plant germplasm in seedbanks, (or gene
banks), is one of the techniques of ex-situ conservation of plant species.
preservation for long periods of time with little damage, provided conditions are
favorable. Banking dormant seeds enables to keep genetically representative
samples of rare and endangered plant species as a kind of “genetic insurance”.
10. Seeds Storing: Storing germplasm in seedbanks is both inexpensive space
efficient. It allows preservation of large populations with little genetic erosion.
Seedbanks also offer good sources of plant material for biological research, and
avoid disturbance or damage of natural populations.

Natural Reserves

Page 27
 Created by Turbolearn AI

The growing destruction of biodiversity re-emphasizes the valuable contribution of

natural reserves. These areas are resourceful and useful means to deal with
biodiversity losses and help in buffering society from climatic effects maintains the
critical ecosystem services of the society. Biosphere Reserves are internationally
recognized areas established to promote and demonstrate a balanced relationship
between humans and the biosphere. They highlight the value of nature conservation
within a particular natural region and reconcile the conservation of biological
diversity with sustainable Consequently they are ideally suited to meet today’s
conservation needs when human populations are increasing and the practicality of
leaving aside large areas to protect pristine natural wild lands is decreasing, despite
the fact that more people than ever before are dependent on wild species and natural
ecosystems for their well-being. The programme of Biosphere Reserve was initiated
under the ManBiosphere (MAB) programme by UNESCO in 1971. Biosphere
Reserves programme is intended to conserve representative ecosystems as opposed
to species or habitat conservation. It provides in-situ conservation under natural
conditions, long-term conservation of plants, animals, and microorganisms.

India has a variety of Biosphere Reserves from the cold arid zone of Ladakh to the
wet humid climate of Imphal; the warm zone of Rajasthan to the tropical monsoonal
Central India, and the wet humid zone of the Southern peninsula.

A wetland is considered:

1. Is particularly a good representative example of a natural or near wetland,

characteristic of the appropriate biogeographic region.
2. Plays a substantial hydrological, biological, or ecological role in the natural
functioning of a major river basin or coastal system.
3. Is a specific type of wetland, rare or unusual.
4. Supports an appreciable assemblage of rare, vulnerable or endangered species,
or subspecies of plants or animals.

Importantly, wetlands are habitats for a wide variety of plant and animal life. Most
important of these is the waterfowl as wetlands are shallow water.

Page 28
 Created by Turbolearn AI

The photo above represents a wetland, and it is important to note that coastal
wetlands especially being an ecotone between the sea freshwater, and/or freshwater
and terrestrial habitats have high species diversity. Ecologically, too, wetlands
perform important functions. They regulate the water regime, acts as natural filters,
and display a marvelous nutrient dynamics.

In an ecosystem, wetlands are useful for nutrient recovery and cycling, releasing
excess nitrogen, deactivating phosphates, removing toxins, chemicals and heavy
metals through absorption by plants and also in the treatment of waste water.
Furthermore, coastal wetlands with their unique mangroves are a natural bulwark
against erosion by the sea. The possible threat of rise in sea level universally
dreaded. One immediate prevention for this possible threat, as been suggested by
experts, would be the plan of a network of mangroves. In fact, mangrove wetlands of
India and Bangladesh act as buffers against the devastating storms of the Bay of
Bengal. Wetlands thus help in mitigating floods, recharging aquifers, and reducing
surface run-off as well as the consequent erosion.

Pictured is a mangrove, with its root structure acting as a natural barrier against
erosion.

Page 29
 Created by Turbolearn AI

In the context of the environment too, wetlands play a crucial role. They protect and
improve the quality of water and keep the local weather moderate. Using wetlands
for water quality improvement has been tried in climates. Wetlands in urban
periphery are natural receptacles for waste water and can harness effectively the
nutrients available in the waste through fisheries and agriculture.

Most of the natural wetlands are in North and South. On the other hand, the various
multi-purpose projects launched to harness river systems have provided a number of
wetlands. E.g., Harike Barrage at the confluence of the Beas and Sutlej in Punjab,
Bhakra Nangal Dam in Punjab, and the Kosi Barrage on the Bihar-Nepal border.
Besides these, also have a network of lakes – natural as well as manmade, for
example, Kabar lake, Chilka lake, Pichola Complex and Sukhna lake, etc. In addition
of these, there are 6,740 square kilometers of mangroves. The major concentrations
mangroves in the country are the Sunderbans and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
which holds 80% of the mangroves in India. Rest of them are in Odisha, Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Gujrat, and Goa.

Two wetlands from India which found place in the first International Convention
Wetlands held at Ramsar in Iran in February 1971 were Chilka and Bharatpur.
Currently there are 26 Ramsar sites in India, covering most of the important
wetlands.

Biodiversity Hotspots
Biodiversity is concentrated in specific regions. Two-thirds of the species are found in
geographical regions within tropical areas (area between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic
Capricorn). This indicates that the species are not evenly distributed on this planet.
Tropical region is known to possess high species richness (number of species living in
a specific location). Biodiversity conservation requires identification such regions that
are habitat of vast number of species. Geographical regions support number of
species and threatened by destruction are known as hotspots. Hotspots of
biodiversity are those places on earth which have high biodiversity and are
threatened by human habitation.

The term 'Biodiversity' was given by the British biologist Norman Myers in 1988.
Meyer defined hotspot as:

A biogeographic region characterized by exceptional levels of endemism

and by serious level of habitat loss

Page 30
 Created by Turbolearn AI

To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot, an area must meet two strict criteria:

1. Area must support at least 1,500 vascular plants (> 0.5% of the world’s total)
as endemics. This indicates that the area must have a high percentage of plant
life found nowhere else on the planet. A hotspot is considered irreplaceable.
2. Area must include 30% or less of its original natural vegetation which indicates
that it must be threatened.

At present, 36 hotspots have been identified in the world. Though these 36 hotspots
together represent 2.4% of the Earth’s land surface but they are crucial in supporting
more than half of the world’s plant species as endemics and nearly 43% of bird,
mammal, reptile, and amphibian species as endemics. Further, these hotspots provide
ecosystem services and livelihood to more than 2 billion people on Earth.

