PHYSICS

VOLUME – I
(ENGLISH)

CONTENTS

• KINEMATICS 1-15

• NEWTON'S LAW OF MOTION & FRICTION 16-32

• CIRCULAR MOTION 33-42

• WORK, POWER & ENERGY 43-56

• CENTRE OF MASS & COLLISION 57-74

• ROTATIONAL MOTION 75-96

• ELASTICITY, CALORIMETRY & THERMAL EXPANSION 97-110

• KTG , THERMODYNAMICS & HEAT TRANSFER 111-146

• SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 147-167

• MECHANICALWAVES 168-194

• FLUID MECHANICS 195-213

• ANSWER-KEY 214-218
 THEORY
KINEMATICS

The branch of physics in which motion and the forces causing motion are studied is called mechanics.

The part of machanics which deals with motion of particles and bodies without studying their cause
is called kinematics. The forces causing motion will be discussed later in Dynamics.

Motion means continous change in position, so we begin our study with position and its change.


DISPLACEMENT ( S or r ) :
Change in position vector is called displacement.
Its magnitude is minimum distance between final and initial point, and is directed from initial position
to final position.
 
In general if initial position vector and final position vector are rin and rf respectively, then
  
S = rf – rin = r
DISTANCE :
Length of path traversed by a body is called distance.
It is dependent on the path chosen, thus for motion between two fixed points A and B we can have
many different values of distance traversed. It is a scalar quantity, as length of path has no indication
of direction in it. Its SI unit is metre (m) and dimensions is (L).
eg. Suppose a particle moves from position A to B as shown after travelling from A to B to C to D.

B 3m C

2m 2m
D x
A (5,0)
(1,0)m

    
Here Displacement S = AD = 5 i – i = 4 i m
 displacement = 4m
Also distance covered ,

l = AB + BC + CD = 2 + 3 + 2 = 7 m

Note : Here displacement < Distance

Magnitude of displacement would be equal to distance travelled if there is no change in
direction during the whole motion.
In general, displacement Distance

Kinematics [1]
AVERAGE VELOCITY :

The average velocity V avg is the ratio of the total displacement r , and total time (t) taken to

complete that displacement. It should be noted that V avg is independent of path as displacement is
independent of path.
  
 r rf  rin
V avg = = .... (2-2)
t t
Unit for Vavg is the meter per second (m/s). The average velocity Vavg always has the same sign as
the displacement r .
AVERAGE SPEED :
Total dis tan ce travelled l
Average speed = =
Total time interval t
It is a scalar and always has positive sign.
Also, same as displacemant and distance
|Average velocity|  |Average speed|
INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY :
Instantaneous Velocity is defined as the value approached by the average velocity when the time
interval for measurement becomes closer and closer to zero, i.e. t  0. Mathematically
x
(t) = lim
t
t 0

Thus instantaneous velocity function is the derivative with respect to time of the displacement function.
dx(t)
(t) 
dt
INSTANTANEOUS SPEED :
It is the measure of how fast a particle or a body is moving at a particular instant. It is the magnitude
of instantaneous velocity. Thus particle moving with instantaneous velocity of + 5m/s and another
moving with –5m/s will have same instantaneous speed of 5 m/s.
The speedometer in a car measure the instantaneous speed not the instantaneous velocity, because
it cannot determine the direction.
ONE DIMENSIONAL OR RECTILINEAR MOTION :
We may devide this topic the following different situations.
(i) Motion with constant velocity
(ii) Motion with variable velocity but constant acceleration
(iii) Motion with variable acceleration.
(i) Motion with constant velocity
x t
dx
v=
dt
  dx =
x0
 vdt
0

Since velocity is constant, it comes out of the integration

x t

  dx
x0
= v  dt
0

x xx= v t 0t
0

(x – x0) = vt i.e., displacement x = vt

Kinematics [2]
(ii) Motion with variable velocity but constant acceleration
1 2
 x = ut + at
2
v2 = u2 + 2ax
Displacement in nth second
 Displacement in nth second
1
Sn th = Sn – Sn –1 = u (1) + a (n – n + 1) (n + n – 1)
2
Displacement in n seconds :-
1
Sn = u(n) + a (2n–1)
2

Table :Variation of Displacement (x), velocity () and acceleration (a) with respect to time for different
type of motion,
1. At rest Displacement Velocity Acceleration
x  a
x=c
c

0 t 0 t 0 t

x x=0t+x0  a
2. Motion with

constant velocity x0
0 t 0 t 0 t

x x=0t+(1/2)a0t
2 v v=at+v0 a
3. Motion with constant
a0
acceleration v0
0 t 0 t 0 t
a
x x=0t–(1/2)a0t
2 
4. Motion with 
constant deceleration 0 t
0 t 0 t –a

PROJECTILE MOTION
INTRODUCTION
(i) Any particle, which once thrown, moves freely in gravitational field of the earth, is defined as a
projectile.
(ii) It is an example of two dimensional motion with constant acceleration. (Which is always downwards)
(iii) Parabolic motion can be considered as two simultaneous motions in mutually perpendicular directions
viz.
(a) Horizontal and (b) Vertical

Kinematics [3]
PROJECTILE THROWN FROM THE GROUND LEVEL :

(i) The particle is thrown from the ground level at an angle  from the horizontal velocity u.
y usin – gt v= 2 2 2
u + g t – 2ugt sin

u 
ucos
h0

O x
ucos
R

(ii) Initial velocity can be resolved into two components

u cos  = Horizontal component
u sin  = Vertical component

From Horizontal Component we obtain From vertical component we obtain

(a) Range (a) Maximum height
(b) Velocity along horizontal direction (b) Time of flight
after time t
(c) Horizontal displacement after time t (c) Vertical displacement after time t
(d) Vertical velocity
Special Note :
The horizontal component of velocity (u cos ) remains constant where as the vertical component
changes constantly due to acceleration due to gravity 'g'.
Horizontal Direction In Vertical Direction
(a) Initial velocity ux = u cos  (a) Initial velocity uy = u sin (upward)
(b) Acceleration = 0 (b) Acceleration a = g (downward)
(c) Velocity after time t, vx = u cos (c) Velocity after time t,
vy = uy – gt = usin–gt
(d) Horizontal displacement after time t (d) Vertical displacement after time t
x = ux . t = u cos t y = uyt – 1/2 gt2
= u sin t – (1/2) gt2
(e) Velocity at height h above the surface
v2y  u 2y  2gh
= u2 sin2 – 2gh

v y   u 2 sin 2   2gh
((+) going upwards and (–) going
downwards)
VELOCITY AT A GENERAL POINT P(x, y) :
vy
v= v 2x  v 2y

vy 
The direction of v from horizontal tan  = v vx
x

Kinematics [4]
DISPLACEMENT :
   Y
S = x î + y ĵ  | S | = x 2  y2 P(x,y)
In fig. OP gives the displacement of projectile in the position
y
(x,y) tan  = y/x,  is the angle made by displacement with 
X
horizontal in the position (x, y) O x

TRAJECTORY EQUATION :
y = u sin  t – (1/2) gt2
and x = (u cos ) t
From these equations, (eliminating t)
g
y = x tan  – 2 2
x2
2u cos 
THE MAXIMUM HEIGHT REACHED BY THE PROJECTILE :
u 2 sin 2  u 2y
h0 = = 2g
2g
(uy = vertical velocity)

TIME OF FLIGHT OF THE PROJECTILE :

Time taken to reach max. height
u sin 
t=
g
(using v = u + gt)
The time interval from initial launch of projectile upto its return to the ground level is known as
the time of flight (T) of projectile
2u y 2u sin 
T = g
= g

where uy = vertical velocity

HORIZONTAL RANGE OF THE PROJECTILE :

The horizontal distance covered by the projectile during its time of flight is known as the horizontal
range of the projectile
u 2 sin 2
R=
g
(using v2 = u2 + 2gh)
(i) For maximum range,  = 45º
 Rmax = u2/g
In this situation
R
Hmax = max
2
(ii) The range of the projectile is same when its angle of projection from the horizontal is either  or
(90º – ).

Kinematics [5]
 u 2 sin 2 2u sin  u cos  2 u x u y
(iii) Also R = = g
= = (time of light) × ux
g g
where ux = u cos  = horizontal velocity
uy = u sin  = vertical velocity
THE VELOCITY OF THE PROJECTILE AT ANY INSTANT OF TIME t :
 gt 
v= u 2  g 2 t 2  2ugt sin  and its direction from horizontal  = tan–1  tan   u cos  
 
Note : The trajectory of the missiles, targeted at very long ranges is not a parabola rather than it is an
ellipse because in that case g is not constant both in magnitude and direction.
CHANGE IN MOMENTUM :
y

ui
usin
 ucos
y
ucos u
usin f


(i) Initial velocity ui = u cos  î + u sin  ĵ

(ii) Final velocity uf = u cos  î – u sin  ĵ
Change in velocity for complete motion
  
u = uf – u i = – 2u sin  ĵ
(iii) Change in momentum for complete motion
    
p = pf – p i = m ( uf – ui )
= m (– 2 u sin ) ĵ
= –2 m u sin  ĵ

(iv) Velocity at the highest point = uf = u cos  î
change in momentum at highest point
 
(m uf – m ui ) = m [u cos  î – (u cos  î + u sin  ĵ )]
= – m u sin  ĵ
(v) Kinetic energy at highest point = E0 cos2  where E0 = Initial K.E.
(vi) Magnitude of velocity at height 'h'
By energy conservation law
 (1/2) mu2 + 0 = (1/2) mv2 + mgh
 v= u 2  2gh

Note :
(a) The direction of acceleration of the projectile is different from its velocity direction.
(b) The acceleration of the projectile remains constant in magnitude and direction that is why the path
of its motion is parabola.

Kinematics [6]
VELOCITY AT A GENERAL POINT P(x, y): u
u
vy

v = u +g t
v= v 2x  v 2y tan  = h
gt
vx

22 2
 is angle made by v with horizontal in clockwise direction R
DISPLACEMENT :

S = x î + y ĵ

|S | = x 2  y2
TRAJECTORY EQUATION :
vx
x = vxt = ut 
y = – (1/2) gt2
vy
eliminating t, we get v
2
gx
y = – (1/2)
u2
This is equation of trajectory
TIME OF FLIGHT :
– h = vyt – (1/2) gt2 = 0 – 1/2 gt2
2h
t=± g

2h
t=+ g
(negative time is not possible)
RANGE :
2h
R = ux t = u g
HORIZONTAL PROJECTION
In Horizontal Direction In Vertical Direction

(i) Initial velocity ux = u (i) Initial velocity uy = 0

(ii) Acceleration = 0 (ii) Acceleration = 'g' downward
(iii) Horizontal velocity of (iii) Velocity of particle after time t
particle remains same after vy = 0 + (– g)t
time t horizontal velocity
= vx = u = – gt = gt (downward)
(iv) Range x = ut (iv) Displacement y = (1/2) gt2
(downward)
(v) Velocity at height h
v2y  0 2  2( h )(g )

 v y  2gh

Kinematics [7]
Note :
(i) If a projectile is projected with initial velocity u and another particle is dropped from same height
at the same time, both the projectile would strike the ground with same vertical velocity. Both will
have same vertical components of velocity but their net velocities would be different.
v2
(ii) Relative motion of one projectile w.r.t. motion of particle v v
dropped from same height at the same time would be in v v v
1
straight line joining them.

///////////////////////
(iii) All the particles thrown with same initial velocity would strike the ground with same speed at
different times irrespective of their initial direction of velocities.
(a) Time would be least for the particle thrown with velocity v downward i.e. particle (1)
(b) Time would be maximum for the particle thrown with velocity v vertically upwards i.e.
particle (2)

PROJECTILE THROWN UP ON AN INCLINED

PLANE :

The particle is thrown from a plane OB inclined at an angle  with the horizontal with a constant
velocity u in a direction making an angle  with the horizontal.
B

n 
) gsi
u – gcos
(
os g
uc
us
in


(
–

O A
)

RANGE :
The motion of the projectile can be resolved with two components
Horizontally OA = s = uxt
= u cos  t ....(1)
Vertically AB = h = uyt – (1/2) gt2
= usin t –(1/2) gt2 ....(2)
Also h = OB sin  = R sin  ....(3)
and s = R cos  ....(4)
(where OB = R = Range of projectile)
Eliminating 't' from (1) & (2) and then putting in (3) we get
2 u 2 sin(   ) cos 
R=
g cos 2 
TIME OF FLIGHT :
s = R cos 
 u cos  (T) = R cos 
2 u sin(   )
T= g cos 
[Putting the value of R]

Kinematics [8]
 For maximum range on inclined plane angle of projection  = /4 + /2.
2h
Time taken by the projectile to reach the ground level t = g

RELATIVE VELOCITY :
It is given by the time rate of change of postition of one object w.r.t. another. Relative velocity of a body
B with respect to some other body A means velocity of B is recorded by an observer sitting on A.
Mathematically.
  
Relative velocity of B w.r.t. A : B / A = B – A

B
A
rB / A
rB
rA

Graphical Method to find Relative Velocity

 B/ A B

A
 

(–A)

When two bodies move at angle  with each other then their relative velocity is given by :
  
Magnitude :  B / A = B – A =  2A   2B  2 A  B cos(180 – ) =  2A   2B – 2 A  B cos 

 B sin(180 – )
Direction : tan  =    cos(180 – )
A B

 B sin 
 tan  =    cos 
A B

 B
Note : If  = 90° then B / A =  2A   2B and tan a = 
A

We can find the velocity of a particle in a frame if we know the particle's velocity in some other frame and
the relative velocity of frames w.r.t each other.
In two observers are watching a moving particle P from the origins of reference A and B, while B moves

at a constant velocity B / A relative to A. (The corresponding axes of these three frames remain parallel)

Kinematics [9]
 y
P
y B/A
BA
rPB
P/B
rPA
P/A

x
Frame B

rBA
B/A
x
Frame A


Shows a certain instant during the motion. At this instant, the position vector of B relative to A is rB / A .
 
Also, the position vectors of particle P are rP / A relative to A and rP / B relative to B. From the arrangement
  
of heads and tails of those three position vectors, we can relate the vectors with rP / A  rP / B  rP / A
  
By taking the time derivative of this equation, we can relate the velocities P / A = P / B + B / A .
We can understand the concept of relative velocity by a simple situation as follows :
 
Let two cars P and Q move with velocity P and Q towards north and east, respectively..
p

 P/Q   P –  Q
Q
Q
(a)

p

W E Q

S
Q  P/Q  Q P

  
Velocity of car P w.r.t. Q (i.e., velocity of car P for an observer on car Q) is  P / Q = P – Q as shown
in figure appears to move along north-west instead of north. Similarly for an observer on P, car Q
appears to move along south-east instead of east.

RAIN-MAN PROBLEMS :
    
Formula to be applied :  r / m =  r –  m , where  r / m is velocity of rain w.r.t. man,  r is the velocity of

rain (w.r.t. ground), and  m is the velocity of man (w.r.t. ground).
Kinematics [10]
Case (i) : Rain is falling vertically downwards with a velocity  r and a man is running horizontally with
y
a velocity  m . What is the relative velocity of rain w.r.t. man ?
r
   
Given :  r = – r j ,  m = m i ,
m x
  
    
Now  r / m =  r –  m = – r j – m i or  r / m = – m i – r j .
m
Magnitude :  2m   2r and direction : tan = 
r

(–m ) m

r
r/m – r/m
Case (ii) : If rain of already falling at some angle  with horizontal, then with what velocity the man
should travel so that the rain appears vertically downwards to him ?
 
   
Here,  m = m i ,  r =  r sin  i –  r cos  j
    r
Now,  r / m =  r –  m = (  r sin  –  m ) i –  r cos  j m
Now for rain to appear falling vertically, the horizontal component

of  r / m should be zero, i.e.,
m
 r sin  –  m = 0  sin  =  and  r / m =  r cos 
r

2 r /m
 m
= r 1 – sin 2  = 1 – 2
 r
r
2 2 m
or  r / m =  –
r m

We can illustrate the whole situation by the diagrams.

It is quite interesting to notice the steady rainfall sitting in a vehicle such as bus, car, etc. While moving on
a straight track the direction of rainfall changes when the vehicle changes its velocity. That means, the
velocity of the rain you observe is the velocity of the rain relative to you. Therefore, your observed
velocity of rainfall (both magnitude and direction of velocity of rainfall) is the velocity of the rain with

respect to the vehicle (you)  m = 0. If you measure the velocity of the rainfall while the vehicle is
stationary, that gives actual velocity of rainfall.

Kinematics [11]
 EXERCISE-I

Q.1 Equation of motion of a body moving along x-axis at an instant t second is given by x = 40 + 12t – t3 m.
Displacement of the particle before coming to rest is :-
(A) 16 m (B) 56 m (C) 24 m (D) 40 m
Q.2 A car starts from rest travelling with constant acceleration. If distance covered by it in 10th second
of its journey is 19m, what will be the acceleration of car ?
(A) 4 m/s2 (B) 3 m/s2 (C) 2 m/s2 (D) 1 m/s2
Q.3 A boat takes time t1 hour to cover certain distance between two spots in a river in downstream and
t2 hours in upstream. The ratio of speed of boat to that of river is :-
t1 t1  t 2 2t 1 t t 2  t1
(A) t (B) t  t (C) t  t (D) t  t
2 2 1 1 2 1 2

Q.4 The speed of a particle moving along a circular path is decreasing at the rate of 3 m/s2. If the radius
of circle is 4 m, then what will be the instantaneous acceleration of particle when its speed is 4 m/s ?
(A) 4 m/s2 towards center (B) 3 m/s2 along tangent
(C) 5 m/s2 by making 37° with tangent (D) 5 m/s2 by taking 53° with tangent
Q.5 A ball is projected so as to pass a wall at a distance a from the point of projection at an angle of
45° and falls at a distance b on the other side of the wall. If h is height of wall then :-
2 ab ab
(A) h  a 2 (B) h  b 2 (C) h  (D) h 
ab ab

Q.6 The horizontal and vertical distances travelled by a particle in time t are given by x = 6t and
y = 8t – 5t2. If g = 10 m/sec2, then the initial velocity of the particle is :-
(A) 8 m/sec (B) 10 m/sec (C) 5 m/sec (D) zero
Q.7 A particle starts with velocity v0 at time t = 0 and is decelerated at a rate proportional to the square root
of its speed at time t with constant of proportionality . The total time for which it will move before
coming to rest is :-
3 3
v0 2 2v 0 2 2 v0
(A) v 0 (B) (C) (D)
  
Q.8 For the velocity time (v t) graph as shown in figure, the incorrect statement is :-
(A) The average velocity for the entire journey is 2.5 m/s +10
(B) The average acceleration from 1 s to 4 s is 5 m/s2 v (in m/s)
0 2 4 5 6
(C) The average speed for the first 4 s is zero t (in second)

(D) The acceleration at t = 3 s is 5 m/s2 –10

Q.9 An aeroplane is moving with a horizontal velocity u at a height h above the ground.
If a packet is dropped from it, the speed of the packet when it reaches the ground
will be :-
(A) u 2  2 gh (B) 2 gh (C) u 2  2gh (D) 2gh
Q.10 A projectile of mass m is fired with velocity v from the point P at
an angle 45º with the horizontal The magnitude of change in
momentum when it passes through the point Q on the same horizontal 45º
line on which P lies is :- P Q
1
(A) mv 2 (B) mv (C) Zero (D) 2 mv
2
Kinematics [12]
Q.11 A stone projected with a velocity of u at angle 30° with horizontal reaches maximum height x. When
it is projected with velocity u at angle 30° with vertical it reaches maximum height y. Then range of
particle is :-
2 xy
(A) 4(x + y) (B) 4 xy (C) x  y (D) 4(x – y)

Q.12 A particle starts with initial velocity is (2iˆ  ˆj ) m/s. Uniform acceleration ( iˆ  3 ˆj ) m/s2. What is
y component of velocity at the instant when x component of velocity becomes zero ?
(A) 5 m/s (B) 7 m/s (C) 6 m/s (D) 10 m/s
Q.13 A particle is projected in such a way that, taking point of projection as origin, y = 8t – 5t2 and
x = 6t. What is the range of projectile ?
(A) 48 m (B) 4.8 m (C) 9.6 m (D) 24 m
Q.14 A particle is projected with velocity u at an angle  from a point P on a horizontal plane strikes
the plane at Q. The average velocity of the particle for its journey from P to Q is :-
u sin  u u sin 
(A) (B) u cos  (C) (D)
2 2 4
Q.15 A particle is projected from a point O with a velocity u in a direction making an angle  upward with
the horizontal. After some time at point P it is moving right angle to its initial direction of projection.
The time of flight from O to P is :-
u sin  u cos ec  u tan  u sec 
(A) g (B) g
(C) g (D) g

Q.16 A particle moves in the plane x:-y with velocity v = k1 i + k2 x j, where i and j are the unit vectors
of the x and y axes, and k1 and k2 are constants. At the initial moment of time the particle was located
at the point x = y = 0, then the equation of the particle's trajectory y (x) is :-
k
1 2 k2 2 1 22k 2k
2 2
(A) y  2 k x (B) y  2 k x (C) y  k x (D) y  k x
2 1 2 1

