Non Traditional

Machining Processes
Module 3
Content
• Introduction
• Construction, Working principle, Types, Process parameters,
problems, merits, demerits and applications of :
• Ultrasonic Machining,
• Abrasive Jet Machining,
• Water Jet machining,
• Electro-Chemical Machining,
• Electric Discharge Machining,
• Electron Beam Machining,
• Laser beam Machining
Need for Non-Traditional
Machining
Related to material properties:
• High hardness
• High strength
• High brittleness
Related to workpiece structure:
• Complex shapes
• Typical thin and delicate geometries
• Parts which are difficult in fixturing

Related to requirements in high surface finish and tight tolerances.

Related to controlling of temperature rise and residual stresses.

Example
➢ Manufacturing square blind hole of higher surface finish of about 10
micron
• Foundry (1250-2500micron)
• Forging (750-1250micron)

➢ Square hole with certain accuracy

➢ Hole with small size & long length. (Drill may break, problem in
producing straight hole )
Traditional vs. Nontraditional
Primary source of energy
• Traditional: mechanical
• Nontraditional: electrical, chemical, optical
Primary method of material removal
• Traditional: shearing
• Nontraditional: does not use shearing (e.g., abrasive water jet cutting
uses erosion)
Classification
The processes based on the use of Mechanical Energy are:
• Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
• Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)
• Water Jet Machining (WJM)
▪ Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM)
▪ Abrasive Flow Machining (AFM)
The processes based on the use of Thermal Energy are:
• Electric- Discharge Machining (EDM)
• Wire-Cut Electric Discharge Machining (WEDM)
• Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
• Laser Beam Machining (LBM)
▪ Plasma Arc Machining (PAM)
Classification
The processes based on use of Electrochemical Energy are:
• Electro-Chemical Machining (ECM)
▪ Electro-Chemical Grinding (ECG)
Construction, working principle, process
parameters, merits, demerits & applications
• Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
• Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)
• Water Jet Machining (WJM)
• Electric- Discharge Machining (EDM)
• Wire-Cut Electric Discharge Machining (WEDM)
• Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
• Laser Beam Machining (LBM)
• Electro-Chemical Machining (ECM)
 Ultrasonic Machining
• Impact erosion process .
• Shaped vibrating tool with mechanical system horn.
• In USM, a tool of desired shape vibrates at an ultrasonic
frequency (19 ~ 25 kHz) with an amplitude of around 15 –
50 μm over the workpiece.
• Generally the tool is pressed downward with a feed force, F.
• Between the tool and workpiece, the machining zone is
flooded with hard abrasive particles generally in the form of
a water based slurry.
 Ultrasonic Machining
• As the tool vibrates over the workpiece, the abrasive particles
act as the indenters and indent both the work material and
the tool. The abrasive particles, as they indent, the work
material, would remove the same, particularly if the work
material is brittle.
• Material is removed due to crack initiation, propagation and
brittle fracture of the material.
• Hence, USM is mainly used for machining brittle materials
{which are poor conductors of electricity and thus cannot be
processed by Electrochemical and Electro-discharge
machining (ECM and EDM).
Ultrasonic Machining
 Working principle
• Vibration causes the abrasive particles in slurry to
hammer against a stationary work piece to cause micro
indentation to initiate fracture in work material.
• The abrasives outside the domain of tool remain
inactive.
 Process Parameters
• The maximum MRR is achieved when abrasive penetrate half
of its size into work material.
• More penetration that might result in impregnation of the
particle.
• Range of particle size 10- 150 microns
• Amplitude of vibration 5 - 75 microns
• The MRR is dependent on Amplitude and frequency of
impact.
• Higher frequency has adverse effect on human
• Safer zone of ultrasonic machining is between 19kHz and
25kHz.
• Abrasive in slurry form is more effective.
Schematic of USM
 Components of USM
• High power sine wave generator
This unit converts low frequency (60 Hz) electrical power to
high frequency (20kHz) electrical power.
• Transducer
The high frequency electrical signal is transmitted to traducer
which converts it into high frequency low amplitude vibration.
Essentially transducer converts electrical energy to
mechanical vibration.
There are two types of transducer used
1. Piezo electric transducer
2. Magneto-stricitve transducer.
 Components of USM
• Piezo electric transducer: These transducer generate a
small electric current when they are compressed. Also
when the electric current is passed though crystal it
expands. When the current is removed , crystal attains its
original size and shape. Such transducers are available up to
900 Watts. Piezo electric crystals have high conversion
efficiency of 95%.
• Magneto-strictive transducer: These also changes its length
when subjected to strong magnetic field. These transducer
are made of nickel , nickel alloy sheets. Their conversion
efficiency is about 20-30%. Such transducers are available up
to 2000 Watts. The maximum change in length can be
achieved is about 25 microns.
 Components of USM
Tool holder or Horn
• The tool holder holds and connects the tool to the transducer. It virtually
transmits the energy and in some cases, amplifies the amplitude of
vibration. Material of tool should have good acoustic properties, high
resistance to fatigue cracking.
• Due measures should be taken to avoid ultrasonic welding between
transducer and tool holder. Commonly used tool holders are Monel,
titanium, stainless steel.
• Tool holders are more expensive, demand higher operating cost.
Tool
• Tools are made of relatively ductile materials like Brass, Stainless steel or
Mild steel so that Tool wear rate (TWR) can be minimized.
• The value of ratio of TWR and MRR depends on kind of abrasive, work
material and tool materials
 Applications
• Manufacture of hard alloy wire drawing, punching and
blanking dies.
• Machining semiconducting material like germanium and
silicon
• Making instruments of glass, quartz, fluoride and Barium
Titanate.
• Cutting accurate shallow holes of rectangular or other
section in cemented and nitrided steel.
• Cutting industrial diamonds
• Grinding quartz and ceramics
• Machining of cavities in electrically non-conductive
ceramics
• Used to machine fragile components in which otherwise the
scrap rate is high
 Applications
• Used for multistep processing for fabricating silicon nitride
(Si3N4) turbine blades
• Large number of holes of small diameter. 930 holes with
0.32mm has been reported ( Benedict, 1973) using
hypodermic needles
• Used for machining hard, brittle metallic alloys,
semiconductors, glass, ceramics, carbides etc.
• Used for machining round, square, irregular shaped holes
and surface impressions. Used in machining of dies for wire
drawing, punching and blanking operations
 Applications
• USM can perform machining operations like drilling, grinding
and milling operations on all materials which can be treated
suitably with abrasives.
• USM has been used for piercing of dies and for parting off
and blanking operations.
• USM enables a dentist to drill a hole of any shape on teeth
without any pain
• Ferrites and steel parts , precision mineral stones can be
machined using USM
• USM can be used to cut industrial diamonds
• USM is used for grinding Quartz, Glass, ceramics
• Cutting holes with curved or spiral centre lines and cutting
threads in glass and mineral or metallo-ceramics
 Advantages
• It can be used to machine hard, brittle, fragile and non
conductive material
• No heat is generated in work, therefore no significant
changes in physical structure of work material
• Non-metal (because of the poor electrical conductivity) that
cannot be machined by EDM and ECM can very well be
machined by USM.
• It is burr less and distortion less processes.
• It can be adopted in conjunction with other new technologies
like EDM,ECG,ECM.
 Disadvantages
• Low Metal removal rate
• It is difficult to drill deep holes, as slurry movement is
restricted.
• Tool wear rate is high due to abrasive particles. Tools made
from brass, tungsten carbide, MS or tool steel will wear from
the action of abrasive grit with a ratio that ranges from 1:1 to
200:1
• USM can be used only when the hardness of work is more
than 45 HRC.
 Abrasive Jet Machining