Out of these 36 hotspots, 4 hotspots are found in India. These four hotspots are:

Himalaya: Includes the entire Indian Himalayan region (and that falling in
Pakistan, Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, China, and Myanmar).
Indo-Burma: Includes entire north-eastern India, except Assam Andaman
group of Islands (as well as Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, and
southern China).
Sundalands: Includes Nicobar group of Islands (as well as Indonesia, Malaysia,
Singapore, Brunei, and Philippines).
Western Ghats and Sri Lanka: Includes entire Western Ghats Sri Lanka).

IUCN's Red Data List

IUCN is an international organization which is responsible for assessment of species
across the world. IUCN conducts field survey to monitor species in every country.
Based on the survey, IUCN classify plants and animals in different categories. This
information about current status of species is published by IUCN in ‘Red Data List’
publication.

Summary

Page 31
 Created by Turbolearn AI

1. There is a loss of species or adverse effects on local climate and water flow,
reduction of genetic diversity, extinction of species, and loss of livelihoods.
2. In-situ conservation meaning on-site conservation and ex-situ conservation
meaning off-site conservation are the two important ways of conservation
species. Wildlife conservation is mostly based on in-situ conservation. Ex-situ
conservation is a man’s efforts to sustain and protect the environment and ex-
situ conservation is used when species extinction is imminent.
3. In-situ conservation of species is generally operated in places like National
Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries, Wetlands, Biosphere Reserves, Tiger Reserves,
and Elephant Reserves.
4. Ex-situ conservation sites are Botanical Gardens and Zoological Parks.
5. Seed banks and tissue culture are important methods for plant conservation.
6. Nature reserves are hubs of biodiversity and they should be left as such that
ecosystem can function properly.

Environmental Degradation and Sustainability

Environmental Issues
Human activities, particularly those associated with industrialization, lead to air,
water, and soil pollution. They also generate significant waste, creating long-term
environmental hazards.

Toxic and nuclear wastes pose substantial economic burdens due to the high costs of
disposal. Therefore, the potential environmental costs must be carefully considered
alongside the economic benefits of any project before it is approved.

Citizens must actively monitor development patterns, reporting projects or industries

causing environmental harm to relevant authorities like local administrations, forest
departments, or pollution control boards.

When new development projects are planned, it's essential to ensure they adhere to
environmental safeguards. The idea is to "think globally, act locally," shifting
development from rapid economic growth at the expense of ecological integrity to a
more sustainable approach.

Sustainable Development Goals

Here is an image that illustrates the sustainable development goals:

Page 32
 Created by Turbolearn AI

The image depicts a stylized tree with a sprawling network of branches, symbolizing
the interconnectedness of sustainable development goals. The tree's silhouette is
black, and its branches support 16 circular icons in varying shades of gray, each
representing a distinct goal. These icons include symbols for education, health,
energy, and environmental conservation, among others.

Environmental Sustainability
Environmental sustainability is based on:

Safeguarding water resources

Saving energy
Reducing waste
Using recyclable packaging
Limiting or eliminating plastics
Using sustainable transport
Reusing paper
Protecting flora and fauna

Example: Stockholm invests in sustainable infrastructure, maintains low emissions,

and achieves excellent air quality, balancing economic development with
environmental protection.

Example: The Bimbo Group aims to reduce environmental impact through

regenerative agriculture with zero carbon emissions, renewable energy use, and
waste reduction.

Economic Sustainability

Page 33
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Economic sustainability refers to an organization's ability to manage

resources and responsibly generate profits over the long term.

Companies earn profit when a balance is struck between both revenue and
expenses.

Example: Unilever implemented measures to balance sustainability with economic

performance, such as increasing package recycling, promoting recycled materials, and
conducting responsible consumption awareness campaigns.

Example: Suez reduced its emissions related to electricity consumption by 95% by

purchasing and generating renewable energy and implementing energy efficiency
measures.

Social Sustainability
Social sustainability strengthens the cohesion and stability of specific social groups
within a community.

Example: CEMEX contributes to the social development of communities by offering

decent housing through self-building programs and loans with favorable access
conditions.

Example: The Gigante Group, via the Gigante Foundation, contributes funds and
resources to social causes, such as school materials for collaborators and grants to
improve visual health.

Sustainable Development Defined

Sustainable development encompasses policies, projects, and investments that
provide current benefits without sacrificing environmental, social, and personal
health in the future.

It aims to balance economic development, environmental protection, and social well-

being.

The Brundtland Report (1987) defines sustainable development as

"development that meets the needs of the present generation without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."

Page 34
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Increasing Demands on Resources

Increased demands for food, water, housing, electricity, roads, and automobiles exert
tremendous pressure on natural resources and contribute to air, water, and soil
pollution. Checking degradation and depletion of natural resources and pollution is
crucial without halting development.

Climate Change
The global average surface temperature has increased by 0.6° + 0.2° C over the past
century.

1998 was the warmest year on record.

The 1990s were the warmest decade on record.

Increased frequency and intensity of droughts have been observed in parts of Asia
and Africa.

El Niño episodes have been more frequent, persistent, and intense since the mid-
1970s.

These are all signs that the Earth's climate is changing, making survival more difficult
for mankind.

Computer-based global climate models project that the global mean surface
temperature will rise by 1.4° to 5.8°C in the near future.

Warming will be greatest over land areas and at high latitudes.

The projected rate of warming is greater than has occurred in the last 10,000
years.

Extreme weather events are likely to increase, leading to floods or droughts, fewer
cold spells, and more heat waves. The frequency and intensity of El Niño is also likely
to increase.

By the year 2100, the global mean sea level is projected to rise by 9 to 88 cm.

Page 35
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Fresh water supplies may be seriously affected, increasing the risk of infectious
diseases. Food production will be reduced in vulnerable regions, leading to starvation
and malnutrition. Climate change-related impacts on human health could lead to
displacement of a large number of people, creating environmental refugees and
further health issues.

Changes in climate may affect the distribution of vector species (e.g., mosquitoes),
increasing the spread of diseases like malaria and filariasis.

Environment Defined
Environment includes all living beings (biotic components) and non-living
components (abiotic components) present in nature.

The Environmental Protection Act of 1986 defines the environment as

including water, air, land, and the inter-relationships among them, as well
as their relationships with human beings, other living creatures, plants,
microorganisms, and property.

The environment provides basic goods and services such as clean air and water, food,
fodder, medicines, and raw materials. Anthropogenic activities and unsustainable
consumption have significantly damaged the environment, making environmental
education indispensable for creating awareness and promoting conservation.