EXERCISE-II

Q.1 Two particles are projected simultaneously in the same vertical plane from the same point, with
different speeds u1 and u2, making angles 1 and 2 respectively with the horizontal, such that
u1cos1 = u2cos2. The path followed by one, as seen by the other (as long as both are in flight), is :-
(A) A horizontal straight line
(B) A vertical straight line
(C) A parabola
(D) A straight line making an angle |1 – 2| with the horizontal
Q.2 A person is standing on a truck moving with a constant velocity of 14.7 m/s on a horizontal
road. The man throws a ball in such a way that it returns to the truck after the truck
has moved 58.8 m. What is the speed of the ball as seen from the truck ?
(A) 9.8 m/s (B) 19.6 m/s (C) 29.4 m/s (D) 24.5 m/s
Q.3 A boy standing on a long railroad car throws a ball straight upwards. The car starts moving on
the horizontal road with an acceleration of 1m/s2 and the projection velocity in the vertical
direction is 9.8 m/s. How far behind the boy will the ball fall on the car :-
(A) 1 m (B) 2 m (C) 3 m (D) 4 m

Kinematics [13]
Q.4 Two particles are projected from the same point with the same speed, at different angles 1 and
2 to the horizontal. They have the same horizontal range. Their times of flight are t1 and t2
respectively :-
t1 t1 1t 2 t
(A) 1 + 2 = 90º (B) t = tan1 (C) t = tan 2 (D) sin   sin 
2 2 1 2

x2 t2
Q.5 A particle moves along the positive branch of the curve y = where x = , where x and y
2 2

are measured in metre and t in second. At t = 2 sec, the velocity of the particle is :-
(A) 2 î  4 ĵ   m/sec (B) 2 î  4 ĵ  m/sec (C) 2 î  2 ĵ  m/sec (D) 4 î  2 ĵ  m/sec

Q.6 A cannon ball has a range R on a horizontal plane. If h and h' are the greatest heights in the two
paths for which this is possible, then :-
4h
(A) R = 4 ( hh ' ) (B) R = (C) R = 4 h h' (D) R = hh '
h'
Q.7 When a particle is thrown horizontally, the resultant velocity of the projectile at any time t is
given by :-
1 2
(A) gt (B) gt (C) u 2  g2 t 2 (D) u 2  g2 t 2
2
Q.8 A particle is thrown with a speed u at an angle  with the horizontal. When the particle makes an
angle  with the horizontal, its speed changes to v :-
(A) v = ucos  (B) v = ucos . cos
(C) v = ucos . sec (D) v = usec . cos
Q.9 An observer moves with a constant speed along the line joining two stationary objects. He will
observe that the two objects :-
(a) have the same speed
(b) have the same velocity
(c) move in the same direction
(d) move in opposite directions
(A) a, c (B) b, c (C) a, b, c (D) a, d
Q.10 If retardation produced by air resistances to projectile is one-tenth of acceleration due to gravity,
the time to reach maximum height approximately :-
(A) increase by 9% (B) decrease by 9% (C) increase by 11% (D) decrease by 11%
Q.11 Find the average velocity of a projectile between the instants it crosses half the maximum height.
It is projected with a speed u at an angle  with the horizontal :-
(A) u cos  (B) u sin  (C) u (D) u tan 
Q.12 A particle starts from the origin of coordinates at time t = 0 and moves in the xy plane with a
constant acceleration  in the y-direction. Its equation of motion is y = x 2. Its velocity
component in the x-direction is :-
2  
(A) variable (B) 
(C) 2 (D) 2

Kinematics [14]
Q.13 Draw a-x graph corresponding to given v-x graph :-
v

O x
a a a a

(A) x (B) x (C) x (D) x

Assertion/Reason Type Questions:

Q.14 Statement-1 : Two balls of different masses are thrown vertically up with same speed. They will pass
through their point of projection in downward direction with the same speed.
Statement-2 : The maximum height and downward velocity attained at the point of projection are
independent of the mass of the ball.
(A) If both Statement-1 and Statement-2 are true, and Statement-2 is the correct explanation of Statement-1.
(B) If both Statement-1 and Statement-2 are true but Statement-2 is not the correct explanation of Statement-1.
(C) If Statement-1 is true but Statement-2 is false.
(D) If Statement-1 is false but Statement-2 is true.
Q.15 Statement-1 : For angle of projection tan–1 (4), the horizontal range and maximum height are equal.
Statement 2 : The maximum range of projectile is directly proportional to square of velocity and
inversely proportional to acceleration of gravity.
(A) If both Statement-1 and Statement-2 are true, and Statement-2 is the correct explanation of Statement-1.
(B) If both Statement-1 and Statement-2 are true but Statement-2 is not the correct explanation of Statement-1.
(C) If Statement-1 is true but Statement-2 is false.
(D) If Statement-1 is false but Statement-2 is true.

EXERCISE-III
Q.1 A ball whose kinetic energy is E, is projected at an angle of 45º to the horizontal. The kinetic energy of
the ball at the highest point of its flight will :- [AIEEE-2002]
(A) E (B) E 2 (C) E/2 (D) Zero
Q.2 A boy playing on the roof of a 10 m high building throws a ball with a speed of 10 m/s at an angle of 30º
with the horizontal. How far from the throwing point will the ball be at the height of 10m from the ground ?
[g = 10 m/s2 , sin 30º = ½, cos 30º = 3 / 2 ] [AIEEE-2003]
(A) 4.33 m (B) 2.60 m (C)8.66 m (D) 5.20 m
Q.3 A projectile can have the same range ‘R’ for two angles of projection. If ‘T1’ and ‘T2’ be the time of
flights in the two cases, then the product of the two time of flights is directly proportional to :-
[AIEEE-2004]
(A) 1/R2 (B) 1/R (C) R (D) R2
Q.4 A ball is thrown from a point with a speed ‘v0’ at an elevation angle of . From the same point and at the
same instant, a person starts running with a constant speed ‘v0’/2 to catch the ball. Will the person be
able to catch the ball ? If yes, what should be the angle of projection  ? [AIEEE-2004]
(A) Yes, 60° (B) Yes, 30° (C) No (D) Yes, 45°
Q.5 A particle is projected at 60º to the horizontal with a kinetic energy K. The kinetic energy at the
highest point is :- [AIEEE-2007]
(A) K (B) zero (C) K/4 (D) K/2
Kinematics [15]
 THEORY
NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION
Force :
Everyone has a basic understanding of the concept of force from everyday experience. When you push
your empty dinner plate away, you exert a force on it. Similarly, you exert a force on a ball when you
throw or kick it. In these examples, the word Force is associated with muscular activity and some
change in the velocity of an object.
Types of Forces :
1. Contact forces : Whenever two bodies come in contact they exert forces on each other, that are
called contact forces.
(a) Normal reaction (N or R) : It is the component of contact force normal to the surface. It
measures how strongly the surfaces in contact are pressed together.
(b) Frictional force (f) : It is the component of contact force parallel to the surface. It opposes the
relative motion (or attempted motion) of the two surfaces in contact.
(c) Tension : The force exerted by the end of a taut string, rope or chain is called the tension. The
direction of tension is always pulling in nature.
(d) Spring force : Every spring resists any attempt to change its length, the more you change its
length the harder it resists. The force exerted by a spring is given by F = –kx, where x is the
change in length and k is spring constant or stiffness constant (units N/m).
2. Non contact forces : These forces does not involve physicalcontact between two points and are
also called field forces e.g. gravitational force,electric force.
Note : Weight : Weight of a body is the force with which earth attracts it. It is also defined as force of gravity
or the gravitational force.
FIRST LAW OF MOTION :
According to this law, every body continues in its state of rest or motion in a straight line unless
it is compelled by external force to change that state.
(i) This law is also called law of inertia. Inertia is a virtue by which a body opposes the state
of rest or motion.
(ii) The first law of motion defines the force.
Ex. (a) To remove the dust particles from a cloth by shaking it
(b)
Banking of the passengers (towards the motion of bus), sitting in a bus on applying the
sudden brakes.
NEWTON’S SECOND LAW :
Newton’s first law explains what happens to an object when no forces act on it. It either remains at rest
or moves in a straight line with constant speed. Newton’s second law answers the question of what
happens to an object that has a nonzero resultant force acting on it.
According to this law, the rate of change of momentum (mass × velocity) of a body is proportional
to the impressed force and it takes place in the direction of the force.

 dp
Mathematically F
dt
 
 dp dp
 F =k = ...(i)
dt dt

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION [16]

 (Defining force such a way that k = 1)

d
= m dv
 
F = (m v )
dt dt
 
F = ma ...(ii)
In scalar form, F = ma
kg.m
(i) Force is a vector quantity, whose unit is Newton or (In MKS)
s2

gm  cm
and dyne or (In CGS)
s2
(ii) The dimension of force is [MLT–2]
(iii) The second law of motion gives the magnitude and unit of force.
(iv) If m is not constant

 d  dv  dm
F = dt (m v ) = m + v
dt
dt
As in case of rocket propulsion, the mass of the fuel varies with respect to time.
What happens when several forces act simultaneously on an object ?
In this case, the object accelerates only if the net force acting on it is not equal to zero.
   
Fnet  F1  F2  F3  ....... : vector sum of all forces.

There may be many forces acting on an object, but there is only one acceleration
Note that equation 2 is a vector expression and hence is equivalent to three component
equations.
Fx = max Fy = may Fz = maz

When net force is zero, then the object is said to be in equilibrium. And if net force is zero, acceleration
will also be zero. Therefore velocity will be constant. Therefore, when the velocity of an object is
constant (including when the object is at rest), the object is said to be in equilibrium.

 Force is the cause of change in motion

Force does not cause motion. We can have motion in the absence of force, as described in Newton’s
first law. Force is the cause of change in motion as measured by acceleration.
ma is not a force
Equation 2 does not say that the product ma is a force. All forces on object are added vectorially to
generate the net force on the left side of the equation. This net force is then equated to the product of the
mass of the object and the acceleration that results from the net force.
Do not include an “ma force” in your analysis of the forces on an object.

NEWTON'S THIRD LAW :

To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction; or the mutual action of two bodies upon each
other are always equal and directed to contrary parts.

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION [17]

 Every action has equal and opposite reaction, and the action & reaction although of the same kind, acts
on the different bodies.
Third law simply states that forces will always occur in pairs, or a single isolated force cannot exist.
These action reaction pair must be of same time, viz. friction for friction, gravitation for gravitation etc.

Free Body Diagram (FBD) :

In this diagram the object of interest is isolated from its surroundings and the interactions between the
object and the surroundings are represented in terms of forces.
 
Remember not to a show “M a ” in F.B.D. as it is not force acting an object. “M a ” is the effect of net
forces acting on an object.

IMPULSE :
Impulse of a force is defined as the change of linear momentum imparted to the body
    
J  P2  P1  m(v 2  v 1 )
If the body is acted upon by a variable force as shown in figure, then
Impulse acting on the body in the interval t1 to t2
   t2
J  P2  P1  F dt F

t1

= Area under the F ~ t graph. t1 t2

t
FRAME OF REFERENCE :
It is a set of co-ordinate axes with respect to which the position, velocity and acceleration of a particle
or a system of particles can be measured.
There are two types of reference frames:
(a) Inertial frames of reference
If two frames of reference are either at rest or moving with uniform relative velocity, then they are
said to be inertial frames of reference.
(a) In an Inertial frame an object subject to zero net force will stay at rest or more at constant
velocity.
(b) If acceleration of a particle is zero in one inertial frame, it is zero in all inertial frames.
(c) Idealy, no inertial frame exists in the universe for practical purpose, a frame of reference
may be considered as Inertial if its acceleration is negligible with respect to the acceleration
of the object to be observed.
All Newton's laws are valid in inertial frames of reference.
(b) Non-inertial frames of reference
Accelerated frames are known as non-inertial frames of reference.
Newton's laws are not valid in non-inertial frames.

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION [18]

 Pseudo forces (fictitious forces): It is an adjustment which enables us to apply Newton's laws in Non-
inertial frames of reference.
If an observer is into a linearly accelerating non-inertial frame, then in order to use Newton's laws
of motion to explain the behaviour of a particle or a system of particles, a pseudo force is applied
opposite to the acceleration of the observer.
Magnitude of pseudo force Fp is equal to the product of the mass m of the object and the
acceleration a of the frame of reference.
 
Mathematically, Fpseudo  ma
m = mass of the particle
a = acceleration of the observer
MOTION IN A LIFT :
Apparent Weight :
Case (I) :

If the lift is unaccelerated ( v = 0 or constant) : a=0
In this case there is reaction R = mg
Hence apparent weight = actual weight R

W' = Actual weight = mg

W
Case (II):
If the lift is accelerated upward (when  a = constant) :
The net forces acting on the man are
 R – mg = ma a
R
 Apparent weight
W ' = R = mg + ma
W=mg
Note : Apparent weight (W') > Actual weight (mg)
Case (III) :
If the lift is accelerated downward :
Here the weight 'mg' acts downwards, while the reaction, a
R
R acts upward
Apparent weight W' = R
W=mg
 mg – R = ma
 R = mg – ma
Note :
(i) Apparent weight W' < Actual weight W
(ii) If g=a  W' = 0
Thus in a freely falling lift, the man will experience a state of weightlessness
Case (IV) :
If the lift is accelerated downwards such that a > g :
In this case ma is greater than the weight (mg)
 Apparent weight W' = m(g – a) = negative
There is no meaning of negative apparent weight, therefore will be zero.
So the man will be accelerated upward and will stay at the ceiling of the lift.

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION [19]

MOTION OF BODIES IN CONTACT :
Case (I) :
Two body system :
Let a force F be applied on mass m1.
B
A
F fm m f
1 2

Free body diagrams:

(vertical force do not cause motion, are not have not been shown in diagram)

For A For B
f
m1 m2
F f
F– f = m1 a F = m2a

F
 a = m m
1 2

m 2F
and f = m m
1 2

(i) Here f is known as force of contact.

(ii) Acceleration of system can be found simply by
force
a =
total mass
Note:
If force F be applied on m2, the acceleration will remain the same, but force of contact
m1F
will be different i.e. f' =
m1  m 2
Case-II :
The blocks shown are being pushed by a force F. F1, F2 are contact forces between M1 & M2 and
M2 & M3 respectively
a
F M1 M2 M3

a
F2
F M3
a FBD of M3 F2 = M3a
M1  M 2  M 3
a

F1 – F2 = M2a  F1 = (M3 + M2)a FBD of M2 F1 F2

M2

M3  M 2  M3 
or F2  F, F1    F
M1  M 2  M3  M1  M 2  M 3 

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION [20]

IMPORTANT PROBLEMS :
Block & Moving wedge system :
Questions based on such systems are solved by use of normal constraint.
Case - I :
Let ‘m’ does not slide down relative to wedge ‘M’
The force required is given by a
m F
F = (M + m)g tan
M
a = g tan  (in horizontal direction w.r.t. ground)
Contact force R between m and M is  Wedge
smooth
Mg
R
cos 

Case - II :
Minimum value of F so that ‘m’ falls freely is given by m F
F = Mgcot
M
Wedge M moves with acceleration = gcot  Wedge
Contact force between M and m is zero. smooth

FRICTION :

When an object is in motion either on a surface or in a viscous medium such as air or water, there
is resistance to the motion because the object interacts with its surroundings. We call such resistance
a force of friction. Forces of friction are very important in our everday lives. They allow us to walk
or run and are necesary for the motion of wheeled vehicles.
Friction force is of two types :
1. Static frictions ‘fs’
2. Kinetic friction ‘fk’

Static Friction :
The static friction between two contact surfaces is given by fs < s N, where N is the normal force
between the contact surfaces and s is a constant which depends on the nature of the surfaces and
is called ‘coefficient of limiting friction’.
Static friction acts on stationary objects. Its values satisfy the condition
fs < s N
s – Co-efficient of limiting friction
Static friction takes its peak value (fs(max) = sN) when one surface is ‘about to slide’ on the other.
Static friction in this case is called limiting friction.

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION [21]

Kinetic Friction (k)
It acts on the two contact surfaces only when there is relative sliping or relative motion between two
contact surfaces.
fk = kN
The relative motion of a contact surface with respect to each other is opposed by a force given by
fk = k N, where N is the normal force between the contact surfaces and k is a constant called
‘coefficient of kinetic friction’, which depends, largely, on the nature of the contact surfaces.

 kN v

mg

IMPORTANT POINTS :
(1) Value of k is always less than s (k < s) from experimental observation.
(2) If only coefficient of friction () is given by a problem then use s = k = 

(3) Value of s and k is independent of surface area it depends only on surface properties of contact
surface.
(4) k is independent of relative speed.
(5) s & k are properties of a given pair of surfaces i.e. for wood to wood combination 1 , then for wood
to iron 2 and so on.

Static Kinetic
friction friction
Friction
force

45º
fs (max) Applied
force
Graphical representation of variation of friction force
with the force applied on a body
ANGLE OF REPOSE :
Consider a situation in which a block is placed on an inclined plane with co-efficient of friction ''
then the maximum value of angle of inclined plane for which the block can remain at rest is defined
as angle of repose. N
N – mg cos = 0
fs max = s mg cos fs
when slipping starts fs = fs max

sin
mg 
Thus mg sin =  mg cos mgcos
tan = s.  mg
'tan s' is called Angle of Repose.
–1

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION [22]

Note : Whenever word contact force is used it means the vector sum of friction & normal contact
force and the angle of contact force with normal is known as angle of friction.
Block on Inclined Plane :
1. If µ  tan , the block will remain stationary on the inclined plane; and the frictional force acting on
the block will be equal to mg sin and static in nature
f = mg sin 

f
µ

sin
mg 

2. If a block slides down an inclined plane with constant velocity, the frictional force acting on the block
is kinetic in nature and is equal to mg sin 
 f = mg sin 

f
v


3. If µ < tan , the block will slide down the plane with acceleration a equal to
a = g sin  – µ g cos 
Frictional force is kinetic in nature and is given by f = N =  mg cos  (less than mg sin )

a


4. If a block is projected up the plane, retardation a is given by a = g sin  + µ g cos .

v
a µ


5. If mg sin  exceeds frictional force, the block tends to slide down. The minimum force required to
prevent sliding is
Fmin = mg sin  – µ mg cos 
f

F

g sin
m 

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION [23]

6. If you try to push a block up the plane, frictional force and mg sin both opposes the upward motion
of the block, hence, the minimum force required to move up is given by
Fmin = mg sin  + µ mg cos 

F

sin

f
mg 

Note : In case 5-6, if F lies between (mg sin  –  mg cos ) and ( mg sin  +  mg cos ), then
the block remains stationary on the inclined plane.
Two blocks placed one above the other :
Case - I :
Consider the system as shown in figure
(a) F  (M1 + M2)g
F ' ' M2
Both blocks move together with same acceleration a
M1  M 2
M1 F
amax = g
(b) F > (M1 + M2)g Smooth
M2 moves with constant acceleration a2 = g
F  M 2 g
M1 moves with acceleration a1 
M1
M2 slips back wardon M1.
Case - II :
Now the force F is acting on upper block :
(M1  M 2 )M 2 F
(a) F g, both blocks move together with acceleration a  with
M1 M1  M 2
M 2
amax  g .
M1

(b) (M1  M 2 )M 2 g ,
F F
M1 M2

M 2 M1
M1 moves with constant acceleration a1  g
M1
Smooth
F  M 2 g
M2 moves with acceleration a2 
M2
M2 slips forward on M1.
Minimum force required to move a body on a rough horizontal surface :
F cos  > R R F sin 
F
mg
F 
cos    sin  
F cos 
R M
mg
Fmin  at  = tan–1()
1  2

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION [24]

 EXERCISE-I
Q.1 Figure shows a uniform rod of mass 3 kg and of length 30 cm. The strings shown in figure are
pulled by constant forces of 20 N and 32 N .The acceleration of the rod is-
100cm 20cm
(A) 2 m/s2 A B
(B) 3m/s2
(C) 4 m/s2
(D) 6 m/s2
20N 32N
Q.2 In the above question tension in rod at a distance 10 cm from end A is-
(A) 18 N (B) 20 N (C) 24 N (D) 36 N
Q.3 Two blocks are in contact on a frictionless table one has a mass m and the other 2m. A force F
is applied on 2m as shown in Figure. Now the same force F is applied on m. In the two cases
respectively the ratio of force of contact between the two blocks will be-
(A) 1 : 1 2m
m
(B) 1 : 2 F
(C) 1 : 3
(D) 1 : 4
Q.4 The block shown in the figure is under equilibrium on smooth surface. Spring force and contact force
by ground on the block are
(A) [Link], mg + Fsin respectively F
(B) Fcos, mg – Fsin respectively k 
m
(C) Fcos, Fsin respectively
(D) Fsin, Fcos respectively
Q.5 What should be the minimum force P to be applied to the string so that
block of mass m just begins to move up the frictionless plane.
Mg cos 
(A) Mg tan  2 (B) Mg cot  2 (C) (D) None
1  sin 
Q.6 Two blocks of 7 kg and 5 kg are connected by a heavy rope of mass 4 kg. An upward force
of 200N is applied as shown in the diagram. The tension at the top of heavy rope at point P is:
(g = 10 m/s2) 200N
(A) 2.27 N
7kg
(B) 112.5 N
P
4kg
(C) 87.5 N
5kg
(D) 360 N
Q.7 A pendulum with a bob of mass 2 kg is hanging from the ceiling of a trolley as shown in the figure.
The trolley is uniformly accelerating with an acceleration a, then (g = 10 m/s2)
a