A high-velocity jet of dry air, nitrogen, or carbon dioxide containing abrasive

particles is aimed at the workpiece surface under controlled conditions.
The gas supply pressure is on the order of 850 kPa (125 psi) and the jet
velocity can be as high as 300 m/s and is controlled by a valve.
AJM Process Capability
▪ Material removal
• Typical cutting speeds vary between 25 -125 mm/min

▪ Dimensional Tolerances
• Typical range ± 2 - ± 5 μm

▪ Surface Finish
• Typical Ra values vary from 0.3 - 2.3 μm
AJM Applications &
Limitations
▪ Applications
▪ Can cut traditionally hard to cut materials, e.g., composites, ceramics,
glass
▪ Good for materials that cannot stand high temperatures

▪ Limitations
▪ Expensive process
▪ Flaring can become large
▪ Not suitable for mass production because of high maintenance
requirements
 Water Jet Machining
The extreme
pressure of the
accelerated
water particles
contacts a small
area of the
workpiece and
acts like a saw
and cuts a
narrow groove in
the material
WJM is a form of micro erosion. It works
by forcing a large volume of water
through a small orifice in the nozzle.
 Water Jet Machining
Pros: no need for predrilled holes, no heat, no
workpiece deflection (hence suitable for flexible
materials), minimal burr, environmentally friendly.
• Cons: limited to material with naturally occurring
small cracks or softer material.
• Applications:
– Mostly used to cut lower strength materials such
as wood, plastics, rubber, paper, leather,
composite, etc.
– Food preparation
– Good for materials that cannot withstand high
temperatures of other methods for stress distortion
or metallurgical reasons.
Electric- Discharge Machining
 Electric- Discharge Machining
EDM is a thermal erosion process
whereby material is melted and
vaporized from an electrically
conducive workpiece immersed in a
liquid dielectric with a series of spark
discharges between the tool
electrode and the workpiece created
by a power supply.