Here is an image of what global warming looks like:

The image depicts a grayscale graphic representation of global warming, featuring a

melting globe with a hand grasping it from the bottom right. The globe showcases a
thermometer on the left side, rising temperatures indicated by a higher mercury level,
while clouds and the sun are visible above.

Page 36
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Global Warming
Some energy reaching the Earth's surface increases its temperature; the rest radiates
back into the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases, mainly carbon dioxide, trap some of
this heat, causing global warming.

The average surface temperature is about 15°C, which is about 33°C higher than it
would be without the greenhouse effect.

Since pre-industrial times, carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased by 31%,
trapping more heat in the lower atmosphere.

Acid Rain
When fossil fuels are burned, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are produced. These
chemicals react with water and other chemicals in the air to form sulfuric acid, nitric
acid, and other harmful pollutants.

These acid pollutants spread upwards and are carried by air currents, eventually
returning to the ground as acid rain, fog, or snow.

Here is a diagram of how acid rain works:

The image is a diagram illustrating the formation and effects of acid rain. The
diagram depicts a landscape with a cityscape on the right, mountains in the center,
and trees on the left, all surrounded by a cloud labeled "ACID RAIN" at the top.

Causes:

Page 37
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Industrial activities account for 61% of sulfur dioxide pollution.

Motor vehicle exhaust fumes are the main source of nitrogen oxides.

Effects:

1. Acid rain dissolves and washes away nutrients in the soil.

2. It creates holes in the waxy coating of leaves, affecting photosynthesis.
3. It causes water in rivers, lakes, and wetlands to become acidic.
4. It disrupts food chains, endangering entire ecosystems.
5. It damages buildings, automobiles, and other structures made of stone or metal.

Solutions:

Reducing emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.

Switching to cleaner-burning fuels.
Using scrubbers in smokestacks.
Using catalytic converters in cars.
Adding powdered limestone to the soil to neutralize acidity.

Ozone Layer Depletion

Ozone is a highly poisonous gas with a strong odor. It is considered a pollutant at
ground level and a health hazard.

In the upper atmosphere, the ozone layer protects the Earth from harmful ultraviolet
radiations by absorbing them.

Here is a diagram of ozone layer depletion:

Page 38
 Created by Turbolearn AI

The image depicts a diagram illustrating ozone layer depletion, set against a black
background representing space with scattered white dots symbolizing stars. A large
white circle, likely representing the sun, is positioned at the top left, emitting three
white arrows towards the Earth.

Causes:

Chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used as refrigerants and aerosol

spray propellants.
Other chemicals and industrial compounds such as bromine, halocarbons, and
nitrous oxides.

Effects:

Increased cases of skin cancer and cataracts.

Damage to certain crops and plankton.

Nuclear Accidents and Nuclear Holocaust

Nuclear energy, while clean and cheap compared to fossil fuels, has downsides.
Nuclear accidents can cause loss of life, long-term illness, and destruction of
property. Radioactivity leads to cancer, genetic disorders, and death in the affected
area for generations.

Nuclear Holocaust:

The use of nuclear weapons, as seen in the Hiroshima and Nagasaki incident during
World War II, is one of the worst disasters in history. The effects of radiation from
these nuclear bombs can still be seen today.

Summary of Global Environmental Issues

Most environmental problems are trans-boundary.
Climate change is mainly due to human activities.
Ozone layer depletion is caused by certain chemicals injected into the
stratosphere.

The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972

Page 39
 Created by Turbolearn AI

The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, regulates hunting and trade of wild
animals, birds, and their products.

Here is an image depicting the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972:

The image depicts a page from an educational material, featuring a prominent title
"WILD LIFE PROTECTION ACT, 1972" in bold black text on a wood-grain
background. Above the title, two black-and-white photographs are displayed: one
shows a group of animals resembling pigs or boars, while the other appears to be a
tiger.

Major Activities and Provisions:

1. Declaration of sanctuaries, national parks, and closed areas.

2. Appointment of Wildlife Advisory Board and wildlife warden.
3. Listing of endangered wildlife species and provisions to prohibit their hunting.
4. Protection to some endangered plants.
5. Constitution of Central Zoo Authority.
6. Regulation of trade and commerce in some wildlife species with licenses.
7. Ban on the trade or commerce in scheduled animals.

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974

Pollution, according to this act, is defined as the direct or indirect
discharge of sewage, industrial effluents, or liquid, gaseous, or solid
substances into water, which alters the water's physical, chemical, or
biological properties, making it harmful to public health, animals, or
aquatic organisms.

Page 40
 Created by Turbolearn AI

This Act led to the creation of the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and State
Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs).

Environmental Legislation in India

Central and State Pollution Control Boards

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and State Pollution Control Boards
(SPCBs) play crucial roles in environmental management. Their functions include:

1. Setting standards
2. Planning nationwide programs for pollution control
3. Preparing manuals and guides for sewage and effluent treatment
4. Collecting technical and statistical data
5. Advising central and state governments
6. Providing technical assistance to SPCBs

Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974

This act focuses on preventing and controlling water pollution. Key provisions
include:

Establishing standards for effluents

Authorizing sample collection for analysis
Requiring industries to obtain consent from the board
Suggesting efficient methods for effluent treatment and disposal

This image shows a water droplet representing the essence of the Water Act.

Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980

Page 41
 Created by Turbolearn AI

This act aims to conserve forests and prevent deforestation. Key features include:

1. Requiring central government approval for using forestland for non-forest

purposes
2. Providing funding for forest conservation
3. Halting illegal forest activities

Amendments in 1992 allowed some non-forest activities with central government

approval, such as:

Setting up transmission lines

Conducting seismic reviews
Undertaking drilling and hydroelectric projects

The act prohibits certain activities, such as cultivating cash crops, and regulates
activities like tusser cultivation by tribals. Mining is considered a non-forestry activity
requiring prior approval. Any non-forest activity proposal must include a cost-benefit
analysis and an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS).

Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

This act aims to control and reduce air pollution. It defines an air pollutant as:

Any solid, liquid, or gaseous substance (including noise) present in the

atmosphere in such concentration as may be or tend to be injurious to
human beings or other living creatures, plants, property, or environment.