37º

(A) a = 6 m/s2 (B) a = 7.5 m/s2 (C) a = 4 m/s2 (D) a = 2.5 m/s2

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION [25]

Q.8 Force F is double the minimum force required to keep the block moving with constant speed on a
smooth incline. Acceleration of the block is
F
m

F
(A) (B) gsin (C) gcos (D) gtan
m

Q.9 In the given arrangement two blocks are placed on a horizontal surface such that co-efficient of friction
between the blocks and the floor is  = 0.2, then tension in the thread connecting the two blocks is
(g = 10 m/s2)

3 kg 5 kg F = 12 N

(A) Zero (B) 2 N (C) 4 N (D) 6 N

Q.10 A spring of force constant k is cut into two pieces such that one piece is double the length of the
other. Then the long piece will have a force constant of
(A) (2/3) k (B) (3/2) k (C) 3k (D) 6k

Q.11 A force F  î  4ˆj acts on block shown. The force of friction acting on the block is :
(A) – î (B) – 1.8 î
(C) – 2.4 î (D) – 3 î
Q.12 Minimum value of F to hold the block (see figure) in place at rest is

 = 0.1

Wall 1 kg F

(A) 10 N (B) 100 N (C) 50 N (D) 500 N

Q.13 A rope of mass 5 kg is moving vertically in vertical position with an upwards force of 100 N acting at the
upper end and a downwards force of 70 N acting at the lower end. The tension at midpoint of the rope is
(A) 100 N (B) 85 N (C) 75 N (D) 105 N
Q.14 A block of mass M is pulled along a horizontal frictionless surface by a rope of mass m. A force
P is being applied to one end of the rope, the force that the rope exerts on the block M is-
 M   m  Mm Mm
(A)  M  m  P (B)  M  m  P (C)  m  P (D)  M  P
       

Q.15 Two blocks are connected by a cord passing over a small frictionless pulley and resting on
frictionless planes as shown in the figure The accleration of the blocks is-
(A) 0.33 m/s2
A
(B) 0.66 m/s2 0kg 50
kg
2 10
(C) 1 m/s
37° 53°
(D) 1.32 m/s2

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION [26]

 EXERCISE-II

Q.1 The magnitude of friction force acting on the block if the block is in equilibrium is (g = 10 m/s2)
y

2 kg
30º

(A) 20 3N (B) 20 N (C) 10 3N (D) 10 N

Q.2 A block of mass 2 kg slides down an incline plane of inclination 30°. The coefficient of friction between
block and plane is 0.5. The contact force between block and plane is :
(A) 20 Nt (B) 10 3 Nt (C) 5 7 Nt (D) 5 15 Nt
Q.3 A flexible chain of weight W hangs between two fixed points A and B
which are at the same horizontal level. The inclination of the chain with A B
 
the horizontal at both the points of support is . What is the tension of
the chain at the mid point?
W W W
(A) · cosec  (B) · tan  (C) · cot  (D) none
2 2 2
Q.4 Block A is placed on a smooth horizontal surface. Another block B is placed in contact with A as
shown in figure. The coefficient of friction between A and B is 0.5. The minimum acceleration of block
A so that block B does not fall
a
B
A

(A) 10 m/s2 (B) 20 m/s2 (C) 15 m/s2 (D) 5 m/s2

Q.5 A block of mass m is placed on smooth triangular block as shown in the figure. The triangular block
is moving horizontally with uniform speed 2 3 m/s. The acceleration of block of mass m with respect
to the triangular block is

m 2 3 m/s

30º

(A) 5 m/s2 (B) 8 m/s2 (C) 4 m/s2 (D) 6 m/s2

Q.6 The acceleration of blocks of mass 2 kg and 4 kg are respectively
(Pulleys and threads are massless) (g = 10 m/s2) F = 60 N

(A) a1 = 5 m/s2; a2 = 2.5 m/s2

(B) a1 = a2 = 0 2 kg

20
(C) a1 = a2 = m/s2
6
4 kg
(D) a1 = 20 m/s2; a2 = 5 m/s2

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION [27]

Q.7 In the given arrangement, n number of equal masses are connected by strings of negligible masses.
The tension in the string connected to nth mass is -

m Mg m Mg
(A) n m  M (B) n m M (C) mg (D) mng
Q.8 A particle of mass m moving with velocity u makes an elastic one dimensional collision with a stationary
particle of mass m. They are in contact for a very brief time T. Their force of interaction increases from
zero to F0 linearly in time T/2 and decreases linearly to zero in further time T/2. The magnitude of F0
is –

F0

T/2 T
t
(A) mu/T (B) 2mu/T (C) mu/2T (D) None of these
Q.9 A man of mass m stands on a frame of mass M. He pulls on a light rope, which passes over a pulley.
The other end of the rope is attached to the frame. For the system to be in equilibrium, what force
must the man exert on the rope ?

M
m

1
(A) (M + m)g (B) (M + m)g (C) (M – m)g (D) (M + 2m)g
2
Q.10 Find the mass M of the hanging block in figure which will prevent the smaller block from slipping over
the triangular block. All the surfaces are frictionless and the strings and the pulleys are light
m

M'


M'm M'm M'm

(A) (B) (M' + m) tan (C) (D)
tan  1  tan  cot   1

Q.11 Statement-1 : A body in equilibrium may not be at rest.

Statement-2 : When a body is at rest, it must be in equilibrium.
(A) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is correct explanation for statement-1.
(B) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is NOT the correct explanation for statement-1.
(C) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is false.
(D) Statement-1 is false, statement-2 is true.

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION [28]

Q.12 A block is suspended from spring and block is in equilibrium.
Statement-1 : Force acting at two ends of spring will be action reaction pair.
Statement-2 : Action and reaction force are of same type and act in opposite directions.

(A) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is correct explanation for statement-1.
(B) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is NOT the correct explanation for statement-1.
(C) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is false.
(D) Statement-1 is false, statement-2 is true.
Passage Based Questions :
In the systems shown in figure (A), (B), (C) and (D), the scales of the springs are
calibrated in newton.

g
3k
3 kg 3 kg 30º

3 kg 3 kg
(C)
(D)
3 kg 5 kg

(A) (B)
Assume that
 Pulleys are massless and frictionless
 Strings are massless
 The surface in figure (D) is frictionless

Q.13 Reading of the spring scale in figure (A) is

(A) 30 N (B) 45 N (C) 60 N (D) 22.5 N

Q.14 Reading of the spring scale in figure (B) is

(A) 90 N (B) 62.5 N (C) 55 N (D) 75 N

Q.15 Reading of the spring scale in figure (C) is

(A) 30 N (B) 45 N (C) 15 N (D) 22.5 N

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION [29]

 EXERCISE-III

Q.1 Three point masses A, B and C are 66 gram each are connected as shown. The acceleration of system
is 5 m/s2. Tension between B and C is approximately- [AIEEE-2002]
C B A F
////////////////////////////////////////////
(A) 0.33 Newton (B) 4 Newton (C) 5 Newton (D) 6 Newton
Q.2 A person in an aeroplane which is coming, down at acceleration a releases a coin. After release,
the accleration of coin with respect to observer on ground and in aeroplane both will be respectively-
[AIEEE-2002]
(A) g and (g –a) (B) (g – a), g (C) (g + a), g (D) g, (g + a)

Q.3 A light string passing over a smooth light pulley connects two blocks of masses m1 and m2 (vertically). If
the acceleration of the system is g/8, then the ratio of the masses is – [AIEEE-2002]
(A) 8 : 1 (B) 9 : 7 (C) 4 : 3 (D) 5 : 3
Q.4 One end of massless rope, which passes over a massless and frictionless pulley P is tied to a hook
C while the other end is free. Maximum tension that the rope can bear is 360 N. With what value
of minimum safe acceleration (in ms–2) can a man of 60 kg slide down the rope ? [AIEEE-2002]
(A) 16 P
(B) 6
(C) 4
(D) 8
Q.5 A spring balance is attached to the ceiling of a lift. A man hangs his bag on the spring and the spring reads
49 N, when the lift is stationary. If the lift moves downward with an acceleration of 5 m/s2, the reading of
the spring balance will be – [AIEEE-2003]
(A) 74 N (B) 15 N (C) 49 N (D) 24 N
  
Q.6 Let F be the force acting on a particle having position vector r , and T be the torque of this force about
the origin. Then – [AIEEE-2003]
       
(A) r · T ·  0 and F · T = 0 (B) r · T ·  0 and F · T  0
       
(C) r · T · = 0 and F · T = 0 (D) r · T · = 0 and F · T  0

Q.7 A block of mass M is pulled along a horizontal frictionless surface by a rope of mass m. If a force P is
applied at the free end of the rope, the force exerted by the rope on the block is –
[AIEEE-2003]
Pm PM Pm
(A) (B) P (C) (D)
Mm Mm Mm
Q.8 One end of a light spring balance hangs from the hook of the other light spring balance attached to roof
and a block of mass M kg hangs from the other end. Then the true statement about the scale reading
is – [AIEEE-2003]
(A) The scale of the lower one reads M kg and of the upper one zero
(B) The reading of the two scales can be anything but the sum of the reading will be M kg
(C) Both the scales read M/2 kg each
(D) Both the scales read M kg each

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION [30]

 
Q.9 Three forces start acting simultaneously on a particle moving with velocity v . These forces are represented in
magnitude and direction by the three sides of a triangle ABC (as shown). The particle will now move with
velocity – [AIEEE-2003]

(A) Greater than v
(B) |v| in the direction of the largest force BC

(C) v , remaining unchanged

(D) Less than v
Q.10 A machine gun fires a bullet of mass 40 g with a velocity 1200 ms–1. The man holding it can exert a
maximum force of 144 N on the gun. How many bullets can he fire per second at the most ?
[AIEEE-2004]
(A) One (B) Four (C) Two (D) Three
Q.11 Two masses m1 = 5 kg and m2 = 4.8 kg tied to a string are hanging over a light fricitionless pulley. What
is the acceleration of the masses when left free to move ? (g = 9.8 m/s2) [AIEEE-2004]
(A) 0.2 m/s2
(B) 9.8 m/s2
(C) 5 m/s2 m1
m2
(D) 4.8 m/s2
Q.12 A parachutist after bailing out falls 50 m without friction. When parachute opens, it decelerates at 2 m/s2. He
reaches the ground with a speed of 3 m/s. At what height, did he bail out ? [AIEEE-2005]
(A) 91 m (B) 182 m (C) 293 m (D) 111 m

Q.13 A block is kept on a frictionless inclined surface with angle of inclination ''. The incline is given an
acceleration 'a' to keep the block stationary. Then 'a' is equal to [AIEEE-2005]

(A) g / tan  (B) g cosec  (C) g (D) g tan 

Q.14 A particle of mass 0.3 kg is subjected to a force F = – kx with k = 15 N/m. What will be its initial
acceleration if it is released from a point 20 cm away from the origin ? [AIEEE-2005]
(A) 3 m/s2 (B) 15 m/s2 (C) 5 m/s2 (D) 10 m/s2

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION [31]

Q.15 A player caught a cricket ball of mass 150 g moving at a rate of 20 m/s. If the catching process is
completed in 0.1 s, the force ball exerted by the ball on the hand of the player is equal to –
[AIEEE 2006]

(A) 30 N (B) 300 N (C) 150 N (D) 3 N

Q.16 The figure shows the position-time (x-t) graph of one-dimensional motion of a body of mass 0.4kg. The
magnitude of each impulse is [AIEEE - 2010]

2
x(m)

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
t (s)

(A) 1.6 Ns (B) 0.2 Ns (C) 0.4 Ns (D) 0.8 Ns

Q.17 Two fixed frictionless inclined planes making an angle 30° and 60° with the vertical are shown in the
figure. Two blocks A and B are placed on the two planes. What is the relative vertical acceleration of A
with respect to B ? [AIEEE - 2010]

60° 30°

(A) zero (B) 4.9 ms–2 in vertical direction

(C) 4.9 ms–2 in horizontal direction (D) 9.8 ms–2 in vertical direction

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION [32]

 THEORY
CIRCULAR MOTION
CIRCULAR MOTION:
When a particle moves in a plane such that its distance from a fixed (or moving) point remains constant
then its motion is called as the circular motion with respect to that fixed (or moving) point. That fixed
point is called centre and the distance is called radius.
ANGULAR VARIABLES:
Angular Displacement: Angle substended by a moving particle on a fixed point is called angular
displacement about the fixed point.
Few Facts: Dimensionless quantity
Units – radian / Never Degree

Angular displacement depends on reference frame same as linear displacement depends on refrence
frame.
But angular displacement is different for different observers in the same frame.

Angular displacement is a vector quantity. Direction of angular displacement vector is decided by right
hand rule.i.e. move your right hand fingers in sense of motion and direction of your thumb will be the
direction of angular displacement.

Angular Velocity 

(i) Average Angular Velocity
Total Angle of Rotation  
2 1 
av 
Total time taken ; av  t  t  t
2 1

where 1 and 2 are angular position of the particle at time t1 and t2

(ii) Instantaneous Angular Velocity

The rate at which the position vector of a particle w.r.t. the centre rotates, is called as instantaneous
angular velocity with respect to the centre.
 d
  lim 
t 0 t dt

1. It is an axial vector with dimensions [T-1] and SI unit rad/s.

2. If a body makes ‘n’ rotations in ‘t’ seconds then angular velocity in radian per second will be
2 n
 av 
t
2  1
If T is the period and ‘f’ the frequency of uniform circular motion av   2f
T
V cos 
Relation between angular velocity & linear velocity. P


Q
 a P' V
O
V sin 

CIRCULAR MOTION [33]

 A particle P is moving with speed V along a curve & observer is located at O  - is angle between line
joining OP and velocity.
Note that V sin  (comp. of velocity perpendicular to OP) is the cause of angular displacement. i.e. if
only V cos  existed we need not turn our head to always look at particle. Hence
PQ = (V sin ) t
PQ = OP ()
 V sin 
Thus 
t (OP )

Comp. of velocity perpendicular to line joining

 =
length of line joining

(d) Angular Acceleration 

(i) Average Angular Acceleration :
Let 1 and 2 be the instantaneous angular speeds at times t1 and t2 respectively, then the average
angular acceleration av is defined as
2  1 
 av  
t 2  t1 t
(ii) Instantaneous Angular Acceleration :
It is the limit of average angular acceleration as t approaches zero, i.e.,
 d d
  lim  =
t  0  t dt d
Direction is along angular velocity if it is increasing otherwise opposite.

1. It is also an axial vector with dimension [T-2] and unit rad/s2.

2. If  = 0, circular motion is said to be uniform.
d d d 2 
3. As   ,   2 , i.e., second derivative of angular displacement w.r.t. time gives
dt dt dt
angular acceleration.
For uniform angular acceleration
1 2 2
 = 0 + t ,  = 0t + t ,  = 02 + 2
2
3. KINEMATICS OF CIRCULAR MOTION:
Derivation of centripetal acceleration for a particle moving in a circle with constant speed.
 
V2 = V1 = V
 
V2  V1
 
acceleration vector a , a = t

  
V = V2  ( V1 )

CIRCULAR MOTION [34]

 
  
V = 2 V sin  
 2 

or V = Vfor small ()
–V1

 V 
a =a=
t
V
2 V2
V
= V = =2R
R
  
We can also prove that it is directed towards centre as angle with tangent is  90   in lim t  0.
 2 

lim  0 and angle  90° i.e. towards the centre â  V̂ which is towards the centre.
What we observe here is that when magnitude of velocity is constant but only direction is changing
acceleration is directed perpendicular to velocity. In other words component of acceleration perpendicular
to velocity causes change in direction not magnitude.
Now lets take a case of particle moving in straight line, with changing speed. Its acceleration will be
along the line of velocity. This acceleration will change only magnitude.
Conclusion: Comp. of acceleration along velocity called tangential acceleration changes magnitude
and comp. of acceleration perpendicular to velocity called radial acceleration changes direction of velocity.
  
Hence a  a r  a t .
Derivation of tangential acceleration for circular motion.
dv d (R ) Rd
a=    R
dt dt dt
d ( R) dv
 =R =R
dt dt

understand that v is speed or magnitude of velocity, v = v & rate of change of magnitude of velocity is
dv
called tangential acceleration. at =
dt

d V   
= =  R. or (a t    R )
dt


dV
= a = a 2t  a 2r

Also note that dt

 
dV d V
i.e. = 2 2 2
dt (R )  ( R ) ( while =  R.)
dt

Note : One is a magnitude of rate of change of velocity & other is rate of change of magnitude of velocity (at).

CIRCULAR MOTION [35]

  
 dv d|v|
| a | and | a t |
dt dt
 
 d  d    
v  r = r
dt dt
  
 dv  d r d   
a     r = ac  at
dt dt dt
     
Where , a c    v and a t    r
(i) Because Fc is always perpendicular to velocity or displacement, hence the work done by this
force will always be zero.
(ii) Circular motion in horizontal plane is usually uniform circular motion.
(iii) There is an important difference between the projectile motion and circular motion.
In projectile motion, both the magnitude and the direction of acceleration (g) remain constant,
while in circular motion the magnitude remains constant but the direction continuously
changes.
Hence equations of motion are not applicable for circular motion.
Remember that equations of motion remain valid only when both the magnitude & direction
of acceleration are constant.
CENTRIPETAL CONDITION :
V2
When component of acceleration perpendicular to velocity is and always directed towards a fixed
R
point then particle will undergo circular motion about that fixed point.
V2
ac =ar =
R

RADIUS OF CURVATURE :
For general curvilinear motion, when the particle crosses this point A, it is satisfying condition of moving
on this imaginary circle at this instant, if
2
a = V where Rc is radius of curvature at this instant.
Rc
V2
Rc=
a
(speed)2
Rc=
[Link] acceleration perpendicular to velocity

CIRCULAR DYNAMICS
INTRODUCTION:
Component of Net force perpendicular to velocity should be inwards and its magnitude should be equal
 mV 2 
 
to  R  . This is condition for circular motion.
 

STEPS FOR SOLVING PROBLEMS.

Identify the plane of circular motion.
Locate the centre and calculate the radius.
Make F.B.D. CIRCULAR MOTION [36]
 Resolve forces only and always along these three directions:
(a) In the plane along radial direction.
(b) In the plane along tangential direction.
(c) Perpendicular to the plane of circular motion.
(a) Add the forces assuming radially inward direction as positive
mV 2
 Fr =
R

(b)

(c) If plane is not accelerating then  F = 0. If plane is accelerating then actually it will not be
circular motion from ground frame. But still F= ma , where a is acceleration of particle
perpendicular to plane.

Circular Turning on roads :

When vehicles go through turnings, they travel along a nearly circular arc. There must be some force
which will produce the required centripetal acceleration. If the vehicles travel in a horizontal circular
path, this resulatant force is also horizontal. The necessary centripetal force is being provided to the
vehicles by following three ways.
1. By friction only 2. By banking of roads only. 3. By friction and banking of roads both.
In real life the necessary centripetal force is provided by friction and banking of roads both. Now let us
write equations of motion in each of the three cases separately and see what are the constant in each
case.
By Friction Only :
Suppose a car of mass m is moving at a speed v in a horizontal circular arc of radius r. In this case, the
necessary centripetal force to the car will be provided by force of friction f acting towards center
mv 2
Thus, f
r
Further, limiting value of f is mN
or fL   N  mg (N = mg)

mv 2
Therefore, for a safe turn without sliding  fL
r
mv 2 v2
or  mg or  or v  rg
r rg
Here, two situations may arise. If m and r are known to us, the speed of the vehicle should not exceed
v2
rgand if v and r are known to us, the coefficient of friction should be greater than rg .
By Banking of Roads Only :
Friction is not always reliable at circular turns if high speeds and sharp turns are involved. to avoid
dependence on friction, the roads are banked at the turn so that the outer part of the road is some what
lifted compared to the inner part.
Applying Newton’s second law along the radius and the first law in the vertical direction.

CIRCULAR MOTION [37]

 What is the speed required to negotiate the turn shown in figure. Frictionless and radius of curvature 'R'
and banking ''.
N cos  – mg = 0
N cos 
N cos  = mg N
O
2  v
mv N sin 
N sin  = C
R R
f
mv 2
mg tan  = mg
 inside
R
v = Rg tan 

By Friction and Banking of Road Both :

If a vehicle is moving on a circular road which is rough and banked also, then three forces may act on the
vehicle, of these the first force, i.e., weight (mg) is fixed both in magnitude and direction.