EDM is one of the most accurate

while quite affordable manufacturing
process.
 Electric- Discharge Machining
- The EDM system consists of a shaped tool or wire electrode, and the
part. The part is connected to a power supply to create a potential
difference between the workpiece and the tool.
- When the potential difference is sufficiently high, a transient spark
discharges through the fluid, removing a very small amount of metal
from the workpiece.
- The dielectric fluid
- acts as an insulator until the potential is sufficiently high
- acts as a flushing medium
- provides a cooling medium.
 EDM Process Capability
• MRR
- Range from 2 to 400 mm3/min. High rates produce rough finish, having a
molten and recast structure with poor surface integrity and low fatigue
properties.

• Dimensional Tolerances
- Function of the material being processed
- Typically between ± 0.005 - ± 0.125 mm

• Surface Finish
- Depends on current density and material being machined
- Varies from 0.05 – 12.5 μm
- New techniques use an oscillating electrode, providing very fine surface
finishes.
 EDM Process Capability
• Applications
- Widely used in aerospace, mold making, and die casting to produce die
cavities, small deep holes, narrow slots, turbine blades, and intricate shapes.

• Limitations
- A hard skin, or recast layer is produced which may be undesirable in some cases
- Beneath the recast layer is a heat affected zone which may be softer than
parent material
- Finishing cuts are needed at low MRR
- Produces slightly tapered holes, specially if blind.
Wire-Cut Electric Discharge
Machining

A wire travels along a prescribed path, cutting the workpiece, with the
discharge sparks acting like cutting teeth.
Wire-Cut Electric Discharge
Machining
Electron Beam Machining
How it Works
• A stream of electrons is started
by a voltage differential at the
cathode. The concave shape
of the cathode grid
concentrates the stream
through the anode.
• The anode applies a potential
field that accelerates the
electrons.
• The electron stream is then
forced through a valve in the
electronbeam machine.
• The beam is focused onto the
surface of the work material,
heating, melting, and
vaporizing the material.
 EBM Characteristics
• Mechanics of material removal – melting, vaporization

• Medium – vacuum

• Tool – beam of electrons moving at very high velocity

• Maximum MRR = 10 mm3/min

• Specific power consumption = 450 W/mm3/min

• Critical parameters – accelerating voltage, beam diameter, work speed, melting

temperature

• Materials application – all materials

• Shape application – drilling fine holes, cutting contours in sheets, cutting narrow slots

• Limitations – very high specific energy consumption, necessity of vacuum, expensive

machine
Laser Beam Machining
 Laser Beam Machining
• A thermal material-removal process that utilizes a high-energy, coherent
light beam to melt and vaporize particles on the surface of metallic and
non-metallic workpieces
• Types of lasers available
- CO2 (pulsed or continuous wave): It is a gas laser that emits light in the
infrared region. It can provide up to 25 kW in continuous-wave mode
- Nd:YAG: Neodymium-doped Yttrium-Aluminum-Garnet (Y3Al5O12) laser is a
solid-state laser which can deliver light through a fibre-optic cable. It can
provide up to 50 kW power in pulsed mode and 1 kW in continuous-wave
mode
 Laser Beam Machining
• Advantages
- More precise
- Useful with a variety of materials: metals, composites, plastics, and ceramics
- Smooth, clean cuts
- Faster process
- Decreased heat affected zone
• Important Physical Parameters
- Reflectivity
- Thermal Conductivity of workpiece surface
- Specific heat and latent heats of melting and evaporating
The lower theses quantities, the more efficient is the process
• MRR
- Cutting speed can be as high as 4 m/min
- Typical material removal rate is 5 mm3/min
• Dimensional Tolerance
- Typical ranges from ± 0.015 - ± 0.125 mm
Laser Beam Machining
• Surface Finish : Varies between 0.4 – 6.3 μm
• Applications
- Multiple holes in very thin and thick materials
- Non-standard shaped holes and slots
- Prototype parts
- Trimming, scribing and engraving of hard materials
- Small diameter lubrication holes
• Limitations
- Localized thermal stresses, heat affected zones, recast layer and
thermal distribution in thin parts
- Difficulty of material processing depends on how close materials
boiling and melting points are
- Hole wall geometry can be irregular
- The cutting of flammable materials is usually inert gas assisted
Electro-Chemical Machining
-a metal-removal process based on the
principle of reverse electroplating.
- a dc voltage (10-25 v) is applied across the
gap between a pre-shaped cathode tool and
an anode workpiece.
-the workpiece is dissolved by an
electrochemical reaction to the shape of the
tool
- particles travel from the anodic material
(workpiece) toward the cathodic material
(machining tool).
-the electrolyte flows at high speed (10-60
m/s) through the gap (0.1-0.6 mm) to
dissipate heat and wash away the dissolved
metal
 Electro-Chemical Machining
Pros: high shape complexity possible, high
MRR possible, high strength materials, mirror
surface finish possible, hardness is not a factor,
no thermal or mechanical stress, no tool wear,
fragile parts can be made,
• Cons: workpiece must be electrically
conductive; very high tooling (dedicated) and
equipment costs; high power consumption.
• Applications: complex cavities in high-strength
materials, esp. in aerospace industry for mass
production of turbine blades, deep holes can be
drilled
Comparative Performance