The CPCB's role includes:

1. Advising the central government

2. Planning nationwide programs
3. Providing technical assistance to SPCBs
4. Preparing manuals and guides
5. Setting air quality standards

The SPCBs can:

Declare air pollution control areas

Set emission standards for automobiles
Approach courts to restrain polluters
Inspect premises and take air samples

Page 42
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Environment (Protection) Act, 1986

This act serves as an umbrella legislation to protect and improve environmental
quality. It defines:

Environment: includes water, air and land, and the inter-relationship

which exists among and between water, air and land, and human beings,
other living creatures, plants, micro-organism and property.

Hazardous substance: any substance or preparation which, by reasons of

its chemical physiochemical properties or handling, is liable to cause harm
to human beings, other living creatures, plants, micro-organism, property
or the environment.

The functions under this act include:

1. Coordinating state government actions

2. Planning nationwide programs
3. Setting emission standards and permissible limits
4. Identifying restricted areas for industries
5. Preventing accidents
6. Carrying out research
7. Inspecting premises and equipment
8. Establishing environmental laboratories
9. Preparing manuals and guides

The central government may establish rules regarding:

Air, water, and soil quality standards

Environmental pollutant limits
Safety methods for handling hazardous substances

Page 43
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Other Key Points

It is every citizen's obligation to protect and improve the natural environment.
The Environment Protection Act (EPA) came into force after the Bhopal Gas
Tragedy.
Various environmental legislations have been enacted, including the Wildlife
Protection Act (1972), the Forest (Conservation) Act and Rules (1980, 1981),
and the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition
of Forest Rights) Act (2006).

Human Population Growth and Environmental

Impact

Factors Responsible for Population Growth

Several factors have contributed to unprecedented growth in the human population:

1. Increased agricultural productivity: Modern techniques have led to increased

yields.
2. Decreased death rate and infant mortality rate: Advancements in medical
facilities.
3. Advancements in Science and Technology: Industrial revolution led to a
surplus of resources.
4. Lack of awareness: Illiteracy and poverty contribute to overpopulation.

Impacts of Population Growth on Environment, Health,

and Welfare
Rapid population growth has several adverse effects:

Page 44
 Created by Turbolearn AI

1. Deforestation: Increased demand for resources leads to clearing forests.

2. Biodiversity Loss: Decline in habitats leads to a decline in floral and faunal
biodiversity.
3. Urbanization: Rapid urbanization strains resources and infrastructure.
4. Industrialization: Environmental degradation and pollution result from
industrial growth.
5. Land Degradation: Intensive farming and overexploitation of resources degrade
the soil.
6. Waste Generation: Large populations generate significant solid and liquid
waste.
7. Loss of Fresh Water: Overexploitation depletes fresh water resources.
8. Climate Change: Increased greenhouse gas emissions contribute to climate
change.
9. Transport Infrastructure: Development of transport infrastructure releases
poisonous gases.
10. Productivity: Environmental degradation reduces economic productivity.

This presentation slide on "Population and Environment" shows the relationship

between humans and nature.

Steps for Population Control

Effective population control measures are essential:

1. Minimum age of Marriage: Enforce the legal minimum age for marriage.
2. Promoting Education: Educated families tend to adopt smaller family norms.
3. More Employment Opportunities: Improving income and living standards
promotes small family norms.
4. Family Planning: Increase awareness and access to family planning methods.
5. Incentives: Government incentives can encourage birth control measures.

Carbon Footprint

Page 45
 Created by Turbolearn AI

The total amount of greenhouse gases generated by our actions

This stylized image shows the concept of a carbon footprint.

Ways to reduce your carbon footprint:

Drive less
Use public transportation
Use energy-efficient appliances
Insulate homes
Consume local and organic food

Individuals and companies can also offset emissions by purchasing carbon credits.

Resettlement and Rehabilitation

Large-scale developmental projects often lead to displacement, requiring
resettlement and rehabilitation (R&R) programs. The National Policy on
Resettlement and Rehabilitation came into force in 2004. R&R is an integral part of
the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and Environmental Management Plan
(EMP).

Challenges include:

Regional issues
Administrative delays
Economic, social, and environmental problems

CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) Vehicles

Initiative in Delhi
Delhi has implemented the use of CNG vehicles to combat air pollution.

Advantages of using CNG:

Page 46
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Reduces environmental pollution

Can be generated and used for bulk storage
Can be mixed with biomethane

Limitations include:

Requires high-pressure cylinders

Limited fuel storage and infrastructure

Environmental Movements in India

Environmental movements are scientific, social, and political endeavors that address
environmental issues. They favor sustainable management of natural resources and
often stress environmental protection via changes in public policy. These movements
can be highly organized or radically informal and range from local to global in scope.

Khejarli Massacre
Place: Khejarli, Marwar region, Rajasthan
Leaders: Amrita Devi along with Bishnoi villagers
Aim: Saving sacred trees from being cut down by the king’s soldiers

The image above shows Rabindranath Tagore embracing a tree, highlighting the
deep connection between humans and nature, which is central to understanding
movements like the Khejarli Massacre.

In this movement, 363 Bishnoi villagers, influenced by the teachings of Guru Maharaj
Jambaji, were killed while protecting trees. The king, upon learning of these events,
apologized and designated the Bishnoi state as a protected area, a legislation that
still exists today.

Page 47
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Chipko Movement 🫂
Year: 1973
Place: Chamoli district and later at Tehri-Garhwal district of Uttarakhand
Leaders: Sundarlal Bahuguna, Gaura Devi, Sudesha Devi, Bachni Devi, Chandi
Prasad Bhatt, Govind Singh Rawat, Dhoom Singh Negi, Shamsher Singh Bisht,
and Ghanasyam Raturi
Aim: To protect trees on the Himalayan slopes from being cut down by
contractors

The Chipko movement, meaning "hug the tree movement," was started by
environmentalist Sunderlal Bahuguna in 1970. Villagers, especially women, hugged
trees to prevent them from being felled. Their main demand was that the benefits of
the forests should go to local people. The movement gained momentum in 1978,
leading the state government to set up a committee that ruled in favor of the
villagers.

Save Silent Valley Movement

Year: 1978
Place: Silent Valley, an evergreen tropical forest in the Palakkad district of
Kerala, India
Leaders: Poet-activist Sughathakumari
Aim: To protect the Silent Valley from being destroyed by a hydroelectric
project

The image above shows the serene river flowing through the lush Silent Valley,
illustrating what the movement aimed to preserve.