The direction of second force, i.e., normal reaction N is also fixed (perpendicular to road) while the
direction of the third force i.e., friction f can be either inwards or outwards while its magnitude can be
varied upto a maximum limit (fL = mN). So the magnitude of normal reaction N and directions plus
mv 2
magnitude of friction f are so adjusted that the resistant of the three forces mentioned above is to-
r
wards the center. Of these m and r are also constant. Therefore, magnitude of N and directions plus
magnitude of friction mainly depends on the speed of the vehicle v. Thus, situation varies from problem
to problem. Even though we can see that :
(i) Friction f will be outwards if the vehicle is at rest v = 0. Because in that case the component
weight mg sin is balanced by f.
(ii) Friction f will be inwards if v  rg tan 
(iii) Friction f will be outwards if v  rg tan  and

(iv) Friction f will be zero if v  rg tan 

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE :
When a body is rotating in a circular path and the centripetal force vanishes, the body would leave the
circular path. To an observer A who is not sharing the motion along the circular path, the body appears
to fly off tangentially at the point of release. To another observer B, who is sharing the motion along the
circular path (i.e., the observer B also rotating with the body is released) it appears to B, as if it has been
thrown off along the radius away from the centre by some force. This inertial force is called centrifugal
force.
mv 2
Its magnitude is equal to that of the centripetal force. = . Centrifu-
r
gal force is a fictitious force which has to be applied as a concept only in
a rotating frame of reference to apply N.L in that frame)

CIRCULAR MOTION [38]

 EXERCISE-I

Q.1 The ratio of angular speeds of minutes hand and hour hand of a watch is -
(A) 1 : 12 (B) 6 : 1 (C) 12 : 1 (D) 1:6
Q.2 A bottle of soda water is grasped by the neck and swing briskly in a vertical circle. Near which portion
of the bottle do the bubbles collect?
(A) near the near bottom (B) in the middle of the bottle
(C) near the neck (D) uniformly distributed in the bottle
Q.3 A stone of mass m is tied to a string of length l and rotated in a circle with a constant speed v. If the string
is released, the stone flies-
(A) radially outward (B) radially inward
(C) tangentially outward (D) with an acceleration mv2/l
Q.4 If a particle moves in a circle describing equal angles in equal interval of times, its velocity vector –
(A) remains constant (B) changes in magnitude
(C) changes in direction (D) changes both in magnitude and direction
Q.5 In uniform circular motion-
(A) both velocity and acceleration are constant
(B) acceleration and speed are constant but velocity changes
(C) both acceleration and velocity change
(D) both acceleration and speed are constant
Q.6 What happens to the centripetal acceleration of a revolving body if you double the orbital speed v and
halve the angular velocity  ?
(A) the centripetal acceleration remains unchanged
(B) the centripetal acceleration is halved
(C) the centripetal acceleration is doubled
(D) the centripetal acceleration is quadrupled
Q.7 The breaking tension of a string is 10 N. A particle of mass 0.1 kg tied to it is rotated along a horizontal
circle of radius 0.5 metre. The maximum speed with which the particle can be rotated without breaking
the string is-
(A) 5 m/sec (B) (50 ) m/sec (C) (500 ) m/sec (D) (1000 ) m/sec
Q.8 A car of mass m is taking a circular turn of radius 'r' on a frictional level road with a speed v. In order that
the car does not skid-
mv 2 mv 2 mv 2 v
(A)  mg (B)  mg (C) = mg (D) = mg
r r r r
Where '' is coefficient of friction
Q.9 A particle is acted upon by a force of constant magnitude which is always perpendicular to the velocity
of the particle. The motion of the particle takes place in a plane. it follows that–
(A) its velocity is constant (B) its acceleration is constant
(C) its kinetic energy is constant (D) it moves in circular path
Q.10 A chain of 125 links is 1.25 m long and has a mass of 2 kg with the ends fastened together it is set
rev
rotating at 3000 . Find the centripetal force on each link -
min
1 1
(A) 3.14 N (B) 314 N (C) N (D) N
3.14 314

CIRCULAR MOTION [39]

Q.11 When the road is dry and the coefficient of friction is , the maximum speed of a car in a circular path
is 10 m/s, if the road becomes wet and ’ = /2. What is the maximum speed permitted ?
(A) 5 m/s (B) 10 m/s (C) 10 2 m/s (D) 5 2 m/s
Q.12 A person with a mass of M kg stands in contact against the wall of the cylindrical drum of radius r
rotating with an angular velocity . The coefficient of friction between the wall and the clothing is .
The minimum rotational speed of the cylinder which enables the person to remain stuck to the wall
when the floor is suddenly removed is -
g r 2g gr
(A) min = r
(B) min = g (C) min = r
(D) min = 

Q.13 A body is revolving with a uniform speed V in a circle of radius r. The angular acceleration of the body
is -
V
(A)
r
(B) Zero
V2
(C) along the radius and towards the centre
r

V2
(D) along the radius and away from the centre
r
Q.14 A particle completes 3 revolutions per second on a circular path of radius 8 cm. Find the values of
angular velocity and centripetal acceleration of the particle -
rad cm rad cm
(A) 6 ; 2882 2 (B)  ; 2752
s s s s2
rad cm
(C) 6 ; 288 (D) None
s s2
Q.15 The earth, radius 6400 km, makes one revolution about its own axis in 24 hours. The centripetal
acceleration of a point on its equator is nearly -
cm cm cm cm
(A) 340 2 (B) 3.4 2 (C) 34 2 (D) 0.34
sec sec sec sec 2

EXERCISE-II
Q.1 A stone of mass 0.1 kg tied to one end of a string 1.0 m long is revolved in a horizontal circle at the
rate of 10/ revolution per second. Calculate the tension of the string ?
(A) 30 N (B) 40 N (C) 50 N (D) 60 N
Q.2 A car is travelling with linear velocity v on a circular road of radius r. If it is increasing it speed at the rate
of 'a' metre/sec2, then the resultant acceleration will be-
 v2   v4   v4   v2 
(A)
  a2  (B)
  a2  (C)
  a2  (D)
  a2 
 r2   r2   r2   r2 
       

Q.3 A heavy small sized sphere is suspended by a string of length . The sphere rotates uniformly in a
horizontal circle with the string making an angle  with the vertical. Then the time period of this conical
pendulum is-
l sin 
  l cos 
  l  
(A) T = 2 (B) T=2  g  (C) T = 2  g  (D) T=2  g cos  
     

CIRCULAR MOTION [40]

Q.4 The kinetic energy of a particle moving along a circle of radius R depends on the distance covered S
as T = KS2 where K is a constant. Find the force acting on the particle as a function of S -
2 2 2 2
2K S R  S 2S R 
(A) 1   (B) 2KS 1    (C) 2KS 1    (D) 1  
S R S R  K S

Q.5 A heavy particle hanging from a fixed point by a light inextensible string of length l is projected
horizontally with speed (gl) . Then the speed of the particle and the inclination of the string to the
vertical at the instant of the motion when the tension in the string equal the weight of the particle-
3l lg
(A) g , cos–1 (3/2) (B) , cos–1 (2/3)
3
3g gl
(C) , cos–1 (2/3) (D) , sin–1 (2/3)
l 3
Q.6 A small body of mass m slides without friction from the top of a
h
hemispherical cup of radius r as shown in the following figure. If Q
it leaves the surface of the cup at a vertical distance 'h' below
the highest point, then-
(A) h = r (B) h = r/3 r
(C) h = r /2 (D) h = 2r /3
Q.7 Figure shows path followed by a particle and position of a particle at any instant. Four different students
have represented the velocity vectors and acceleration vectors at the given instant. Which vector diagram
can not be true in any situation? (In each figure velocity is tangential to the trajectory).

v 
trajectory of  
v ° v
v 0
particle  9
P >90°  >90°
90° a
particle at a a
 
given instant
 a
Sita a Ram Shyam
Gita
(A) Sita (B) Gita (C) Ram (D) Shyam
Q.8 Tangential acceleration of a particle moving in a circle of radius 1 m varies with
time t as (initial velocity of particle is zero). Time after which total acceleration of
particle makes an angle of 30° with radial acceleration is
(A) 4 sec (B) 4/3 sec
(C) 22/3 sec (D) 2 sec
Q.9 A long horizontal rod has a bead which can slide along its length, and initially placed at a distance L from
one end of A of the rod. The rod is set in angular motion about A with constant angular acceleration. If
the coefficient of friction between the rod and the bead is  and gravity is neglected, then the time after
which the bead starts slipping is

  1
(A) (B) (C)  (D) infinitesimal
 
Q.10 A particle is moving along the circle x2 + y2 = a2 in anticlockwise direction. The x–y plane is a rough
horizontal stationary surface. At the point (a cos, a sin), the unit vector in the direction of friction on the
particle is:
(A) cos  î  sin  ˆj  
(B)  cos  î  sin  ˆj (C) sin  î  cos  ˆj (D) cos  î  sin  ˆj

CIRCULAR MOTION [41]

Q.11 A pendulum of length  = 1 m is released from 0 = 60º. The rate of change of speed of the bob
at  = 30º is: (g = 10 m/s2)

60º

(A) 5 3 m / s2 (B) 5 m/s2 (C) 10 m/s2 (D) 2.5 m/s2

Q.12 A particle is moving in a circle of radius 1 m with speed varying with time as v = (2t) m/s. In first
2 sec:
(A) distance travelled by the particle is 4 m (B) displacement of the particle is 2 sin 2
(C) average speed of the particle is 2 m/s (D) average velocity of the particle is zero
Q.13 A particle suspended from a fixed point, by a light inextensible thread of length L is projected
7gL
horizontally from its lowest position with velocity . The thread will slack after swinging
2
through an angle , such that  equal
(A) 30º (B) 135º (C) 120º (D) 150º
Q.14 A particle of mass m attached to a string of length  is describing circular motion on a smooth
plane inclined at an angle  with the horizontal. For the particle to reach the highest point, its
velocity at the lowest point should exceed:
(A) 5g (B) 5g(cos   1) (C) 5g  tan  (D) 5g  sin 

Q.15 A particle is projected with a speed u at an angle  with the horizontal. Consider a small part of
its path near the highest position and take it approximately to be a circular arc. What is the radius
of this circle ? This radius is called the radius of curvature of the curve at the point :
u2 sin2  u2 cos 2  u 2 tan 2  u2
(A) g
(B) g
(C) g
(D) g

EXERCISE-III
Q.1 The coordinates of a moving particle at any time ‘t’ are given by x = t3 and y = t3 . The speed of the
particle at time ‘t’ is given by – [AIEEE-2003]
(A) 3t 2  2   2 (B) t 2  2   2 (C)  2   2 (D) 3t  2   2

Q.2 Which of the following statements is FALSE for a particle moving in a circle with a constant angular
speed ? [AIEEE-2004]
(A) The velocity vector is tangent to the circle
(B) The acceleration vector is tangent to the circle
(C) The acceleration vector ponits to the centre of the circle
(D) The velocity and acceleration vectors and perpendicular to each other
Q.3 A particle is acted upon by a force of constant magnitude which is always perpendicular to the velocity
of the particle, the motion of the particle takes place in a plane. It follows that – [AIEEE-2004]
(A) Its velocity is constant (B) Its acceleration is constant
(C) Its kinetic energy is constant (D) It moves in a straight line

CIRCULAR MOTION [42]

 THEORY
WORK POWER ENERGY

AIEEE SYLLABUS
Work done by a constant force and a variable force; kinetic and potential energies, work-energy theorem,
power, Potential energy of a spring, conservation of mechanical energy, conservative and non-conservative
forces.

INTRODUCTION :

WORK :
When we say 'work' in physics it is different from word 'work' we use in daily life. Work done by force

F is defined as
 
dW = F·dS ,

There are two interpretations of d s :

(1) If the body is moving as a complete unit, d s is the displacement of the body e.g. The earth moves as a

unit. Each point has same displacement. So d s is displacement of earth.


(2) If the different points of body have different displacement, ds is the displacement of point of application

of force. In the example above displacement of different parts of our body are different. So d s is
displacement of point of contact i.e. the foot in contact with the ground. So we can say clearly that work
by earth on us is also zero.

SOME IMPORTANT POINTS :

1. Work is a scalar quantity.

2. Unit of work : There are two types of units of work

(a) Absolute unit :
Joule (in M.K.S.) ,
erg (in C.G.S.) (NOTE : 107 erg = 1 Joule)
(b) Gravitational unit :
Kilogram - metre (in M.K.S.),
Gram-cm (in C.G.S.)
[NOTE: 1 kilogram metre = 9.8 Joule
= 105 gram cm]
3. Nature of work done :
Although work done is a scalar quantity, yet its value may be positive , negative or even zero.
 
(a) Positive work : As W = F . r = F r cos 
 When  is acute (< 90º), cos  is positive.
Hence work done is positive.

WORK, POWER & ENERGY [43]

 For example :
When a body falls freely under the action of gravity  = 0º, cos  = + 1, therefore work done by
gravity on a body, falling freely is positive.
(b) Negative work : When  is obtuse (>90º), cos  is negative. Hence work done is negative
For example :
(i) When a body is through up , its motion is opposed by gravity. The angle  between the gravitational
 
force F and displacement r is 180º. As cos  = –1, therefore, work done by gravity is negative.
(c) Zero work :
 
When force F or the displacement r or both are zero , work done W, will be zero. Again
 
when angle  between F and r is 90º, the work done will be zero.
For example :
(i) When we fail to move a heavy stone, however hard we may try, work done by us is zero, because

r = 0.
(ii) When a coolie carrying some load on his head moves on horizontal platform ,  = 90º. Therefore,
work done by the coolie is zero.
(iii) When a body tied to a string is rotated in a circle , the work done by the centripetal force applied
along the string is zero. This is because  = 90º.
(iv) Tension in the string of simple pendulum is always perpendicular to displacement of the bob.
Therefore, work done by tension is always zero.
NOTE : Another way of expressing negative or positive work is that when energy is transferred to the
object work done is positive and when energy is transferred from object the work done is negative
and hence the work which is a transfer of energy has same dimension as energy.
4. Work depends on reference frame because displacement is relative. (Remember force is not dependent
on reference frame)
5. Work is defined for an interval or displacement there is no term like instantaneous work similar to
instantaneous velocity.
6. For a particular displacement work done by a force is independent of type of motion i.e. whether it
moves with constant velocity, constant acceleration or retardation etc.
7. For a particular displacement work is independent of time. Work will be same for same displacement
whether the time taken is small or large.
8. When several forces acts, work done by a force for a particular displacement is independent of other
forces.
9. A force is independent from reference frame its displacement depends on frame so work done by a
force is frame dependent so work done by a force can be different in different reference frame.
10. Effect of work is change in K.E.
11. Work is done by the source or agent that applies the force.

WORK, POWER & ENERGY [44]

Calculation of work :
Case I :
When Force is uniform
 
dW = F·dS
   
W =  dW =  F·dS = F ·  dS

W = F·S (This is true only for constant forces)
F(Scos) = (Fcos)S
W=
Component of S along F Component of F along S

Frictional work : Some important points :

1. Work done by static friction force can be positive negative or zero.
2. Work done by static friction acting with in the system is zero on the system in all reference frame
3. Work done by Kinetic friction force can be positive, negative or zero.
4. Work done by Kinetic friction acting with in the system is always negative on the system

Case II :
When Force is variable (either magnitude or direction) :
If the force applied on a body is changing its direction or magnitude or both , the force is said
to be variable.
    
dW = F·dS  W =  F·dS ( F cannot come out of integral since it is varying)

SPRING FORCE :
Natural length of spring is l0.
Similarly, when we compress spring by x1 from natural length,
then work done by spring force.

F  kx î

dS  (dx )(  î ) {dx is +ve as x is increasing}
 
dW = F·dS
x1
1
 dW = – 0 kx dx = – 2 k x1
2

ENERGY :
(a) The energy of a body is defined as the capacity of doing work.
(b) There are various forms of energy
(i) Mechanical energy (ii) Chemical energy
(iii) Electrical energy (iv) Magnetic energy
(v) Nuclear energy (vi) Sound energy (vii) Light energy etc
(c) Energy of system always remain constant it can neither be created nor it can be distroyed however
it may
be converted from one form to another.

WORK, POWER & ENERGY [45]

Ex.
Electric energy   Mechanical energy
Motor

Mechanical energy   Electrical energy

Generator

Light energy    Electrical
Photocell
 energy
Electrical energy   Heat energy
Heater

Electrical energy  
Radio
 Sound energy
Nuclear energy Nuclear
 Electrical energy
Re actor

Chemical energy Cell

 Electrical energy Electrical energy Secondary
  Chemical energy
Cell

Heat energy Incendence

  nt lamp
 Light

(d) Energy is a scalar quantity
(e) Unit : Its unit is same as that of work or torque.
In MKS : Joule , Watt sec
In CGS : Erg
NOTE : 1eV = 1.6 x 10-19 Joule
1KWh = 36 x 105 Joule
107 erg = 1 Joule
(i) In mechanics we are concerned with mechanical energy only which is of two type
(a) Kinetic energy (b) Potential energy
KINETIC ENERGY :
(a) The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is called kinetic energy
(b) If a body of mass m is moving with velocity v, its kinetic energy

1
K.E = mv2 , for translatory motion
2

(c) Kinetic energy is always positive

p2 1
(d) If linear momentum of body is p, K.E = = mv2 = for translatory motion.
2m 2

(e) (i) The kinetic energy of a moving body is measured by the amount of work which has been
done in bringing the body from the rest position to its present moving position or
(ii) The kinetic energy of a moving body is measured by the amount of work which the body
can do against the external forces before it comes to rest.

(f) If a body performs translatory and rotational motion simultaneously, its total kinetic energy
1 1 2
= mv2 + I
2 2

WORK, POWER & ENERGY [46]

Work–Energy Theorem :

Derivation:
 
For a particle F = ma

  dV 
 F·dS = m ·dS
dt
fv
   
Work Done by resultant Force = F dS = m  v dv
  vi

  1 2 1 2
Summation of work done by all the forces =  (  F·dS) = mv f  mv i
2 2
W = kf – ki

i.e. Sum of work done by all the forces on a particle is equal to change in kinetic energy of the particle
So the kinetic energy of a particle is equal to the total work that was done to accelerate it from rest to its
present speed.
The kinetic energy of a particle is equal to the total work that particle can do in the process of being
brought to rest. This is why you pull your hand and arm backward when you catch a ball. As the ball
comes to rest, it does an amount of work (force times distance) on your hand equal to the ball's initial
kinetic energy. By pulling your hand back, you maximize the distance over which the force acts and so
minimize the force on your hand.

Applying Work Energy theorem on system

While using Work Energy Theorem for a system or applying work energy equation on many particles
together we must remember that work due to all the forces (external & internal) must be written.
Otherwise use this equation seperately on individual particles. (Although total work done by static
friction, tension and normal contact force i.e. by action and reaction on a system will always be
zero.)
NATURE OF FORCES :
[1] Conservative forces: Forces for which calculation of work is
independent of path taken by body. e.g. gravity, spring.

In this case work done by force of gravity is same for taking body from A to B by any path (You can
show it mathematically)
* In conservative forces total work done for around closed path = 0
[2] Non–conservative forces: Forces for which calculation of work depends on path not just on initial and
final position eg. friction.
WfI = –mgl
WfII = –mg(3l)

POTENTIAL ENERGY :
(a) The energy which a body has by virtue of its position or configuration in a conservative force field.
(b) Potential energy is a relative quantity.
It can be defined only for conservative forces.

Definition : It is defined as negative of work done by conservative forces


Formula: F represents force for which we are writing potential energy

WORK, POWER & ENERGY [47]

  
dU = – F·dS
2   2 2
 
 = –  ·dS
dU F thus U2 – U1 = –  ·dS
F
1 1 1

Impotant Points for P.E. :

1. Potential energy can be positive or negative.
2. Potential energy depends on frame of reference but change in potential energy is independent of
reference frame.
3. It is a function of positions and does not depend on the path.

Gravitational Potential Energy :

h
ˆ ˆ
U2 – U1 =   mg (  j)dh ( j)
0
U2 – U1 = mgh
U3 – U1 = –mgh(similarly)

SPRING Potential Energy :

In case of spring natural length of spring is assumed to be reference point and always assigned zero
potential energy (This is a universal assumption). In gravity we can take any point as reference and
assign it any value of potential energy.
f
 
Uf – Ui = –  ·dS
F
i

xi

Uf – 0 =   kx ( î )(dx )î
o

1
U= kx 2
2 1
for compression
f xi
 
Uf – Ui = –  F·dS =   kx î (dx )( î )
i o

1 2
U= kx
2
1 2
Thus if spring is either stretched or compressed from natural length by x the potential energy is kx .
2
Emphasise that for solving problems of spring always measure distances from nature length.

WORK, POWER & ENERGY [48]

Relationship between conservative force field and potential energy (U) :

   U U U 
F  U = – grad ( U)    î  ĵ  k̂
 x y z 
Different positions of a particle :
Position of equilibrium :

 A
U Q
S E
B
C D
A
P1 P2
P R
O x

If net force acting on a body is zero, it is said to be in equilibrium. For equilibrium

dU
= 0. Points P , Q , R and S are the states of equilibrium positions.
dx
Types of equilibrium :
(a) Stable equilibrium :
When a particle is displaced slightly from a position and a force acting on it brings it back to the
initial position, it is said to be in stable equilibrium position.
dU d2U
Necessary conditions: – = 0, = +ve
dx dx2
(b) Unstable Equilibrium :
When a particle is displaced slightly from a position and force acting on it tries to displace the
particle further away from the equilibrium position, it is said to be in unstable equilibrium.
dU d2U
Condition : = 0 potential energy is max i.e. = = –ve
dx dx2
(c) Neutral equilibrium : In the neutral equilibrium potential energy is constant .When a particle is
displaced from its position it does not experience any force to acting on it and continues to be in
equilibrium in the displaced position, it is said to be in neutral equilibrium.
d 2U
i.e. < 0  maxima unstable equilibrium
dx 2
F

•x x
1 x2

x1 is unstable & x2 is stable.

Mechanical Energy :
Definition:
Mechanical energy ‘E’ of a particle, object or system is defined as the sum of kinetic energy ‘K’ and
potential energy ‘U’, i.e.,
E=K+U
WORK, POWER & ENERGY [49]
Impotant Points for M.E.:
1. It is a scalar having dimensions [ML2T-2] and SI units joule.
2. It depends on frame of reference.
3. A body can have mechanical energy without having either kinetic energy or potential energy. However,
if both kinetic and potential energies are zero, mechanical energy will be zero. The converse may or may
not be true, i.e., if E = 0 either both PE and KE are zero or PE negative and KE positive such that KE
+ PE = 0.
4. As mechanical energy E = K + U, i.e., E - U = K. Now as K is always positive, E - U  0,i.e., for
existence of a particle in the field, E  U.
5. As mechanical energy E = K + U and K is always positive, so, if ‘U’ is positive ‘E’ will be positive.
However, if potential energy U is negative, ‘E’ will be positive if K > |U| and E will be negative if K < |U|

POWER :
Rate of doing work is called power delivered by the force.
W total work
Poweravg = = total time
t

dW d    dS  
Powerinst = = ( F·dS) = F· = F·V
dt dt dt
   
P = (| F | cos ) | V | = (comp. of F along V )·Speed

VERTICAL CIRCULAR MOTION:

This is the best example of non-uniform circular motion.
When the body rises from the bottom to the height h apart of its kinetic energy converts into
potential energy
Total mechanical energy remains conserved
Total (P.E. + K.E.) at A = Total (P.E. + K.E.) at P
1 1
 0 + mu2 = mgh + mv2
2 2
 v = u2  2gh = u 2  2g(1  cos )

[Where  is length of the string]

Tension at a point P :
mv 2
(i) At point P required centripetal force =

(a) Net force towards the centre :
T – mg cos , which provides required centripetal force.
mv 2
 T – mg cos  =

v2 m
T = m [ g cos  + ]= [u2 – gl (2 – 3cos )]
 
(ii) Results :
B

U
A
(a) Tension at the lowest point A :
mvA2
TA = + mg

(Here  = 0º)

WORK, POWER & ENERGY [50]

 mu2
TA = + mg

(b) Tension at point B :
mv B 2
TB = – mg


mu2
TB = – 5mg ( = 180º)

(c) Tension at point C :
mu2
TC = – 2mg (Here  = 90º)

Thus we conclude that
TA > TC > TB
and also TA – TB = 6 mg
TA – TC = 3 mg
TC – TB = 3 mg
(iii) Cases :
(a) If u < 2g
The velocity of particle remains zero between A and C but tension will not be zero and the particle
will oscillate about the point A.
(b) If u = 2g
In this case both velocity and tension in the string becomes zero between A and C and particle
will oscillate along semi-circular path.
(c) If 2g < u < 5g
In this case particle will not follow circular motion. Tension in string becomes zero somewhere
between points C & B whereas velocity remain positive. Particle leaves circular path and follow
parabolic trajectory

(d) Critical Velocity :

The minimum velocity at which the circular motion is possible
The critical velocity at A = 5g
The critical velocity at B = g
The critical velocity at C = 3g
Also TA = 6 mg, TB = 0, TC = 3 mg
(e) If u = 5g
In this case the tension at the top most point (B) will be zero, which implies that the particle will
just complete the circular motion.
(f) If u > 5g
In this case tension in the string will not be zero at any of the point, which implies that the particle
will continue the circular motion.

WORK, POWER & ENERGY [51]

 EXERCISE-I

Q.1 Work done in time t on a body of mass m which is accelerated from rest to a speed  in time t1
as a function of time t is given by-
2
1   2 1 F m I 1 2
(A) m t2 (B) m t (C) m GH t JK t2 (D) m 2 t2
2 t t1 2 1 2 t1
1

Q.2 A particle moves under the effect of a force F = k x from x = 0 to x = x1. The work done in
the process is-
1
(A) k x12 (B) k x 12 (C) k x13 (D) zero.
2

Q.3 A force F = (3x i + 4 j ) Newton (where x is in metres) acts on a particle which moves from a
position (2m, 3m) to (3m, 0m). Then the work done is
(A) 7.5J (B) –12J (C) –4.5 J (D) +4.5 J

Q.4 A force F = 2 i – 3 j + 7 k (N) acts on a particle which undergoes a displacement

r = 7 i + 3 j – 2 k (M). Calculate the work done by the force
(A) 37 J (B) –9 J (C) 49 J (D) 14 J
Q.5 If a man increases his speed by 2 m/sec, his K.E. is doubled. The original speed of the man is-
(A) (2 + 2 ) m/s (B) (2 + 2 2 ) m/s
(C) 4 m/s (D) (1 + 2 ) m/s

Q.6 _______ of a two particle system depends only on the separation between the two particles. The
most appropriate choice for the blank space in the above sentence is
(A) kinetic energy (B) total mechanical energy
(C) potential energy (D) total energy
Q.7 The principle of conservation of energy implies that-
(A) the total mechanical energy is conserved.
(B) the total kinetic energy is conserved
(C) the total potential energy is conserved.
(D) sum of all types of energies is conserved.
Q.8 There will be an increase in potential energy of the system if work is done upon the system by-
(A) any conservation or non-conservation forces
(B) a non-conservative force
(C) a conservation force
(D) none of the above
Q.9 The work done by the external forces on a system equals the change in
(A) total energy (B) kinetic energy (C) potential energy (D) none of these
Q.10 The work done by all the forces ( external and internal) on a system equals the change in
(A) total energy (B) kinetic energy (C) potential energy (D) none of these

WORK, POWER & ENERGY [52]

Q.11 The total work done on a particle is equal to the change in its kinetic energy :-
(A) Always (B) Only if the forces acting on it are conservative
(C) Only if gravitational force alone acts on it (D) Only if elastic force alone acts on it
Q.12 If a number of force act on a body and the body is in static or dynamic equilibrium, then
(A) work done by individual forces must be zero
(B) net work done is +ve
(C) net work done is –ve
(D) net work done is zero

Q.13 The kinetic energy K of a particle moving in a straight line depends upon the distance s as
K = as2
The force acting on the particle is
(A) 2as (B) 2mas (C) 2a (D) as 2
Q.14 A mass M is lying at O. What is the work done in raising it from O to P?
Y

P
y
 Horizontal
X
(A) Mgy sin  (B) Mgy cos  (C) Mgy (D) none of these
Q.15 Velocity-time graph of a particle moving in a straight line is as shown in v(m/s)
10
figure. Mass of the particle is 2 kg. Work done by all the forces acting
on the particle in time interval between t = 0 to t = 10 s is :- 10 t(s)
(A) 300 J
(B) – 300 J –20
(C) 400 J
(D) – 400 J
EXERCISE-II
Q.1 A running man has half the kinetic energy that a boy of half his mass has. The man speeds up by
1.0 meter/sec and then has the same kinetic energy as the boy. What were the original speeds of
man and boy ?
(A) 2.4 m/sec, 4.8m/sec (B) 4.8m/sec, 2.4m/sec
(C) 4.2 m/sec, 8.4m/sec (D) 8.4m/sec, 4.2m/sec
Q.2 A chain of mass m and length  is placed on a table with one-sixth of it hanging freely from the
table edge. The amount of work done to pull the chain on the table is
(A) mgl/4 (B) mgl/6 (C) mgl/72 (D) mgl/36
Q.3 From a waterfall, water is pouring down at the rate of 100kg per second on the blades of turbine.
If the height of the fall is 100m, the power delivered to the turbine is approximately equal to
(A) 100 kW (B) 10kW (C) 1 kW (D) 100W
Q.4 A locomotive of mass m starts moving so that its velocity varies according to the law
v = k s where k is constant and s is the distance covered. Find the total work performed by all
the forces which are acting on the locomotive during the first t seconds after the beginning of
motion.
1 1 2 42 1 1
(A) W = mk4t2. (B) W = m k t (C) W = mk4t4 (D) W = mk4t4
8 4 4 8

WORK, POWER & ENERGY [53]

Q.5 A spring is held compressed. Its stored energy is 2.4 joule. Its ends are in contact with masses
of 1gm and 48gm placed on a smooth horizontal surface. When the spring is released, the mass
of 48gm will acquire a velocity of-
2.40 24  49 10 10 4
(A) m/s (B) m/s (C) m/s (D) m/s
149 48 7 7

Q.6 A block of mass m slips down an inclined plane as shown in the figure. When it reaches the bottom
it presses the spring by a length (spring length <<h and spring constant = K)-
(A) (2mgh/K)1/2 m
(B) (mgh/K) 1/2
s
1/2 h
(C) (2gh/mK) K

(D) (gh/mK)1/2

Q.7 A light rod of length  is pivoted at the upper end. Two masses (each m), are attached to the rod,
one at the middle and the other at the free end. What horizontal velocity must be imparted to the
lower end mass, so that the rod may just take up the horizontal position ?
(A) 6g /5
/2
(B) g /5
 m
(C) 12 g / 5

(D) 2g /5 m v0

Q.8 The speed at the final vertical position B of the bob of simple pendulum, when the bob is released
from initial position A from rest is (g = 10 m/s2)
(A) 14 m/s
37°
(B) 12 m/s 4m
(C) 4 m/s A

(D) 6 m/s B

Q.9 The given graph represents the variations of force acting on a particle (starts from rest) of mass 2 kg as a
function of time, then the kinetic energy of the particle is

f (N)
20

10

0 1 2 3 4
t (s)

(A) 200 J (B) 400 J (C) 800 J (D) 1600 J

Q.10 A block of mass m is hung vertically from an elastic thread of force constant mg/a. Initially the thread was
at its natural length and the block is allowed to fall freely. The kinetic energy of the block when it passes
through the equilibrium position will be :
(A) mga (B) mga/2 (C) zero (D) 2mga

WORK, POWER & ENERGY [54]

Q.11 A rope of length l and mass ‘m’ is connected to a chain of length l and
mass 2m and hung vertically as shown in figure. What is the change in
gravitational potential energy if the system is inverted and hung from
same point.
(A) mg
(B) 4mg
(C) 3mg
(D) 2mg

Q.12 The work done by the force F  x 2 î  y 2 ˆj around the path shown in the figure is
2 3 4 3
(A) a (B) zero (C) a3 (D) a
3 3

Q.13 A particle is released from rest at origin. It moves under influence of potential field U = x2 – 3x , kinetic
energy at x = 2 is
(A) 2 J (B) 1 J (C) 1.5 J (D) 0 J
Q.14 Statement-1 : Work done in moving a body in non-uniform circular motion is zero.
Statement-2 : The centripetal force always acts along the radius of the circle.
(A) If both Statement- 1 and Statement-2 are true, and Statement - 2 is the correct explanation of
Statement– 1.
(B) If both Statement - 1 and Statement -2 are true but Statement - 2 is not the correct explanation of
Statement – 1.
(C) If Statement - 1 is true but Statement - 2 is false.
(D) If Statement - 1 is false but Statement - 2 is true.
Q.15 Statement-1 : Both stretched and compressed springs possess potential energy.
Statement-2 : Work done against restoring force is stored as potential energy.
(A) If both Statement- 1 and Statement-2 are true, and Statement - 2 is the correct explanation of
Statement– 1.
(B) If both Statement - 1 and Statement -2 are true but Statement - 2 is not the correct explanation of
Statement – 1.
(C) If Statement - 1 is true but Statement - 2 is false.
(D) If Statement - 1 is false but Statement - 2 is true.

EXERCISE-III

Q.1 A spring of force constant 800 N/m has an extension of 5 cm. The work done in extending it from 5 cm
to 15 cm is – [AIEEE-2002]
(A) 16 J (B) 8 J (C) 32 J (D) 24 J
Q.2 A spring of spring constant 5 × 103 N/m is stretched initially by 5 cm from the unstretched position. Then
the work required to stretch it further by another 5 cm is – [AIEEE-2003]
(A) 18.75 N-m (B) 25.00 N-m (C) 6.25 N-m (D) 12.50 N-m
Q.3 A uniform chain of length 2 m is kept on a table such that a length of 60 cm hangs freely from the edge of
the table. The total of the chain is 4 kg. What is the work done in pulling the entire chain on the table–
[AIEEE-2004]
(A) 7.2 J (B) 3.6 J (C) 120 J (D) 1200 J

WORK, POWER & ENERGY [55]

    
Q.4 A force F = (5 i + 3 j + 2 k ) N is applied over a particle which displaces it from its origin to the point
  
r= (2 i – j ) m. The work done on the particle in joules is – [AIEEE-2004]
(A) – 7 (B) + 7 (C) + 10 (D) + 13
Q.5 A body of mass m is accelerated uniformly from rest to a speed v in a time T. The instantaneous power
delivered to the body as a function of time is given by [AIEEE-2005]
mv 2 mv 2 1 mv 2 1 mv 2 2
(A) 2
.t (B) 2
.t2 (C) .t (D) .t
T T 2 T2 2 T2
Q.6 A mass of M kg is suspended by a weightless string. The horizontal force that is required to displace it
until the string makes an angle of 45º with the initial vertical direction is – [AIEEE 2006]
Mg
(A) (B) Mg ( 2 –1) (C) Mg ( 2 +1) (D) Mg 2
2
Q.7 A particle of mass 100 g is thrown vertically upwards with a speed of 5 m/s. The work done by the force
of gravity during the time the particle goes up is – [AIEEE 2006]
(A) 1.25 J (B) 0.5 J (C) – 0.5 J (D) – 1.25 J

Q.8 A ball of mass 0.2 kg is thrown vertically upwards by applying a force by hand. If the hand moves 0.2 m
while applying the force and the ball goes upto 2 m height further, find the magnitude of the force.
Consider g = 10 m/s2. [AIEEE 2006]
(A) 20 N (B) 22 N (C) 4 N (D) 16 N

Q.9 The potential energy of a 1 kg particle free to move along the x-axis is given by
 x4 x2 
V(x) =  4  2  J.
 
The total mechanical energy of the particle is 2 J. Then, the maximum speed (in m/s) is –
[AIEEE 2006]
(A) 1/ 2 (B) 2 (C) 3/ 2 (D) 2

Q.10 A 2kg block slides on a horizontal floor with a speed of 4 m/s. It strikes a uncompressed spring,
and compresses it till the block is motionless. The kinetic friction force is 15 N and spring constant
is 10,000 N/m. The spring compresses by [AIEEE 2007]
(A) 5.5 cm (B) 2.5 cm (C) 11.0 cm (D) 8.5 cm

Q.11 An athlete in the olympic games covers a distance of 100 m in 10 s. His kinetic energy can be
estimated to be in the range [AIEEE 2008]
5 5
(A) 2 × 10 J – 3 × 10 J (B) 20,000 J – 50,000 J
(C) 2,000 J – 5,000 J (D) 200 J – 500 J

WORK, POWER & ENERGY [56]

 THEORY
CENTRE OF MASS, MOMENTUM & COLLISION
Syllabus in AIEEE :
Centre of mass of a two-particle system, Centre of mass of a rigid body;conservation of linear
momentum, Elastic and inelastic collisions in one and two dimensions.
INTRODUCTION :
Every physical system has associated with it a certain point whose motion characterises the motion
of the whole system. When the system moves under some external forces, then this point moves as
if the entire mass of the system is concentrated at this point and also the external force is applied at
this point for translational motion. This point is called the centre of mass of the system.
C.M. is an imaginary point, which may or may not be located on the system, and in many cases of
mechanics, whole mass can be assumed to be concentrated on it.
Centre of Mass of a System of 'N' Discrete Particles

Consider a system of N point masses m1, m2, m3, ................ mn whose position vectors from origin O
   
are given by r1 , r2 , r3 ,............... rn respectively. Then the position vector of centre of mass C of the
system is given by.
  
 m1r1  m 2 r2  ........  mn rn
rcm = m1  m 2  ........  m n
;
n

m r
i 1
i i

rcm = n

m i 1
i

n
1 

rcm =
M
m r
i 1
i i

 n 
 mi 
where M    is the total mass of the system.
 i 1 
If masses m1 , m2 , m3 .....are situated at (x1 , y1 , z1) , (x2 , y2, z2) ,
(x3 , y3 , z3)......, co-ordinate of centre of mass in the same reference are given by -
m1x1  m 2 x 2 ........... z dmx mi xi
XCM = m  m .............. = m =
1 2 i dm z
m y  m y ........... m y
1 1 2 2 z dmy i i
YCM = m  m .............. = m = z
1 2 dm i

m z  m z .......... m z
1 1 2 2 z dmz i i
ZCM = m  m .................. = m = z
1 2 dm i

Centre of Mass of a Continuous Mass Distribution :

For continuous mass distribution the centre of mass can be located by replacing summation sign with an
integral sign. Proper limits for the integral sign should be carefully evaluated.

x cm =
 x dm , y =
 y dm , z =
 z dm
cm cm
 dm  dm  dm
 dm = M (mass of the body)

CENTRE OF MASS, MOMENTUM & COLLISION [57]

  1 
rcm =
M  r dm .

where r is position vector of mass dm w.r.t. origin.
M is total mass of system.

Similarly xcm =  x dm , y   ydm and z cm   zdm

cm
M M M

Centre of mass of some common systems :

 A system of two point masses m1 r1 = m2 r2

The centre of mass lies closer to the heavier mass.

2. Rectangular plate (By symmetry)

b L
xc = yc =
2 2

3. A triangular plate (By qualitative argument)

h
yc =
3

4. A semi-circular ring

2R
yc = xc = O


5. A semi-circular disc

4R
yc = xc = O
3

6. A hemispherical shell

R
yc = xc = O
2

7. A solid hemisphere

3R
yc = xc = O
8

CENTRE OF MASS, MOMENTUM & COLLISION [58]

8. A circular cone (solid)

h
yc = xc = O
4

9. A circular cone (hollow)

h
h
yc = xc = O c.m.
3 yc

MOMENTUM
 
Momentum of a single particle P  mv
Momentum depends on reference frame as velocity is frame dependent.

Momentum of system : For a system consisting of particles of mass m1, m2, m3....
   