Page 48
 Created by Turbolearn AI

The movement opposed the construction of a hydroelectric project across the

Kunthipuzha River. Many feared that the project would submerge 8.3 sq km of
untouched moist evergreen forest. In 1981, Indira Gandhi declared that Silent Valley
would be protected, and in 1983, the Silent Valley Hydroelectric Project was called
off. In 1985, the Silent Valley National Park was formally inaugurated.

Appiko Movement
Place: Uttara Kannada and Shimoga districts of Karnataka State
Leaders: Facilitator Pandurang Hegde
Aim: Against the felling and commercialization of natural forests and the
ruining of ancient livelihoods

The image captures the essence of the Appiko Movement, with individuals embracing
trees in a wooded area, reflecting their commitment to protecting the natural forest.

The Appiko movement, locally known as "Chaluvali," involved locals embracing trees
to prevent their cutting. The movement used foot marches, slide shows, folk dances,
and street plays to raise awareness. It also promoted afforestation of denuded lands
and the rational use of the ecosphere by introducing alternative energy resources.

Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA)

Year: 1985
Place: Narmada River, which flows through Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and
Maharashtra
Leaders: Medha Patker, Baba Amte, adivasis, farmers, environmentalists, and
human rights activists
Aim: A social movement against the construction of large dams across the
Narmada River

Page 49
 Created by Turbolearn AI

The image above illustrates the Narmada Bachao Andolan, showing protesters
seated in a flooded area, advocating for the preservation of the Narmada River.

The Narmada Bachao Andolan started as a movement for rehabilitation and

resettlement for people displaced by the Sardar Sarovar Dam. It later focused on the
preservation of the environment and the eco-systems of the valley. Activists
demanded the height of the dam be reduced. The World Bank withdrew from the
project, and in 2000, the Supreme Court approved the dam's construction with a
condition that its height be raised to 90 meters.

Disaster Management

Definitions
Disaster: A widespread human, material, economic, or environmental loss
which exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope
using its own resources.

Disaster Mitigation: Sustained action taken to reduce long-term

vulnerability of human life and property to natural hazards.

Post Disaster Management: A reactive mechanism to natural disasters,

involving problems such as evacuation, warnings, communications, search
and rescue, fire-fighting, medical and psychiatric assistance, provision of
relief, shelter, etc.

Disaster Management Cycle

Page 50
 Created by Turbolearn AI

The disaster management cycle, depicted in the image above, includes the stages of
disaster, response, recovery, mitigation, and preparedness, illustrating the cyclical
and continuous nature of disaster management activities.

Goals of Post-Disaster Recovery Planning

1. Identify and prioritize key issues.
2. Establish partnerships.
3. Develop a recovery strategy.
4. Effectively direct external and internal resources.
5. Identify pre-disaster mitigation projects.
6. Enhance response and preparedness capabilities.

Nature of Disaster Management

Disaster management includes activities ranging from forecasting, warning,
evacuation, search and rescue, relief, reconstruction, and rehabilitation. It is multi-
sectoral and involves administrators, scientists, planners, volunteers, and
communities.

Guidelines for Effective Management of Mitigation

Programs

Page 51
 Created by Turbolearn AI

1. Pre-disaster mitigation can help in ensuring faster recovery from the impacts of
disasters.
2. Mitigation measures must ensure the protection of the natural and cultural
assets of the community.
3. Hazard reduction methods must consider the various hazards faced by the
affected community, their desires, and priorities.
4. Any mitigation program must ensure an effective partnership between the
Government, Scientific community, private sector, NGOs, and the community.

Main Elements of a Mitigation Strategy

The image shows key elements of a mitigation strategy: community resilience, public
information and warning, situational awareness, operational coordination, planning,
infrastructure & transportation, and risk & disaster resilience, highlighting the
multifaceted approach required for effective mitigation.

Page 52
 Created by Turbolearn AI

1. Risk assessment and Vulnerability: Identification of hotspot areas of prime

concern, collection of information on past natural hazards, information on the
population and infrastructure.
2. Improvement of forecasting and warning: Upgrade observation equipment
and networks, monitor hazards, improve the quality of forecasting and warning.
3. Public awareness and training: Training to be given to officials and staff of
various departments involved at the state & district level.
4. Institutional mechanisms: Emphasize proactive and pre-disaster measures
rather than post-disaster response.
5. Incentives and resources for mitigation: Provides stable funding for all
mitigation programs.
6. Land use planning and regulations: Designate floodplains as areas for outdoor
recreation, wildlife attractions, or hiking trails.
7. Hazard resistant design and construction: Promote knowledge of disaster-
resistant construction techniques and practices among engineers, architects,
and technical personnel.
8. Structural and Constructional reinforcement of existing buildings: Reduce the
vulnerability of existing buildings through minor adaptations or alterations.

Causes, Effects, and Mitigation Measures of

Disasters in India

Floods

Page 53
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Causes:

Heavy rainfall
Breaches in tanks and reservoirs
Cyclones
Deforestation
Shifting cultivation

Effects:

Inundation or washing away of houses and properties

Damage to standing crops and livestock
Economic hardship for rural populations

Mitigation Measures:

Structural Measures:

1. Reservoirs for impounding monsoon flows.

2. Prevention of overbank spilling by the construction of embankments and
flood walls.
3. Improvement of flow conditions in the channel and anti-erosion measures.
4. Improved drainage.

This image demonstrates the real-world impact of floods, highlighting the

importance of mitigation measures to protect vulnerable communities.

Page 54
 Created by Turbolearn AI

*Non-Structural Measures:*

1. Speedy restoration of roads, rail routes, and postal services.

2. Arranging water supply by tankers or fire tenders.
3. Repair of power, telephone, and sewerage lines.
4. Organizing rescue operations.
5. Organizing shelter for the people in distress.
6. Provision of basic amenities like drinking water, sanitation, and public h

Earthquakes
Causes: Abrupt and tremendous release of energy in the earth's crust through
tectonic processes.
Effects: Collapse of houses and infrastructure, leading to casualties.
Mitigation: Construction of quake-proof houses, ensuring infrastructure can
withstand earthquakes, and continuous observation of geophysical and
geochemical parameters.

Earthquake Precursors
Before an earthquake, several observable phenomena often occur:

1. Radon Levels: Increase in radioactive radon gas.

2. Well Water Levels: Changes in well water levels.
3. Longitudinal Wave Velocity: Velocity of longitudinal waves decreases, then
returns to normal just before the earthquake.
4. Electrical Resistivity: Decrease in electrical resistivity of the ground.

Cyclone Formation
A cyclone is a meteorological phenomenon that originates over open oceans and
moves towards land. These storms can last for days to weeks, affecting large areas.

Page 55
 Created by Turbolearn AI

The image depicts a diagram illustrating the mechanism of tropical

cyclone formation, with a grayscale illustration of a whirlpool-like storm
at its center. The diagram features arrows indicating the movement of air,
including inflow, outflow, and descending air, as well as a spiral pattern
representing the circulation of air. The diagram is labeled "Fig. 4" at the
bottom and includes a watermark reading "[Link]". The
title "Mechanism of Tropical Cyclone Formation" is displayed prominently
at the top of the image. The diagram provides a detailed visual
representation of the process by which tropical cyclones form.

The Indian Ocean is highly prone to cyclones. India's extensive coastline of 5700 km
is vulnerable to cyclones from the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. The eastern
coastline is particularly at risk, experiencing about 80% of the cyclones in the region.
Cyclones typically occur in India between April and May and again between October
and December.

Disaster Management Aims

Disaster management strategies focus on mitigating the effects of cyclones,
including:

High-speed winds
Storm surges
Flooding from heavy rainfall

Key Actions
The main actions include:

Page 56
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Understanding cyclone formation and movement

Detecting cyclones at sea
Predicting cyclone behavior
Warning vulnerable populations
Implementing preparedness measures
Providing relief and rehabilitation
Integrating hazard mitigation into development plans

Mitigation Measures
Effective mitigation measures include:

Installation of early warning systems

Developing communication infrastructure
Creating shelter belts
Training and educating the public on land use and settlement planning

Landslides
Landslides are mass movements of rock, soil, and debris down a slope.

"grayscale aerial view photograph of a landscape"

The image seems to be a grayscale aerial view photograph of a

landscape. The photograph shows a clearing surrounded by trees on a
hillside. A lighter area dominates the center of the image, possibly
representing bare ground or a landslide. The bottom of the image features
a darker band, likely a body of water. The overall scene suggests a natural
setting with possible geological activity.

Causes
Primary Cause: Gravity acting on steep slopes.
Contributing Factors:
Erosion by rivers, glaciers, and ocean waves
Intensive construction activity
Destabilizing forces of nature

Page 57
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Factors Affecting Slope Stability

Saturation: Weakening of slopes by snowmelt and heavy rains.
Earthquakes: Stresses that cause weak slopes to fail.
Volcanic Eruptions: Loose ash deposits, heavy rain, and debris flows.
Vibrations: Traffic, machinery, thunder, and blasting.
Groundwater Pressure: Destabilizing slopes.
Excess Weight: Accumulation of rain, snow, or man-made structures.

Prevention Measures
Drainage measures
Erosion control (bamboo check dams, terracing, jute, and coir netting)
Rockfall control (grass plantation, vegetated dry masonry walls)
Preventing deforestation and improving forestation

Hazard Reduction
Reducing hazards involves:

Preventing population exposure

Physically controlling landslides

Tsunamis
The term ‘Tsunami’ is derived from the Japanese words ‘tsu’ (harbour) and
‘nami’ (wave). A tsunami is generated when the sea floor abruptly
deforms vertically displaces the overlying water.

Tectonic earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and submarine landslides can cause them.

Page 58
 Created by Turbolearn AI

This black-and-white image depicts a serene scene of individuals strolling

through a tropical setting. The photograph features a row of palm trees in
the background. Three men are prominently visible in the foreground. A
crowd can be seen sitting on benches or lounging on the grass in the
background. The overall atmosphere suggests a warm and sunny day at a
park or other outdoor recreational area.

Formation
When large areas of the sea floor elevate or subside, a tsunami is created.

Characteristics
Speed: Up to 800 km/h in the open ocean.
Travel Time: Can cross the Pacific Ocean in less than a day.
Wave Height: As the wave approaches land, it compresses, sometimes up to a
height of 30 meters.

Example
The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, triggered by a 9.0 magnitude earthquake off the
coast of Sumatra, Indonesia. It had devastating effects, especially in Aceh, where over
130,000 people died and thousands went missing.

Dealing With Disaster

Key Points
1. Natural disasters strike without warning, disrupting social and economic life.
2. Multiple agencies (Revenue, Police, Health, Transport, etc.) are involved in
disaster management.
3. Effective response depends on the coordination and preparedness of
emergency services and governments.

India's Approach to Disaster Management

Page 59
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Shift from relief-based response to prevention, mitigation, preparedness, relief,

and rehabilitation.
Joint responsibility of Central and State Governments through the Disaster
Management Act 2005.
Establishment of Disaster Management Authorities at national, state, and
district levels.
Creation of specialized response forces.
Aim to build a Disaster Resilient Community empowered to deal with hazards.

Practical Understanding of Environmental

Science
This section discusses practical approaches to understanding environmental science,
including documenting environmental assets and studying polluted sites.

Environmental Assets:
River/Forest/Grasslands/Hill/Mountain
Each ecosystem offers different benefits, including natural resources, ecological
functions, tourist potential, and aesthetic appeal.

Importance of Ecosystems
Multiple Benefits: Ecosystems provide benefits at global, national, and local
levels.
Cultural Significance: Different cultures and socio-economic groups use
ecosystems in various ways.
Differing Perspectives: Tribal communities, agriculturalists, pastoralists, and
urban residents have different views on their environment.

Key Questions for Studying Natural Resources

1. What are the ecosystem’s natural resource assets?
2. Who uses these resources and how?
3. Is the ecosystem degraded?
4. How can it be conserved?

Page 60
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Study Components
1. Document What You See: Observe abiotic and biotic aspects.
2. Document Findings: Ask local user groups about their environment and
sustainability.

Evaluation
Describe the ecosystem’s structure, quality, and geographical features.
Assess its functions and linkages between species and their habitat.
Determine if resource utilization is sustainable or unsustainable.
Identify degradation and suggest restoration measures.