Psys  m1v1  m 2 v 2  m3 v3  ......
While adding momentum we should remember it is vector sum.
For eg.: Momentum of rotating fan as a system is zero. Since all three equidistant pts. of blades will
be having momentum at 120° and will add up to zero.
  
 m1 r1  m 2 r2  m 3 r3  .......
rC.M. 
m1  m 2  m 3  ........
differentiate above equation wrt time.
  
 m1v1  m 2 v 2  m 3 v 3  ......
Vcm 
m1  m 2  m 3  ......
If we multiply both sides by total mass
 
Psys  MVcm
FORCE ON A SYSTEM :
 
Fext = Ma cm
which can be written in terms of its components as
Fext , x = Ma cm , x Fext , y = Ma cm , y
and Fext ,z = Ma cm ,z
The overall translational motion of a system of particles can be analyzed using Newton’s laws as if all the
mass and the total external force were applied at that point.
PROBLEMS OF MOMENTUM CONSERVATION:
If a system is chosen such that net external force on it is zero.

then Fext = 0

dPsys 
 =0 also  a cm = 0
dt

 Psys is constant  vcm is constant
CENTRE OF MASS, MOMENTUM & COLLISION [59]
 If instead of energy we consider K.E, K.E = p2/2m a body cannot have momentum without-having
K.E and vice-versa.
Examples of conservation of linear momentum
(a) When a bullet fired from the gun : M – Mass of gun with man

V M m
v
m – mass of bullet Bullet
Gun


V – Velocity of gun (with respect to ground)

v – Velocity of bullet (with respect to ground)

The initial momentum of system = 0

 
The final momentum = m v + M V

   m  m
0 = m v + M V  v = – v  V= v
M M
 
The direction V is opposite to that of v

(b) (i) When a bullet of mass m with velocity v pierces into a wooden block of mass M
and gets embedded in it :
The block is free to move on frictionless surface. Now both, the bullet and block have same
velocity V, then
Momentum before collision = Momentum after collision
mv = (m + M ) V
mv m
 V
mM
m
1
Initial Kinetic Energy = mv2 = Ei v
2
v
1 m2 v 2
Final Kinetic Energy = = Ef
2 mM

Ef m
Ei
 < 1  Ef < Ei Some part of energy gets dissipated.
mM

(ii) When the bullet of mass m comes out after penetrating the block of mass M :
M
In this case, mv = MV + mv1 ...(1)
m m
1 1 1
Loss of energy = mv2 – ( MV2 + mv12 ) v v1
2 2 2

=¼Initial energy½–¼Final energy½ V

CENTRE OF MASS, MOMENTUM & COLLISION [60]

(c) (i) When a block of mass M is tied to a string of length l and a bullet of mass m strikes
to it with velocity v and gets embedded in it :
According to conservation of linear momentum

mv = (m + M) V
mv
 V = (m  M)

As bullet gets embedded in the block, so the collision is not elastic. There is loss of energy. Now
if the block rises to a height h, then
mgh = (1/2) (m + M)V2
(m  M) V 2
 h 2mg

(ii) If bullet moves out of the block

conserving mometum mv + 0 = mv1 + Mv2

m (v – v1) = Mv2 ....(1)

1 v2
conserving energy Mv22  Mgh M
2
m v m v1

v 2  2gh ...(2)

m 2 ( v  v 1 )2
n
From eq . (1) & eq . (2) n
m(v – v1) = M 2gh or h
2gM2

(d) If a stationary body breaks due to some interaction in three parts , out of which the first two parts,
move at right angles to each other with momenta p1 and p2 respectively, then the momenta of third
part is determined as follows :
According to law of conservation of momentum :
Along horizontal direction : p3 cos  = p1
Along vertical direction : p3 sin= p2
Magnitude of p3 = p12  p 22 and its, direction from horizontal ,

CENTRE OF MASS, MOMENTUM & COLLISION [61]

 p2 p2  
tan  = p  = tan –1  p 
1  1
p2
Direction of p3 , from the direction of motion of first part = [ + tan –1 p ] and that from the
1

direction motion second part

 p2
=[ + tan –1 p ]
2 1
System of variable mass

Lets consider a rocket experiencing external force F . From time t to t + t a mass of fuel m is

turned and expelled as gas with velocity u rel. to the rocket. (generally u is constant & is independent
of velocity of rocket).  
V+u
m m
m m  
 V + V
t V
 t + t

P( t ) = (M + m) V
     
P( t  t ) = M ( V  V ) + m (V  V  u )
  
P = P (t + t) – P ( t )
  
= P = M  V   m u
 
dP Lim M V  u  m 
= t  0  t  
dt   t  

dV  dm
=m +u
dt dt
 
Note : 1. u is defined +ve in direction of V , but generally it is opposite.
dm
2. represents rate of releasing mass (r).
dt
dm dm dm
=– or =–r
dt dt dt
dm
where represents rate of change of mass of rocket.
dt

dP 
= Fext
dt

 mdV  dm
Fext = – u
dt dt
COLLISION
When two bodies try to occupy same space at same time the event is called collision.
Assumptions:
(i) No external impulse is acting on the system
(ii) No friction is acting between colliding bodies.

CENTRE OF MASS, MOMENTUM & COLLISION [62]

(iii) Duration of collision is very-very small.
Thus when two bodies collide they apply only normal contact force on each other through point(s) of
contact.

Line of collision (L.O.C.)

Line along which normal contact force acts is called L.O.C.

L.O.C. is independent of direction of velocity of colliding bodies.

Collision is an event in which strong force acts between two or more bodies for a short time.
1. In a collision we consider situation before and after the collision. These terms refer to conditions when
interactive force between particles effectively becomes zero. The duration of collision is negligible as
compared to the time for which we observe the event.
2. In a collision effect of external non impulsive (e.g. gravity, friction) forces can be neglected because they
are very small compared to impulsive forces & time of collision is very small.
3. When two bodies collide, they exert force on each other through point of contact, perpendicular to the
plane of contact. The direction of force of interaction is line of collision.
4. In case of collision it the external impulsive forces are not acting in a direction, the total momentum of
system in that direction remains conserved
   
i.e. m1u  m 2 u 2  m1v1  m 2 v 2
5. After collision, only the components of velocity along line of collision changes, the  components of
velocity remain unaffected.
6. According to initial velocities and line of collision, collision is of two types :
(a) On the basis of line of impact
(i) Head-on collision : If the velocities of the particles are along the same line before and after
the collision.
(ii) Oblique collision : If the velocities of the particles are along different lines before and after
the collision.

u1  u 2 u1

Line of collision Line of collision

V1  V2 u2

(b) On the basis of energy :

(i) Elastic collision : In a collision if kinetic energy of system after collision is equal to kinetic energy of
system before collision, the collision is said to be elastic.
(ii) Inelastic collision : In a collision if kinetic energy after collision is not equal to kinetic energy before
collision, the collision is said to be inelastic.
(iii) Perfectly inelastic : If velocity of separation just after collision becomes zero then the collision is
perfectly inelastic.

CENTRE OF MASS, MOMENTUM & COLLISION [63]

 TYPES OF COLLISIONS

        
On the basis of direction : On the basis of conservation of kinetic energy:


               
One - dimensional collision Two dimensional collision Elastic- In-elastic- Perfectly inelastic
or or collision collision collision
Head on collision Oblique collision
or
Direction collision The collision , in which
The collision , in which the the particles move in A collision is said A collision is The collision , in
particles move along the same the same plane at to be elastic , if the said to be in- which particles gets
straight line before and after different angles before total kinetic energy elastic , if the sticked together
the collision, is defined as one and after collision , is before and after total kinetic after the collision ,
dimensional collision. defined as oblique - collision remains energy does is called perfectly
collsion. the smae not remains inelastic collision. In
constant this type of inelastic
collsion , lose of
LAWS OF COLLISION : energy is maximum.

1. Conservation of momentum :
   
m1v1  m 2 v 2  m1u1  m 2 u 2 (if impulsive forces in this direction are zero)
(This equation is generally written along line of collision)
2. Conservation of energy :
(i) Elastic collision : K.E.i = K.E.f
1 1 1 1
m1u12 + m2u22 = m1v12 + m2v22
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
(ii) inelastic collision : KE loss in KE =  m1u1  m 2 u 2    m1v1  m 2 v 2 
2 2  2 2 
3. Newton’s law for collision :
v 2  v1
(i) u 2  u1 = – e
v1 and v2 : Components of velocities of masses colliding, along the line of contact, after collision
(with sign).
u1 and u2 : Components of velocities of colliding masses, along the line of contact, before collision
(with sign)
(ii) This Law is valid even when momentum is not conserved :

(iii) For e = 1 perfectly elastic collision

for a < e < 1 inelastic collision
for e = 0 perfectly inelastic collision (Bodies will move together)
(iv) v2 – v1 = e(u1 – u2) u1 u2

1 2
v1 v2

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 Relative velocity of receding = e [Relative velocity of approach before impact.

Head-on Elastic collision

Before collision

before -ve +ve

collision u1 u2

Line of impact
after
collision
v1 v2

(i) Conserving momentum

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
(ii) Since collision is perpectly elastic
1 1 1 1
m1u12 + m2u22 = m1v12 + m2v22
2 2 2 2
(iii) Law of collision
v 2  v1
u 2  u1 = – 1 (with sign)

But actually only two equations are not trivial third depends on other equation.
Solving (i) & (iii)
2m 2 u 2 ( m1  m 2 ) u1
v1 = m  m + m  m
1 2 1 2

2m1u1 ( m 2  m1 ) u 2
v2 = m  m + ( m  m )
1 2 1 2

Cases 
(i) If m1 = m2 then
v1 = u2 ; v2 = u1
2 5

e.g. before
m m
A B

after
5 m m
2
A B
(ii) m1 = m2 & u2 = 0
v1 = 0 ; v2 = u1

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Head-on Inelastic collision

-ve +ve
u
1
u 2
before collision
m1 m2
Line of impact

after collision
v1 v2

1. Conserving momentum
m 1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2 ... (i)
v 2  v1
2. u 2  u1 = – e ... (ii)

From (i) & (ii)

( m1  em 2 ) u1 (1  e) m 2 u 2
v1 = m1  m 2 + m1  m 2

(1  e) m1 u1 ( m 2  em1 ) u 2
v2 = m1  m 2 + m1  m 2
3. Loss of energy in inelastic collision :

1  m1m 2 
Ek =   (u – u2)2 (1 – e)2
2  m1  m 2  1
Result :
1. I f e = 0 (perfectly inelastic collision)
m1u1  m 2 u 2
then v1 = v2 = m1  m 2

1  m1 m 2 
E =   (u – u )2
2  m1  m 2  1 2

2. if m1 >> m2 then
v1 ~ u1
v2 = (1 + e) u1 – eu2

(i) if m1 >> m2 (ii) if m1 >> m2

& u1 = 0 & u2 = 0
then v1 = 0 v1 = u1
but v2 = – eu2 but v2 = (1 + e)u1

eu
u
Earth (1)

CENTRE OF MASS, MOMENTUM & COLLISION [66]

Oblique elastic collision

In this case , both momentum and K.E. remains conserved. Momentum is a vector quantity and
it can be resolved into any tow perpendicular directions (say , x and y )
(a) Applying law of conservation of linear momentum :
along x axis : (px)b.c = (px)a.c
 m1u1 cos1 + m2u2 cos2
= m1v1 cos 1 + m2v2 cos 2 and
along y axis : (py)b.c = (py)a.c
 m1u1 sin 1 + m2u2 sin 2 = m1v1 sin1 + m2v2 sin2
(b) Applying law of conservation of KE. :
(K.E.)b.c = (K.E.)a.c
1 1 1 1
 m u2 + m u2 = m v2 + m v2
2 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2
If m1 = m2 and (1 +2) = 90º, 1 +2) = 90º. Which means, if , two particles of same mass
moving at right angles to each other collide elastically , after collision also they move at right angles
to each other.
If a body A collides elastically with another body B of same mass at rest at a glancing angle , then
after collision the two bodies move at right angles to each other i.e.   +  = 90°
Oblique collision :
(A) When line of collision is known (or can be known)
[Note : Impulse will be always along line of collision. So momentum will change only along line of
collision]
u1


 Line of collision

u2
Case (i) If one of them was at rest then after collision the body which was at rest will move in direction of line of
collision.
Case (ii) If two moving bodies collide obliquely but one of them continues to move in same direction as was
before colliding then that direction is direction of line of collision.
u1 u1 sin 


 Line of collision  u2 cos 
u1 sin 

u2
u2 sin 

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 so u1 sin  & u2 sin  will remain uncharged
u1cos u2cos

(can treat as head on collision)

u1sin 
v1
v2x

 v1x v2
u2sin 
Thus
u1 sin 
v1 = v1x 2  (u1 sin ) 2 and tan  
v1x
u 2 sin 
v2 = v 2 x 2  (u1 sin ) 2 and tan   v
2x
 +   angle of divergence
Oblique inelastic collision with ground
Coefficient of restitution = e m
u v
u sin  = v sin  …(1)
eu cos  = v cos  …(2)  
 v  u sin 2   e 2 cos 2 
tan 
tan  
e
If collision is elastic e = 1 m m
v=u u u

tan = tan  

=
Elastic collision

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 EXERCISE-I
Q.1 A body of mass m collides against a wall with the velocity  and rebounds with the same speed.
Its change of momentum is-
(A) 2 m (B) m (C) – m (D) 0
Q.2 The centre of mass of two particles lies
(A) on the line perpendicular to the line joining the particles
(B) on a point outside the line joining the particles
(C) on the line joining the particles.
(D) none of the above .
Q.3 Two particles A and B which are initially at rest move towards each other under the mutual force of
attraction. At the instant when the speed of A is v and the speed of B is 2v, the speed of the centre of
mass of the system is -
(A) v (B) 1.5v (C) 3v (D) zero
Q.4 Two particles whose masses are 10 kg and 30kg and their position vectors are i + j + k and
– i – j – k respectively would have the centre of mass at -
( î  ĵ  k̂ ) ( i  j  k ) ( i  j  k ) ( i  j  k )
(A) – (B) (C) – (D)
2 2 4 4
Q.5 Two balls A and B of masses 100gm and 250 gm respectively are connected by a stretched spring
of negligible mass and placed on a smooth table. When the balls are released simultaneously the
initial acceleration of B is 10 cm/sec2 west ward. What is the magnitude and direction of initial
acceleration of the ball A-
(A) 25 cm/sec2 Eastward (B) 25 cm/sec2 North ward
2
(C) 25 cm/sec West ward (D) 25 cm/sec2 South ward
Q.6 In an inelastic collision-
(A) momentum is conserved but kinetic energy is not
(B) momentum is not conserved but kinetic energy is conserved
(C) neighter momentum nor kinetic energy is conserved
(D) both the momentum and kinetic energy are conserved
Q.7 When two bodies collide eleastically, then
(A) kinetic energy of the system alone is conserved
(B) only momentum is conserved
(C) both energy and momentum are conserved
(D) neighter energy nor momentum is conserved
Q.8 Five identical elastic balls are so suspended with strings of equal length in a row that the distances
between adjacent balls are very small. If the extreme right ball is moved aside and released, then-
(A) one extreme left hand ball will bounce off.
(B) two extreme left hand balls will bounce off.
(C) three extreme left hand balls will bounce off
(D) all the left hand four balls will bounce off. 5 4 3 2 1

Q.9 A body of mass 'm' moving with a constant velocity V hits another body of the same mass moving
with the same velocity V but in the opposite direction and sticks to it. The velocity of the compound
body after collision is-
(A) V (B) 2V (C) V/2 (D) 0

CENTRE OF MASS, MOMENTUM & COLLISION [69]

Q.10 A body of mass 2kg moving with a velocity of 3m/sec towards left collides head-on with a body
of mass 3kg moving in opposite direction with a velocity 2m/sec. After collision the two bodies
stick to gether and move with a common velocity which is-
(A) 5m/sec towards left (B) 12 m/[Link] right
(C) 12/5 m/sec. towards left (D) zero
Q.11 A 1.0 kg ball is dropped vertically on a floor from a height of 25cm. It rebounds to a height of
4cm. The coefficient of restitution for the collision is-
(A) 0.16 (B) 0.32 (C) 0.40 (D) 0.56
Q.12 If one sphere collides head on with another sphere of the same mass at rest inelastically. The ratio
of their speeds after collision shall be-
(A) (1 – e)/(1 + e) (B) 2e/(1 + e) (C) (1 + e)/(1 – e) (D) e
Q.13 A ball of mass m moving with a speed u undergoes a head-on elastic collision with a ball of mass
nm initially at rest. The fraction of the incident energy transferred to the heavier ball is-
n n 2n 4n
(A) (B) (1  n) 2 (C) (1  n) 2 (D) (1  n) 2
1 n

Q.14 As shown in figure A, B and C are identical balls B and C are at rest and, the ball A moving with
velocity v collides elastically with ball B, then after collision:

(A) All the three balls move with velocity v/2

(B) A comes to rest and (B + C) moves with velocity v/ 2
(C) A moves with velocity v and (B + C) moves with velocity v
(D) A and B come to rest and C moves with velocity v

EXERCISE-II
Q.1 A boy is standing at the centre of a boat which is free to move on water. If the masses of the boy
and the boat are m1 and m2 respectively and the boy moves a distance of 1 m forward then the
movement of the boat is ...... metres
m1 m2 m1 m2
(A) m  m (B) m  m (C) m (D) m
1 2 1 2 2 1

Q.2 A particle of mass 3m is projected from the ground at some angle with horizontal. The horizontal range
is R. At the highest point of its path it breaks into two pieces m and 2m. The smaller mass comes to rest
and larger mass finally falls at a distance x from the point of projection where x is equal to
3R 3R 5R
(A) (B) (C) (D) 3R
4 2 4
Q.3 A bullet of mass m moving with velocity v1 strikes a suspended wooden block of mass M as shown
in the figure and sticks to it. If the block rises to a height y, the initial velocity of the bullet is -
mM
(A) v1 = 2gy
m
(B) v1= 2gy
Mm
(C) v1 = 2gy
M
m
(D) v1 = 2gy
mM

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Q.4 A bullet of mass m strikes a pendulum bob of mass M with velocity u. It passes through and
emerges out with a velocity u/2 from bob. The length of the pendulum is l. What should be the
minimum value of u if the pendulum bob will swing through a complete circle?
2M M 2M 1 M 1
(A) × 5g (B) 5g (C) × (D) ×
m 2m m 5g 2m 5g
Q.5 A ball is dropped from a height h on the ground. If the coefficient of restitution is e, the height to
whi ch the bal l goes up af ter i t rebounds for the nth time is.
e 2n h
(A) he2n (B) h en (C) (D)
h e 2n

Q.6 Three particles each of mass m are located at the vertices of an equilateral triangle ABC. They start
moving with equal speeds  each along the medians of the triangle and collide at its centroid G.
If after collision, A comes to rest and B retraces its path along GB, then C
(A) also comes to rest (B) moves with a speed  along CG
(C) moves with a speed  along BG (D) moves with a speed along AG
Q.7 A lead ball of mass 2 kg moving with a velocity of 1.5 ms-1 hits against a ball of mass 3 kg at
rest. If the second ball moves with a velocity of 1 ms-1 after the impact in the original direction
of motion of the first ball, the loss of K.E. due to impact is-
(A) 0.033 J (B) 0.75 J (C) 1.5 J (D) 2.25 J
Q.8 A man of mass m moves with a constant speed on a plank of mass 'M' and length 'L' kept initially
at rest on a frictionless horizontal surface, from one end to the other in time 't'. The speed of the
plank relative to ground while man is moving, is -
L M L m  L m 
(A)   (B)   (C)   (D) None of these
t m t Mm t Mm
Q.9 Centre of mass of two thin uniform rods of same length but made up of
different materials & kept as shown , can be, if the meeting point is the
origin of co-ordinates
(A) (L/2, L/2) (B) (2L/3, L/2)
(C) (L/3, L/3) (D) (L/3, L/6)

Question No.10 to 11(2 questions)

A uniform chain of length 2L is hanging in equilibrium position, if end B is given a
slightly downward displacement the imbalance causes an acceleration. Here pulley is
small and smooth & string is inextensible

Q.10 The acceleration of end B when it has been displaced by distance x, is

x 2x x
(A) g (B) g (C) g (D) g
L L 2
Q.11 The velocity v of the string when it slips out of the pulley (height of pulley from floor > 2L)
gL
(A) (B) 2gL (C) gL (D) none of these
2

CENTRE OF MASS, MOMENTUM & COLLISION [71]

Q.12 Three blocks are initially placed as shown in the figure. Block A has mass m and initial velocity v to the
right. Block B with mass m and block C with mass 4m are both initially at rest. Neglect friction. All
collisions are elastic. The final velocity of block A is

(A) 0.6v to the left (B) 1.4v to the left

(C) v to the left (D) 0.4v to the right
Q.13 A small bucket of mass M kg is attached to a long inextensible massless cord of length L . The bucket
is released from rest when the cord is in a horizontal position. At its lowest position, the bucket scoops
up m kg of water and swings up to a height h. The height h in meters is
2 2
 M   M  Mm Mm
(A)   L (B)  L (C)   L (D)  L
Mm Mm  M   M 
Q.14 Statement-1 : In an elastic collision of two billiards balls, the kinetic energy is not conserved during the
short interval of time of collision between the balls.
Statement-2 : Energy spent against friction does not follow the law of conservation of energy.
(A) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is correct explanation for statement-1.
(B) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is NOT the correct explanation for statement-1.
(C) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is false.
(D) Statement-1 is false, statement-2 is true.
Q.15 Statement-1 : The momentum of a particle cannot be changed without changing its kinetic energy.
p2
Statement-2 : Kinetic energy (K) of a particle is related to momentum (p) as K 
2m
(A) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is correct explanation for statement-1.
(B) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is NOT the correct explanation for statement-1.
(C) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is false.
(D) Statement-1 is false, statement-2 is true.

EXERCISE-III

Q.1 Two identical particles move towards each other with velocity 2v and v respectively. The velocity of
centre of mass is – [AIEEE-2002]
(A) v (B) v/3 (C) v/2 (D) zero
Q.2 Consider the following two statements:
A. Linear momentum of a system of particles is zero.
B. Kinetic energy of a system of particles is zero.
Then [AIEEE-2002]
(A) A implies B and B implies A (B) A implies B but B does not imply A
(C) A does not imply B but B implies A (D) A does not imply B and B does not imply A.
Q.3 A body A of mass M while falling vertically downwards under gravity breaks into two parts, a body B of
1 2
mass M and a body C of mass M. The centre of mass of bodies B and C taken together shifts
3 3
compared to that of body A towards [AIEEE-2005]
(A) depends on height of breaking (B) does not shift
(C) body C (D) body B

CENTRE OF MASS, MOMENTUM & COLLISION [72]

Q.4 The block of mass M moving on the frictionless horizontal surface collides with the spring of spring
constant K and compresses it by length L. The maximum momentum of the block after collision is
[AIEEE-2005]

KL2 ML2
(A) MK L (B) (C) zero (D)
2M K
Q.5 A mass 'm' moves with a velocity 'v' and collides inelastically with another identical mass. After collision
v
the Ist mass moves with velocity in a direction perpendicular to the initial direction of motion. Find
3
the speed of the 2nd mass after collision. [AIEEE-2005]

2 v
(A) v (B) 3 v (C) v (D)
3 3
Q.6 Consider a two particle system with particles having masses m1 and m2. If the first particle is pushed
towards the centre of mass through a distance d, by what distance should the second particle be moved,
so as to keep the centre of mass at the same position – [AIEEE 2006]
m1 m2 m1
(A) m d (B) d (C) m d (D) m  m d
2 1 1 2

Q.7 A block of mass 0.50 kg is moving with a speed of 2.00 ms–1 on a smooth surface. It strikes another
mass of 1.00 kg and then they move together as a single body. The energy loss during the collision is
[AIEEE 2008]
(A) 1.00 J (B) 0.67 J (C) 0.34 J (D) 0.16 J
Q.8 A thin rod of length ‘L’ is lying along the x-axis with its ends at x = 0 and x = L. Its linear density (mass/
n
x
length) varies with x as k   , where n can be zero or any positive number. If the position xCM of the
L
centre of mass of the rod is plotted against ‘n’, which of the following graphs best approximates the
dependence of xCM on n ? [AIEEE 2008]
xCM xCM xCM xCM

L L L
(A) L (B) L (C) L (D) L
2 2 2 2
n n n n
O O O O

CENTRE OF MASS, MOMENTUM & COLLISION [73]

Q.9 Consider a rubber ball freely falling froma height h = 4.9 m onto a horizontal elastic plate. Assume that
the duration of collision is negligible and the collision with the plate is totally elastic. Then the velocity as
a function of time the height as function of time wall be :- [AIEEE 2009]
v v
v1 +v1
(A) (B) O t
O t –v1

v v
+v1 +v1
(C) O t1 2t1 3t1 4t1 t (D) O t1 t
2t1 3t1 4t1
–v1 –v1

Q.10 Statement-1 : Two particles moving in, the same direction do not lose all their energy in a completely
inelastic collision. [AIEEE 2010]
Statement-2 : Principle of conservation of momentum holds true for all kinds of collisions.
(A) both Statement-1 and Statement-2 are true, and Statement-2 is the correct explanation of State-
ment-1.
(B) both Statement-1 and Statement-2 are true but Statement-2 is not the correct explanation of
Statement-1.
(C) Statement-1 is true but Statement-2 is false.
(D) Statement-1 is false but Statement-2 is true.
Q.11 The figure shows the position-time (x-t) graph of one-dimensional motion of a body of mass 0.4 kg.
The magnitude of each impulse is :- [AIEEE 2010]

2
x(m)

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
t(s)

(A) 0.4 Ns (B) 0.8 Ns (C) 1.6 Ns (D) 0.2 Ns

CENTRE OF MASS, MOMENTUM & COLLISION [74]

 THEORY

ROTATIONAL MOTION

Syllabus in AIEEE :
Basic concepts of rotational motion; moment of a force, torque, angular momentum, conservation of
angular momentum and its applications; moment of inertia, radius of gyration. Values of moments of
inertia, radius of gyration. Values of moments of inertia for simple geometrical object, parallel and
perpendicular axes theorems and their applications. Rigid body rotation, equations of rotational motion.

Rigid Body :
A body or an object or a system of particles in which the distance between any two particles of the
system does not change wrt time is known as rigid body.

Types of motion :
1. Translational  If all the particles have same velocity at any given time than it is translational motion.
Also rigid body moves parallel to itself in translational motion.

2. Pure Rotational A rigid body is said to be in pure rotation if every particle of the body moves in a
circle and the centres of all the circles lie on a straight lines called the axis of rotation.

3. Combined translation & rotational A general plane motion is a combination of translation and
rotation.

Angular displacement :
If a particle P rotates through an angle  than it is said that whole body rotated through angle , since all
particles will be rotating through angle .

P3 Q
P2 •Q
•

P1 •P
• P
 P1 P2 P3

  •Q
•  •Q 
  •
• • P
P –=

Conclusion : All the particles of a rigid body are undergoing circular motion simultaneously about a
common centre.

* For 2-d body common centre will be a point on axis of rotation

* For 3-d bodies all centre will lie on axis of rotation

Angular velocity :
In Rigid body all particles has undergone same angular displacements in same time so their angular
velocity  will be same about the axis of rotation. Thus  is angular velocity of Rigid body itself.

ROTATIONAL MOTION [75]

Angular acceleration :
d
By same argument as above, we can say that angular acceleration of all particles is  = & this is 
dt
of rigid body.
Relation between linear & angular variables
(A) Distance
Fixed at point O & rotated by an angle  r •
S1 = r1 (r is radius of circle in which a particular pt. is rotating)
S
S2 = r2 • 
r •
S3 = r3

Farther a point is situated, larger is its speed.

(B) Acceleration
OP = r at

dV
at = (rate of change of speed) •P
dt •O ar
=r (tangentially directed)
V2
ar =
r
2
=  r (directed towards centre)
Farther a particle is situated larger is its tangential and radial acceleration.
Equation of Linear Motion and Rotational Motion
Linear Motion Rotational Motion
(a) If acceleration is 0, v = constant and s = vt. (a) If acceleration is 0,  = constant and  = t.
(b) If acceleration a = constant, (b) If acceleration a = constant then
u  v  1  2 
(i) s = t (i)  = t
2 2

v u 2  1
(ii) a = (ii)  =
t t
(iii) v = u+ at (iii) 2 = 1 +  t
1
(iv) s = ut + (1/2) at2 (iv)  = 1t + t
2
(v) v2 = u2 +2as (v) = 12 + 2  
1
(vi) Snth = u + a (2n–1) (vi) nth = 1 + (2n – 1)
2
(c) If acceleration is not constant, the above (c) If acceleration is not constant, the above
equation will not be applicable. In this case equation will not be applicable. In this case
dx d
(i) v = (i)  = dt
dt

dv d2 x d d2 
(ii) a = = (ii)  = =
dt dt 2 dt dt 2
(iii) v dv = a ds (iii) d = d

ROTATIONAL MOTION [76]

ENERGY OF A RIGID BODY :
Gravitational P.E. :
U = mg hcm
U = m1gh1 + m2gh2 + m3gh3 + .........
U = (m1h1 + m2h2 + m3h3 + ........... ) g
 m1h1  m 2 h 2  m 3h 3  ......... 
U = m  m  m  m  ..............  g
 1 2 3 
= mhcm g

Kinetic energy :
1 1
Kinetic energy = m1v12 + m2v22 + .............
2 2
1 1
= m1 (r1)2 + m2 (r2)2 + ............
2 2
1
= (m1r12 + m2r22 + ............) 2
2
1 2
= I
2
( is angular velocity about fixed axis)
(m1r12 + m2r22 + ........ ) = I

MOMENT OF INERTIA :
Definition : Property of a rigid body by virtue of which it opposes change in its rotational velocity (angular
velocity) is known as MI.
* This is always written wrt a axis of rotation.
* This plays same role in rotational motion as mass plays in translational motion
* Difference between mass & MI is that mass is property of body & is independent of any reference
from choosen but MI depends on the
(i) axis of rotation
(ii) shape of the body
(iii) size of the body 
(iv) density of the material of the body  mass depends only on these two things
1. MI of a point mass :
y

Iyy = mr2 m
r •

y

r is perpendicular distance from mass to axis of rotation yy

y
2. MI for point mass distribution : r1
Where ri is  distance of Mi from axis of rotation yy r2 • m1
r3 • m2
r4 • m3
r5 • m4
2 2 2
then Iyy = m1r1 + m2r2 + m3r3 + ......... • m5
y

ROTATIONAL MOTION [77]

 y
3. For continuous mass distribution
Iyy =  . dm r 2 dm
r
where r is  distance of any element from axis of rotation.
y
Important point

1. MI of two or more than two bodies can be added or subtracted only when all MI are written w.r.t.
same axis.
2. Moment of inertia depends on the following factors.
(i) Mass of body
(ii) Mass distribution of body or shape, size, density of body.
(iii) On the position of axis of rotation.
3 The more is the distribution of mass with respect to axis of rotation the more will be moment of
inertia.
4 Moment of inertia does not depend on the following factors.
i Angular velocity ()
ii Angular Acceleration ()
iii Torque (  )
vi Angular Momentum (J)
4 Radius of Gyration - (K)
(a) The distance, from the axis of rotation where, the entire mass of the body is supposed to be
concentrated and the value of moment of inertia is same as that due to actual distribution of masses
of body, is called radius of gyration.
(b) The radius of gyration of a body about different axes is different
(c) If K be the radius of gyration, I = mK2
I
 K =
m

2 2 2
m1r1  m 2r2    mnrn
K = m1  m 2      mn

(d) For a symmetrical body, the radius of gyration is equal to the root mean square of distances of
all the particles from the axis of rotation.
or if, m1 = m2 = ----------- = mn
2 2 2
r1  r2      rn
K = = rrms
n
(e) The value of radius of gyration depends upon the axis of rotation and mass distribution with respect
to it
(f) Radius of gyration does not depend upon mass of body.
(c) The moment of inertia of two point masses about their centre of mass -
m1 m2
CM
r1 r2

ROTATIONAL MOTION [78]

 Let m1 and m2 be two masses distant r from each other and r1 and r2 be the distances of their
centre of mass from m1 to m2 respectively.
1. r1 + r2 = r
2. m 1r 1 = m 2 r 2

m 2r m1r
3. r1 = , r2 =
m1  m 2 m1  m 2

4. I = m 1 r1 2 + m 2 r2 2
 m1m 2 
5. I =  m  m  r2 = mr2
 1 2 

m1m 2
where m = m  m is known as reduced mass
1 2

m < m1 and m < m2

6. In Diatomic molecules like H2, HCl etc. moment of inertia about there center of mass is derived
from above formula.
Parallel-axis theorem :
Used to find moment of inertia about an axis which parallel to the axis passing through C.M.

x d a

CM

x' a'
2
IP = ICM + Md

ICM  MI of the rigid body about an axis through CM

IP  MI of the rigid body about an axis which is parallel to the above axis through CM & is at distance
d from the axis through CM

Theorem of perpendicular axis

Z
Y

O
X' Z' X
Y'

Iz = Ix + Iy
This theorem is applicable only for the laminar bodies (i.e. plane bodies). (e.g. ring, disc, not sphere)
Ix & Iy are MI of body about a common pt. O in two mutually  directions in the plane of body
Iz is MI of body about a axis  to X & Y axis & passing through point O

ROTATIONAL MOTION [79]

FORMULAE FOR THE MOMENT OF INERTIA OF REGULAR BODIES

Shape of Axis of Rotation Figure Moment of Radius of

body Inertia (I) Gyration (K)

(1) Circular Ring 1) Passes through the centre

MR2 R
and perpendicular to the plane
M:- Mass
R:- Radius

2) About its Diameter in its (1/2)MR2 R / 2

own plane

3) About a tangential axis 2MR2 2R

perpendicular to its own plane.

3 3
4) About a tangential axis MR2 .R
2 2
in its own plane

(2) Circular disc 1) Passing through the centre

R
MR 2
2
2
M:- Mass and perpendicular to the plane
R:- Radius
R
2) About Diameter MR2/4
2

3) About a tangential axis 5 5

MR2 R
lying in its own plane. 4 2

4) About a tangential axis

3 3
Perpendicular to its own plane MR2 .R
2 2

ROTATIONAL MOTION [80]

3) Hollow Cylinder a) about its geometrical axis
MR2 R
M = Mass
l
R = Radius
L = Length
b) about an axis passing
2
through its CM and
F MR M 2 I R2  2
GH 2  JK 
perpendicular to its length 12 2 12
CM
l

c) about an axis
2
perpendicular to its length F MR M 2 I R2  2
GH 2  JK 
and passing through one 3 2 3
end of the cylinder
l

(4) Solid Cylinder A) About its geometrical

M:- Mass Axis R
MR2
R:- Radius
C 2 2
L:- Length

B) About an axis passing

MR2 M 2 R2  2
through its [Link]  
4 12 4 12
C
Perpendicular to its axis
l

C) About the diameter of one 2

LR 2 OP R2  2
of the faces of the cylinder MM 4  
MN 3 PQ 2 3
and perpendicular to the
length .

(5) Annular disk A) Passing through centre

M R12  R 22
and perpendicular to the plane [R 2 + R22]
2 1 2
R1
R1
R2
R2

M:- Mass,
R1 : Internal Radius B) About its diameter M[R12  R22 ] R12  R 22
R2 : Outer Radius R1 R2
4 2

ROTATIONAL MOTION [81]

(6) Hollow Cylinder 1) About geometrical Axis
or about the Axis which is
M(R12  R22 ) R12  R 22
R1 : Internal Radius passing through centre R1 R2
2 2
R2 :- Outer Radius
M :- Mass
L :- Length.
2) Passing through centre 2 2 2
of mass and perpendicular
LL (R  R )OP
1 2 L2 R12  R22
M M12  4 
CM MN PQ 12 4
to its length

(7) Solid Sphere A) About its axis OR

diameter, which is passing 2 2
MR2 .R
5 5
M:- Mass through centre.
R:- Radius

B) About Tangential
7 7
MR2 .R
5 5

(8) Thin Spherical 1) Passing through axis

Shell or diameter. 2 2
MR2 .R
3 3

(Hollow Sphere) 2) About Tangential Axis 5 5

MR2 .R
M : Mass R : Radius 3 3
Thickness negligible

(9) Solid sphere with About passing through 5 5

2 [R  r ] 2 (R5  r 5 )
cavity centre OR about diameter M 3
5 [R  r 3 ] 5 (R3  r 3 )
Internal radius = r
Outer Radius = R
Mass :- M

ROTATIONAL MOTION [82]

 TORQUE
Introduction :

The quantitative measure of the tendency of a force to cause or change the rotational motion of a body
is called torque.
As we can observe that this tendency not only depends on the magnitude of force but also on the 
distance between line of action of force (the line along which force vector lies) and point of axis of
rotation.
 
F3 F2 
F1

× F4
l1
l2

[talk about F1, F2, F3 & F4 and their moment arm or force arm ] F5
(Torque) 1 = F1 l1
2 = F2 l2 ×
3 = 0
4 = 0 l5
5 = F5 l5
Measurement of torque :
(i) OP = r F F
 = F r l
r = l sin  O • • 
F||
 = F l sin   A
r
(ii) torque due to F|| = 0 P
torque due to F
F = sin 
 = (F sin ) l
Discuss dependence of torque on F, l & sin  again using first illustration.

1 Unit : In M.K.S = N-m

In C.G.S = dyne-cm
2 Dimension : ML2T–2
3 Torque is a vector quantity, whose direction is perpendicular to the plane of force and position
vector and its direction is given by right hand screw rule.
4 If the torque rotates the body in anticlock wise direction, the torque is positive and if the torque
rotates the body in clock-wire direction, the torque will be negative.
5 If a body is acted upon by more than one force, the total torque is the vector sum of each torque.
    
 = 1 +++  2 +  2 +..........+  n
6 There can be non-zero torque on body even when net force is zero and there can be force producing
zero torque.
F

ROTATIONAL MOTION [83]

7. The more is the value of r, the more will be torque and easier to rotate the body.
(i) The handle of screw driver is taken thick.
(ii) In villages the handle of flour-mill is placed near the circumference.
(iii) The handle of handpump is kept-long.
(iv) The rinch used for opening the tap, is kept-long.
2

8. Work done by torque =  d

1

9. Force couple :
A pair of forces each of same magnitude and in opposite direction is called a force couple. Torque
due to a couple about any point is same and its magnitude = Magnitude of one force X (distance
between their lines of action).
Vectorial representation & understanding of torque :
  
  rF

torque vector of force F about point O.
OA = r = P.V. of pt. of application of force wrt fixed axis.(centre of rotation)


F


r
•
O A Y
Relation between torque and angular acceleration of a rigid body : F2
Ftan
Derivation of  =  r
Consider a rigid body rotating about an axis (say y-axis) r

Ft = mat = mr2 Frad
t = rFt = (mr2)
• X
1. mr2 is MI of about rotation axis.
Z

2.  is angular acceleration of particle about the rotation axis. This will be same for all the particles of rigid
body.
3. Ftan r is net torque on m about axis of rotation.
or comp. of torque along y-axis since only this component of torque can bring any change in rotational
state of motion about the axis y.
(a) torque of Frad is zero
(b) torque of F2 is not zero but is  to y-axis.
So Ft r is total torque acting on the particle wrt axis of rotation.
Thus if it was ith particle
i = Ii 
adding all the torque acting on all the particles of the body about y-axis.
1 + 2 + 3 + ............. = I1 + I2 + ...............
i = (m1r12  + (m2r22) + ........)
i = (m1r12 + (m2r22)+ ........) 
i = I
where (i) I is torque of body about axis of rotation.

ROTATIONAL MOTION [84]

 (ii)  is angular acceleration of rigid body about of rotation.
(iii) i is sum of all torques experienced by particles along y-axis.
Now i is summation of all torques acting on ith particles. It will involve torque due to external and
internal forces.

Torque due to internal force between any two point particles is zero.
So the internal forces (torques) cancel in pairs.
Therefore the internal torques between every pair of particles in the system vanish.
The absence of internal torques means that the total torque on a system is caused only by a force external
to the system itself.
 
Thus equation is ext  I

where  and I are both written about axis of rotation.

Application of axis = Iaxis 

Equilibrium & Toppling
Because  = I for rotation about a fixed axis, the necessary condition for rotational equilibrium is that
the net torque about any axis must be zero. We now have necessary conditions for equilibrium of an
object :
1. The resultant external force must equal zero.

F  0

2. The resultant external torque about any axis must be zero :   0

ANGULAR MOMENTUM

Angular momentum of a particle :

  
L  rP
 is position vector of particle relative to the origin O about which angular momentum is being written.
r

L = rp sin  

| L | = Pr sin  P P
r sin  =   A
l 

| L | = Pr = rP r r  •A
 r
O

(1) Unit : J. second , kg m2/s, kg m2 rad/sec

(2) Dimension : [M1L2T–1 ]
(3) If direction of rotation is anticlockwise, angular momentum is taken positive and if direction of
rotation is clockwise, angular momentum is taken negative.

ROTATIONAL MOTION [85]

(4) The angular momentum of a system of particle's is equal to the vector sum of angular momentum
of each particle.
   
J = J1 + J2 + J3 + ..........
Angular momentum of a system of particle :
(a) For collection of point masses L = Li
(b) For rigid body Laxis = Iaxis 
Here Laxis means component of angular momentum along the axis not angular momentum.

Relation between torque and angular momentum :

  
L  rP
  
dL d    dr   d P
= ( r  P) =   × P + r ×
dt dt  dt  dt

dL     
= V  P  r  F since V  P = 0
dt

 dL   = 
ext = r F ext
dt
dL axis
axis =
dt
Conservation of angular momentum :
If external torque about a axis is zero then angular momentum of the system about that axis will remains
conserved. So if axis = 0  Laxis = constant
Examples :-

(i) Suppose a ball is tied at one end of a cord whose other end passes through a vertical hollow tube.
The tube is held in one hand and the cord in the other. The ball is set into rotation in a horizontal
circle. If the cord is pulled down, shortening the radius of the circular path of the ball, the
ball rotates faster than before. The reason is that by shortening the radius of the circle, the
moment of inertia of the ball about the axis of rotation decreases. Hence, by the law of
conservation of angular momentum, the angular velocity of the ball about the axis of rotation
increases. [fig. (1)]

ROTATIONAL MOTION [86]

(ii) When a diver jumps into water from a height, he does not keep his body straight but pulls in his
arms and legs towards the centre of his body. On doing so, the moment of inertia I of his body
deceases. But since the angular momentum I w reamains constant, his angular velocity w
correspondingly increases. Hence during jumping he can rotate his body in the air. [fig. (2)]
(iii) In a man with his arms outstretched and holding heavy dumb bells in each hand, is standing at the
centre of a rotating table. When the man pulls in his arms, the speed of rotation of the table
increases. The reason is that on pulling in the arms, the distance R of the dumbells from the axis
of rotation decreases and so the moment of inertia o the man decreases. Therefore, by conservation
of angular momentum, the angular velocity increases. [fig. (3)]

In the same way, the ice skater and the ballet dancer increase or decrease the angular
velocity of spin about a vertical axis by pulling or extending out their limbs.
KINETIC ENERGY OF ROTATION :
(a) The energy due to rotational motion of a body is known as rotational kinetic energy.
(b) If I be moment and inertia of body about axis of rotation and w be its angular velocity, then kinetic
energy of rotation.
1 1
Er = I 2 or Er = MK2 2
2 2

 
1 J2 1 J.J
= =
2 I 2 I

(c) If w is constant, Er  I
(d) If I is constant, Er  2
1
(e) If Jis constant, Er 
I
(f) Work energy theorem :-
The work done by torque = change in kinetic energy of rotation

COMBINED ROTATION AND TRANSLATION

Kinematics
1. Velocity
wrt centre wrt ground
R + v
R
R v
r R
R v v • v
r
v
r R
R
R R – v or v – R

ROTATIONAL MOTION [87]

2. Acceleration
wrt centre wrt ground

 
 
R R+a
R r R R R
r R R
• a • a
R R+a
R R
R R

R R a

Rolling & sliding

Case-I Vcm > R

Vcm

A ground
fk V – R

The friction will be kinetic in nature & its magnitude can be determined using fk = kN. Direction will be
opposite to Vcm (because pt. of contact A is moving forward w.r.t. ground)
(This is how brakes stop a car)

Case -2 Vcm < R

Vcm

A ground
R – V fk

The friction will be kinetic in nature & its magnitude can be determined using fK = kN.
Direction will be same as Vcm (because pt of contact A is moving backwards w.r.t. ground.
(This is how a car accelerate because of friction)

Case - 3 Vcm = r
Known as perfect rolling
Maximum problems we come across this situation

1. The friction will be static in nature. Its magnitude be determined, it will very from O to sN.
2. Even its direction can not be predicted
3. The total work done by static friction is zero. Thus mechanical energy of the system will remain
conserved.