Field Survey Documentation

Document the following:

Aims and Objectives

Methodology
Observations on the site
Findings of interviews with local people
Results and Conclusions

Special Resource Features of Individual Ecosystems

Document observations pertaining to the specific features of each ecosystem.

River Ecosystem

Guidelines
Observe local uses of the river: drinking water, domestic needs, fishing, cattle
grazing, and irrigation.
Assess land use around the aquatic ecosystem and the importance of water
resources.

Page 61
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Field Observations
1. Clean Stretch: Observe a river stretch full of life with fish and tadpoles.
2. Rural Area: Observe different ways people use water from the river.
3. Urban Area: Note if the river is polluted and unsuitable for drinking.

Observations to Record
Wildlife dependence on the river.
Types of fish caught and changes in fish catch over time.
Different types of fish, crustacea, reeds, and plants used as food or other
resources.

Report Comparison
Compare and contrast unpolluted and polluted water bodies, noting which species
remain in polluted water.

Water Use and Conservation

Track daily water usage.
Identify ways to reduce water wastage.
Explore recycling and wastewater use in gardens.

Site Observations to Record

Type of flow (permanent/seasonal, slow/rapid).
Qualitative aspects (abiotic and biotic).
Aquatic plant and animal life.
Characteristics of banks, shallow areas, deep areas, and islands.
Land use.

Findings from Interviews

Page 62
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Water uses and proportions (domestic, agriculture, industry).

Other resources used (fish, crustacea, reeds, sand).
Impact of use on the ecosystem.
Potability of water and sources of pollution (sewage, runoff, effluents).
Extent of pollution (severe/high/moderate/low/nil).
Efforts to keep the river clean.
Sustainability of utilization.
Flood frequency and impact.
Preventive steps for floods.
Public awareness on river cleanliness.
Personal dependence on the river ecosystem.
Results of water analysis.

Forest

Assessing Forest Use

Document what local people use for household needs, marketplace sales, and
external sales: fruits, leaves, roots, nuts, fuelwood, timber, grass, honey, fiber,
cane, gum, resins, and medicinal products.
Provide a historical profile of utilization and changes in environmental status.

Signs of Forest Use

Observe footprints and hoof marks of domestic animals.
Note the number of cattle tracks and cow dung piles.
Look for cattle tracks near watering places.
Observe cut stumps of branches indicating fuelwood collection.
Check for lopped trees indicating degradation.
Inquire about the distance women travel for fuelwood.
Examine larger stumps of trunks indicating timber use for building.

Questions to Consider

Page 63
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Is the ecosystem overused due to population pressure or greed?

Is it protected, and how?
If restoration is needed, how can it be achieved?
What forest produce is used daily?

Grassland

Guidelines
Discuss grassland utilization patterns with local herders: grazing cattle, cutting
fodder, collecting fuelwood.
Observe the quantity of grass needed for dependent herbivores.
Assess the ‘carrying capacity’ of the grassland.

Mapping Land Use

Near a village, map where cattle graze, where people collect fuelwood, etc.

Documenting Degradation
Document changes in land use patterns over recent decades by interviewing locals.
Observe differences between protected and degraded areas.

Observations to Record
Identify the type of grassland: Himalayan, Terai, semi-arid, shola, or area
developed for grass collection.
Note the nature of its soil, plant, and animal species (wild and domestic).
Observe seasonal changes.

Findings from Interviews

Page 64
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Who uses the grassland and to what extent?

Estimate free grazing: cattle, sheep, goats, and their proportions.
Extent of fodder collection.
Productivity of the grassland.
Historical profile of utilization and changes in environmental status.
Sustainability of utilization.
Frequency of grassland burning and reasons for it.
Potential for rotational grazing.
Products used daily that come from grasslands (milk, meat, etc.).

Visit to a Local Polluted Site

Objectives
Study the effect of pollution on our environment, lives, and health.
Identify the site type (urban, rural, agricultural, industrial) and describe
pollution sources.

Types of Pollution
Air: smoke, dust.
Water: urban sewage, industrial chemical effluents, agricultural pesticides, and
fertilizers.
Soil: chemicals, solid waste from industry, and urban areas.

General Observations
Type of land or water used in the polluted area, its characteristics, users, and
owners.
Map the area to be studied.
Identify pollutants (air, water, soil) and their causes.
Assess the extent of pollution (severe/moderate/slight/nil).
Assess the health aspects associated with the pollutant from literature.
Inquire about the effects on local residents' lives.
Make a report of the above findings.

Page 65
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Solid Waste Study Site

Pollution caused by solid waste can be studied at garbage dumping areas.
Identify causes like increased population, over-utilization of non-biodegradable
goods, and lack of waste management awareness.
Garbage is a source of various diseases.
Improper handling of organic waste leads to flies, cockroaches, and rats that
spread diseases.
Products like plastics do not degrade and remain in the environment for a long
time.
Waste dumped in oceans, rivers, or on land contributes to soil and groundwater
contamination, fouls up the air, and aids the spread of diseases.

Solid Waste
Solid waste comes from a variety of sources, each with its own characteristics and
management challenges.

Types of Solid Waste

Agricultural Waste: Consists of biomass like rice husk and straw. Can be used
for power generation or paper production. Also includes harmful fertilizers and
pesticides.
Industrial Waste: Originates from industries or mines. Includes toxic chemicals
with environmental consequences and non-biodegradable mining waste.
Construction and excavation also contribute.
Hospital Waste: Includes contaminated materials like cotton dressings,
needles, and surgical waste that can spread pathogens. Requires careful
separation and sterilization through autoclaving or incineration.

Water Pollution

Guidelines for Observing Water Pollution Sites:

Page 66
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Assess the pollution level by observing the water and using monitoring kits.
Identify the river and nearby pollution sources (urban or industrial).
Note any garbage dumping on the bank.
Check for nearby industries and their wastewater discharge (treated or
untreated).
Record the water's color and odor.
Identify potential contamination from agricultural runoff (fertilizers and
pesticides).
Inquire about the impact on local fishermen's income.
Identify plants, birds, and insects on the banks.

Air Pollution

Guidelines for Observing Air Pollution Sites:

Focus on cities with traffic and industrial areas releasing gaseous products.
Inquire about the effects on local residents' lives.
Brainstorm ways to reduce air pollution.
Raise awareness about the issue and its health effects.

Ecosystem Field Studies

General Guidelines for Ecosystem Field Studies

Page 67
 Created by Turbolearn AI

1. Address key questions during a field visit:

Name the ecosystem based on typical features and list its abiotic and
biotic characteristics.
Identify any misuse or overuse of its resources and signs of degradation
(deforestation, pollution, erosion).
Determine how to prevent degradation through sustainable practices and
lifestyle changes (saving water, electricity, paper).
Consider actions to care for the environment and reduce human impact on
ecosystems.

2. Observing the Water Cycle:

Assess the ecosystem type (forest, grassland, etc.) based on rainfall and
vegetation.
Observe how rain percolates into the subsoil, recharging groundwater and
feeding water bodies.
Document soil erosion by observing the color of the water runoff.

Soil erosion is a major problem because it takes thousands of years

for new soil to form. Excessive silt changes river courses and causes
flooding.

3. Observing the Carbon Cycle:

Recognize the role of plants in splitting carbon dioxide into carbon and
oxygen.

Deforestation can make life on Earth impossible because we depend

on plants for oxygen and food (carbohydrates).

4. Observing the Oxygen Cycle:

Focus on the amount of green material in plants, which is essential for

oxygen production through photosynthesis.
Note the importance of sunlight for plant growth in both terrestrial and
aquatic environments.

5. Observing the Nitrogen Cycle:

Page 68
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Examine the decomposition of dried leaves and detritus by organisms like

ants, beetles, worms, bacteria, and fungi, which convert them into
nutrients for plant growth.

6. Observing the Energy Cycle:

Identify food chains involving insects, birds, and other animals

(frugivorous, insectivorous).
Note the interconnectedness of these chains in a "web of life."
Document the relative abundance of plants, herbivores, and carnivores in
the ecosystem, often depicted as a food pyramid.

Visiting Protected Areas

Visit a Reserved Forest, National Park, or Sanctuary.
Meet with Forest Officials and gather local information.
Observe and classify the forest type (coniferous, deciduous, etc.).
Relate vegetation types to abiotic factors (temperature, rainfall, soil).

Understanding Food Chains and Food Pyramids

Document the names of animals and classify them (mammals, birds, etc.) and
their feeding habits (herbivores, carnivores).

Herbivores are generally more abundant than carnivores.

Identifying Structural Levels in a Forest

Identify and draw the forest layers: ground, trunk, branches, canopy.

Documenting Micro-Habitats
Observe which animals use different parts of the forest habitat (termites,
lizards, birds, insects).
Estimate their abundance at different levels.

Page 69
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Observing Food Chains and Food Webs

Note examples of food chains and webs, such as:

Flower → butterflies → spiders

Flower → sunbirds → birds
Fruit → parakeet → birds of prey
Grass → chital → tiger

Recognize that a single species can play a role in multiple food chains.

Grassland Ecology
Document how a grassland changes in different seasons (growing, flowering,
dying, dry phases).

Abundance of Grassland Species

Count the number of insects (grasshoppers, ants, beetles) in sample quadrants
to demonstrate their abundance.
Compare this to the smaller number of birds and mammals (first-order
consumers).
Note that predators (mammals and birds of prey) are the least abundant.

Birdwatching in Grasslands
Identify common grassland birds using field guides and note their food sources.

Observing the Insect World

Observe ant colonies and their food collection methods.
Study the behavior of beetles and the abundance of grasshoppers, beetles, and
ants relative to their predators.

Spider Behavior

Page 70
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Observe spiders catching prey and note different types of webs (tunnel webs,
orb webs, colony webs).

Animal Behavior
Document general behavioral patterns of animals, birds, and insects, including
their habitat relationships.

Understanding Grassland Food Chains

Identify plant and animal species and create food chains to illustrate the
ecosystem's energy flow.

Desert and Semi-Arid Ecosystems

Document the specialized vegetation and limited number of animal species in
these landscapes.

Fauna of Semi-Arid Regions

Identify birds and insects and document their habitat use and food sources.
Observe species like dung beetles and birds of prey.
Note the presence of rare species like the Great Indian Bustard and the wolf.

Aquatic Ecosystems

Studies on Pond Ecology

Observe a pond on several occasions before, during, and after the monsoon to
document seasonal changes in plant and animal life.

Vegetation Zones
Observe vegetation zones: grasses on the periphery, emergent reeds, floating
vegetation, and underwater plants.

Page 71
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Seasonal Field Observations

Early stage: Observe algae and microscopic animals.
Fully active phase: Observe submerged and emergent vegetation, fish, frogs,
snails, worms, and aquatic insects.
Dry phase: Note terrestrial plants and hidden dormant animals.

Laboratory Exploration
Observe pond water in a glass and under a microscope to identify algae and
zooplankton.

These organisms form the basic food chains of the aquatic

ecosystem.

Observations on a Lake Ecosystem

Document how different water birds use habitats on the shore and in the water.
Note the diversity and abundance of aquatic flora and fauna.
Observe and document food chains.

Observations at a Wetland
Document and map vegetation patterns (underwater, emergent, floating).
Describe water clarity, algal growth, and the nature of the bed (rocky, sand, silt,
mud).
Develop a map relating vegetation to aquatic bird species.
Inquire about fish catches from local fishermen.
Observe ducks, waders, and other birds, especially in winter when migrants are
abundant.

Observations on a Field Visit to a Beach

Observe different types of beaches (sandy, rocky, shell-covered, muddy) and
the specific species adapted to each.
Observe crustaceans like crabs that make holes in the sand.

Page 72
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Observations at a River
Demonstrate the river’s ecological status, noting seasonal fluctuations in flow
rates affecting plant and animal life.

Hill/Mountain Ecosystems
The ecosystem is linked to altitude, slope, soil, vegetation, and animal life.

Guidelines for a Write-Up on a Hill/Mountain Ecosystem

Describe the hill (slope, soil, watercourses).
Describe its plants and animals.
Observe and document its food chains.
Describe the water cycle, nitrogen cycle, energy cycle, and detritus cycle with
specific reference to the hill/mountain ecosystem.

Thought Experiments
What would happen if domestic animals were prevented from grazing?
What would happen if ants were eliminated?
What would happen if all the vegetation were removed from the slopes?

Page 73