ROTATIONAL MOTION [88]

KINETIC ENERGY OF COMBINED ROTATION AND TRANSLATION :

If a body performs rotational kinetic motion as well as linear motion, then the total energy of body
is equal to the sum of kinetic energy of rotational motion and kinetic energy of linear motion.
 Total K.E = Er + Et

1 1
= I2 + Mv2
2 2

(i) If rotation is taking place without skidding

then v = r, a=r

LINEAR AND ROLLING MOTION OF A BODY ON INCLINED PLANE :

Linear Motion of Body on Inclined Plane - Rolling Motion of a Body on Inclined
A A
v v
h h
Plane- s s

 B  B

Let the length of inclined plane is s and its Let the length of inclined plane is s and its
inclination from horizontal be  inclination from horizontal be 
(a) Linear acceleration of body alinear= g sin  (a) Decrease in potential energy = Increase in
1 1
= I 2 + mv2
2 2
(b) Angular acceleration = Zero (b) Because the motion of body is without
sliding so v = R and a = R 
(c) The velocity acquired by body on reaching (c) Velocity on reaching lowest point is where,
2gh
the lowest point B is vlinear = 2gh =
1 K 2 / R2
K is radius of gyration and R is the radius of body
(d) Angular velocity = Zero (d) Linear accleration on reaching the lowest point
g sin 
a =
1 K 2 / R2
(e) Time taken by body to reach lowest point B (e) Time taken to reach the lowest point of

2s 2s 2s(1  K 2 / R 2 )
is tlinear = a linear = g sin  the plane is t = g sin 

a
(f) The loss in potential energy on reaching the (f) Angular accleration  = ,
R
v
point B = Increase in Kinetic energy angular velocity =
R
1
= mgh = mv2
2

ROTATIONAL MOTION [89]

 EXERCISE-I

Q.1 Which of the following quantity is directionless

(A) moment of momentum (B) Moment of force
(C) Moment of inertia (D) None of these
Q.2 The M.I. of a disc about its diameter is 2 units. Its M.I. about axis through a point on its rim and
in the plane of the disc is
(A) 4 units. (B) 6 units (C) 8 units (D) 10 units
Q.3 The physical significance of mass in translational motion is same as that of the following in rotational
motion -
(A) moment of inertia (B) angular momentum
(C) torque (D) angular acceleration
Q.4 In an arrangement four particles, each of mass 2 gram are situated at the coordinate points
(3, 2, 0), (1, –1, 0), (0, 0, 0) and (–1, 1, 0). The moment of inertia of this arrangement about
the Z-axis will be
(A) 8 units (B) 16 units (C) 43 units (D) 34 units
Q.5 Three thin uniform rods each of mass M and length L and placed along the three axis of a Cartesian
coordinate system with one end of each rod at the origin. The M.I. of the system about z-axis is

ML2 2ML2 ML2

(A) (B) (C) (D) ML2
3 3 6
Q.6 AB and CD are two identical rods each of length l and mass m joined to form a cross. The moment of
inertia of these two rods about a bisector (XY) of angle between the rods is :
ml2 ml2
(A) (B)
12 3

2ml2 ml2
(C) (D)
3 6
Q.7 A rigid body is rotating about a vertical axis at n rotations per minute, If the axis slowly becomes
horizontal in t seconds and the body keeps on rotating at n rotations per minute then the torque
acting on the body will be, if the moment of inertia of the body about axis of rotation is I.
2nI 2 2 nI 4nI
(A) zero (B) (C) (D)
60t 60t 60t
Q.8 The angular velocity of a body changes from one revolution per 9second to 1 revolution per
second without applying any torque. The ratio of its radius of gyration in the two cases is
(A) 1 : 9 (B) 3 : 1 (C) 9 : 1 (D) 1 : 3
Q.9 A gramophone record has radius r and mass M. It is rotating with a speed . Two drops of wax of mass
m fall on it at a distance r/2 on opposite sides. The new angular speed is :
M m
(A) /2 (B) (C) (D) (M  m) 
Mm Mm Mm
Q.10 A sphere rolls down an inclined plane through a height h. Its velocity at the bottom would be

7 10 10 
(A) 2gh (B) gh (C) gh (D)  7  gh
10 7  

ROTATIONAL MOTION [90]

 l
Q.11 Moment of inertia of a rod of mass m and length l about an axis at a distance from one of the
4
ends of the rod towards centre and perpendicular to its length is
19 2 7 7 19 2
(A) ml (B) ml 2 (C) ml 2 (D) ml
48 38 48 38

Q.12 Calculate the torque acting on the disc in the given arrangement (Radius of disc 1m and mass m)

R
Hinged

(A) 2 mg/3 (B) mg/3 (C) mg (D) 4 mg/5

Q.13 A uniform cylinder of mass m and radius R starts descending at a moment t = 0 due to gravity.
Neglecting the mass of the thread, the tension of each thread is

(A) mg. (B) mg/2 (C) mg/3 (D) mg/6

Q.14 A disc is undergoing pure rolling on a horizontal surface, then which of the statements about angular
momentum of the disc is incorrect?
B

vcm

A
(A) Angular momentum about A is conserved under any situation
(B) Angular momentum about B is conserved only if surface is smooth
(C) Angular momentum about any point on the disc is conserved
(D) None of these
Q.15 A ring of mass m and radius R is acted upon by a force F as shown in the figure, there is sufficient
friction between the ring and the ground then the force of friction necessary for pure rolling is
F
R

F F F
(A) forward (B) forward (C) Zero (D) backward
2 3 4

ROTATIONAL MOTION [91]

 EXERCISE - II

Q.1 A solid sphere of mass m is situated on a horizontal surface and a tangential force acts at the top
of the sphere. If the sphere rolls without slipping then the acceleration of the centre of the sphere
would be -
5 F 3F 10F 7F
(A) (B) (C) (D)
3 m 5m 7m 10m
Q.2 A solid iron sphere A rolls down an inclined plane, while another hollow sphere B with the same
mass and external radius also rolls down the inclined plane. If VA and VB are their velocities at
the bottom of the inclined plane, then
(A) VA > VB (B) VA = VB (C) VA < VB (D) VA > = < VB
Q.3 A body of radius R and mass m is rolling on a horizontal plane without slipping with speed v. It
then rolls up a hill of vertical height h. If h = 3v2/4g, the body is -
(A) Ring (B) Cylinder (C) Solid sphere (D) Spherical shell
Q.4 A small ball of radius r rolls down without sliding in a big hemispherical bowl of radius R. What
would be the ratio of the translational and rotational kinetic energies at the bottom of the bowl
(A) 2 : 1 (B) 3 : 2 (C) 4 : 3 (D) 5 : 2
Q.5 A thin circular ring of mass M and radius r is rotating about its axis with an angular speed . Two
particles having mass m each are now attached at diametrically opposite points. The angular speed
of the ring will become :-
M M ( M  2m ) ( M  2m )
(A) (B) (C) (D)
Mm M  2m M  2m M
Q.6 A solid sphere, a hollow sphere and a disc, all having same mass and radius, are placed at the top
of a smooth incline and released. Least time will be taken in reaching the bottom by :
(A) the solid sphere (B) the hollow sphere
(C) the disc (D) all will take same time
Q.7 A disc of radius r rolls on without slipping on a rough horizontal floor. If
velocity of its centre of mass is v then velocity of point p, as shown in the
figure (OP = r/2 and QOP = 60º) is
v0
(A) v0 (B)
2
v0 v0
(C) 7 (D) 3
2 2
Q.8 A particle of mass 2 kg located at positon ( î  ĵ ) m has a velocity 2 (  î  ĵ  k̂ ) m/s. Its angular momentum
about origin and along z–axis in kg–m2/s is –
(A) zero (B) +8 (C) 12 (D) –8
Q.9 A uniform ladder of mass 10 kg leans against a smooth vertical wall making an angle of 53º with it. The
other end rests on a rough horizontal floor. Find the normal force and the frictional force that the floor
exerts on the ladder A
N1
(A) 65 N, 65 N 53º
(B) 65 N, 98 N N2

(C) 98 N, 65 NN W
(D) 65 N, 65 N f C O

ROTATIONAL MOTION [92]

Q.10 Statement-1 : When a sphere and a solid cylinder are allowed to roll down an inclined plane, the
sphere will reach the ground first even if the mass and radius of the two bodies are different.
Statement-2 : The acceleration of the body rolling down the inclined plane is directly proportional
to the radius of the rolling body.
(A) If both Statement- 1 and Statement- 2 are true, and Statement - 2 is the correct explanation of
Statement– 1.
(B) If both Statement - 1 and Statement - 2 are true but Statement -2 is not the correct explanation of
Statement – 1
(C) If Statement - 1 is true but Statement - 2 is false.
(D) If Statement - 1 is false but Statement - 2 is true.
Q.11 A sphere is rolled on a rough horizontal surface. It gradually slows down and stops. The force of
friction tries to
(A) decrease the linear velocity (B) increase the angular velocity
(C) increase the linear momentum (D) decrease the angular velocity
Q.12 A heavy rod of length L and weight W is suspended horizontally by two vertical ropes as shown. The first
rope is attached to the left end of the rod while the second rope is attached a distance L/4 from right end.
The tension in the second rope is:
(A) (1/2)W
(B) (1/4)W
(C) (1/3)W
(D) (2/3)W
Q.13 A uniform 2 kg cylinder rests on a laboratory cart as shown. The coefficient of static friction between the
cylinder and the cart is 0.5. If the cylinder is 4 cm in diameter and 10 cm in height, which of the following
is closest to the minimum acceleration of the cart needed to cause the cylinder to tip over?
(A) 2 m/s2
(B) 4 m/s2
(C) 5 m/s2
(D) 6 m/s2
Q.14 The total torque acting on the body shown in figure about the point O is :-

10N

15N
37°
m
90° 6c
3cm

4cm
4cm

30°
150°

20N 5N

(A) 0.81 N-m (B) 0.09 N-m (C) 0.27 N-m (D) 0.54 N-m

ROTATIONAL MOTION [93]

Q.15 Statement-1 : Angular velocity is a characteristic of the rigid body as a whole.
Statement-2 : Angular velocity may be different for different particles of a rigid body about the axis
of rotation.
(A) If both Statement- 1 and Statement- 2 are true, and Statement - 2 is the correct explanation of
Statement– 1.
(B) If both Statement - 1 and Statement - 2 are true but Statement -2 is not the correct explanation of
Statement – 1
(C) If Statement - 1 is true but Statement - 2 is false.
(D) If Statement - 1 is false but Statement - 2 is true.

EXERICISE - III

Q.1 A ringof mass M and radius R is movingin horizontal plane at angular speed about self axis. If two equal point masses
are placed at the ends of anydiameter. Find final angular speed of system - [AIEEE-2002]
M M m
(A)  (B)  (C)  (D) none of above
2m M  2m M  2m
Q.2 A solid sphere, a hollow sphere and a ring are released from top of an inclined plane (frictionless) so that they slide
down the plane. Then maximum acceleration down the plane is for (no rolling) [AIEEE-2002]
(A) Solid sphere (B) Hollow-sphere (C) Ring (D) All same
Q.3 Moment of inertia of a circular wire of mass M and radius R about its diameter is –
[AIEEE-2002]
MR 2 MR 2
(A) (B) MR2 (C) 2 MR2 (D)
2 4
Q.4 In the following figure angular momentum of particle of mass m and speed v about origin is –
[AIEEE-2002]
X
V

L
Y

(A) mvL (B) mv (C) mv/L (D) mv/

Q.5 A circular disc X of radius R is made from an iron plate of thickness t and another disc Y of
radius 4R is made from an iron plate of thickness t/4. Then the relation between the moment of
inertia IX and IY is – [AIEEE-2003]
(A) IY = 16 IX (B) IY = IX (C) IY = 64 IX (D) IY = 32 IX
Q.6 A particle performing uniform circular motion has angular momentum L. If its angular frequency is doubled
and its kinetic energy halved, then the new angular momentum is – [AIEEE-2003]
(A) 2 L (B) 4 L (C) L / 2 (D) L / 4
Q.7 A solid sphere is rotating in free space. If the radius of the sphere is increased keeping mass same which
one of the following will not be affected ? [AIEEE-2004]
(A) Moment of inertia (B) Angular momentum
(C) Angular velocity (D) Rotational kinetic energy

ROTATIONAL MOTION [94]

Q.8 One solid sphere A and another hollow sphere B are of same mass and same outer radi. Their moment of
inertia about their diameters are respectively A and B such that – [ AIEEE-2004]

A dA
(A) A = B (B) A > B (C) A < B (D) =
B dB

where dA and dB are their densities.

Q.9 An annular ring with inner and outer radii R1 and R2 is rolling without slipping with a uniform angular
speed. The ratio of the forces experienced by the two particles situated on the inner and outer parts of
F1
the ring, F is [AIEEE-2005]
2

2
R2  R1  R1
(A) R1 (B)   (C) 1 (D) R
 R2  2

Q.10 The moment of inertia of uniform semicircular disc of mass M and radius r about a line perpendicular to
the plane of the disc through the centre is [AIEEE-2005]

1 2 2 2 1
(A) Mr (B) Mr (C) Mr2 (D) Mr 2
4 5 2

Q.11 A 'T' shaped object with dimensions shown in the figure, is lying on a smooth floor. A force ' F ' is applied
at the point P parallel to AB, such that the object has only the translational motion without rotation. Find
the location of P with respect to C. [AIEEE-2005]

l
A B

P
2l
F

2 3 4
(A)  (B)  (C)  (D) 
3 2 3

Q.12 A thin circular ring of mass m and radius R is rotating about its axis with a constant angular velocity .
Two objects each of mass M are attachecd gently to the opposite ends of a diameter of the ring. The ring
now rotates with an angular velocity ' = [AIEEE 2006]
m m (m  2M) (m  2M)
(A) (m  M) (B) (m  2M) (C) (D) (m  2M)
m

Q.13 A force of – F k̂ acts on O, the origin of the coordinate system. The torque about the point (1, – 1) is –
[AIEEE 2006]
z

O y
x
(A) F ( î  ĵ ) (B) – F ( î  ĵ ) (C) F ( î  ĵ ) (D) – F ( î  ĵ )

ROTATIONAL MOTION [95]

Q.14 Four point masses, each of value m, are placed at the corners of a square ABCD of side . The moment
of inertia of this system about an axis passing through A and parallel to BD is – [AIEEE 2006]
(A) 3 m2 (B) m2 (C) 2 m2 (D) 3 m2
Q.15 For the given uniform square lamina ABCD, whose centre is O, [AIEEE 2007]
F
(A) 2 IAC = IEF D C

(B) IAD = 3IEF
O
(C) IAC = IEF
A  B
(D) IAC = 2 IEF E

Q.16 Angular momentum of the particle rotating with a central force is constant due to
[AIEEE 2007]
(A) Constant Force (B) Constant linear momentum
(C) Zero Torque (D) Constant Torque
Q.17 Consider a uniform square plate of side ‘a’ and mass ‘m’. The moment of inertia of this plate about
an axis perpendicular to its plane and passing through one of its corners is [AIEEE 2008]

1 7 2 5
(A) ma2 (B) ma2 (C) ma2 (D) ma2]
12 12 3 6

Q.18 A thin uniform rod of length  and mass m is swinging freely about a horizontal axis passing through its
end. Its maximum angular speed is . Its centre of mass rises to a maximum height of - [AIEEE 2009]
1  1  2 2 1  2 2 1  2 2
(A) (B) 2 g
(C) (D)
6 g 6 g 3 g
Q.19 A small particle of mass m is projected at an angle  with the x-axis with an initial velocity v0 in the x-y
v0 sin 
plane as shown in the figure. At a time t  , the angular momentum of the particle is :-
g
[AIEEE-2010]
y
2
(A) – mgv0t cos ˆj v0
(B) mgv0t cos k̂
1 
(C) – mgv0t2cos k̂ x
2
1
(D) mgv0t2 cos î
2

ROTATIONAL MOTION [96]

 THEORY

ELASTICITY, CALORIMETRY & THERMAL EXPANSION

Syllabus :
Elastic behaviour, Stress-strain relationship, Hooke’s law, Young’s modulus, bulk modulus, modulus of
rigidity. Heat, temperature, thermal expansion; specific heat capacity, calorimetry; change of state, latent
heat.

The shape of a solid can be altered only by the application of a suitable system of forces.

ELASTICITY:
If the modified shape is retained by the solid only so long as the forces act, and the original shape is
regained when they cease to act, the solid is said to possess elasticity ;

PLASTICITY:
if the modified shape is retained after the forces cease to act, the solid is said to be plastic.
The volume of matter, whether this matter be solid or fluid, can be altered by the application of suitable
forces, and in most cases the original volume is regained when the forces cease to act ; hence, all matter
possesses volume elasticity.
Any alteration produced in the shape or volume of matter is called a strain.

Cause of elasticity :
We know that in a solid, each atom or molecule is surrounded by neighboring atoms or molecules. These
are bonded together by interatomic or intermolecular forces and stay in a stable equilibrium position.
When a solid is deformed, the atoms or molecules are displaced from their equilibrium positions causing
a change in the interatomic (or intermolecular) distances. When the deforming force is removed, the
interatomic forces tend to drive them back to their original positions. Thus the body regains its original
shape and size. The restoring mechanism can be visualised by taking a model of spring-ball system
shown in the Fig.. Here the balls represent atoms and springs represent interatomic forces.

Fig. Spring-ball model for the illustration of elastic behaviour of solids.

If you try to displace any ball from its equilibrium position, the spring system tries to restore the ball back
to its original position. Thus elastic behaviour of solids can be explained in terms of microscopic nature
of the [Link] a body is subjected to a deforming force, a restoring force is developed in the body.
This restoring force is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the applied force.

ELASTICITY, CALORIMETRY & THERMAL EXPANSION [97]

Stress : Restoring force per unit area set up inside the body is called stress and is measured by the magnitude of
force acting on unit area of the body in equilibrium. If F is the force applied and A is the area of cross
section of the body, Magnitude of the stress = F/A. The SI unit of stress is N m–2 or pascal (Pa) and its
dimensional formula is [ ML–1T–2 ].
Stress (Tensile/Compressive )
F
Tensile F F F F = as F  A
A
Compressive F F

Strain (longitudinal) :
Suppose we stretch a wire by applying tensile forces of magnitude F to each end. The length of the wire
increases from L to L + L. The fractional length change is called the strain ; it is a dimensionless
measure of the degree of deformation.
L
strain =
L

Hooke’s law for tensile and compressive forces :

Suppose we had wires of the same composition and length but different thicknesses. It would require
larger tensile forces to stretch the thicker wire the same amount as the thinner one. We conclude that the
tensile force required is proportional to the cross-sectional area of the wire (F  A). Thus, the same
applied force per unit area produces the same deformation on wires of the same length and composition.

Hooke’s Law :
stress  strain
F L
=Y
A L
equation still says that the length change (L) is proportional to the magnitude of the deforming forces
(F). Stress and strain account for the effects of length and cross-sectional area ; the proportionality
constant Y depends only on the inherent stiffness of the material from which the object is composed ; it
is independent of the length and cross-sectional area.
F L L
Comparing equation F = kL and =Y k =Y A. Y is called the elastic modulus or Young’ss
A L L
modulus, Y has the same units as those of stress (Pa or N/m2) since strain is dimensionless.
Young’s modulus can be through of as the inherent stiffness of a material ; it measures the resistance of
the material to elongation or compression. Material that is flexible and stretches easily (for example,
rubber) has a low Young’s modulus. A stiff material (such as steel) has a high Young’s modulus ; it takes
a larger stress to produce the same strain.
Hooke’s law holds up to a maximum stress called the proportional limit. For many materials, Young’s
modulus has the same value for tension and compression. Some composite materials, such as bone and
concrete, have significantly different Young’s moduli for tension and compression. The different properties
of these two substances lead to different values of Young’s modulus for tension and compression.

Elastic potential energy : (where F is applied in equilibrium)

 AY 
dw = Fdx F x
 L 

ELASTICITY, CALORIMETRY & THERMAL EXPANSION [98]

 F F
AY
= x dx F F
L
l l+x
AY
w=
L
 x dx
0

AY l 2 1  yl   l 
U= =     (AL)
2L 2  L  L
1
U= (stress) (strain) (volume)
2
STRESS-STRAIN CURVE :
The relation between the stress and the strain for a given material under tensile stress can be found
experimentally. The applied force is gradually increased in steps and the change in length is noted. A
graph is plotted between the stress and the strain produced. The stress-strain curves vary from material
to material. These curves help us to understand how a given material deforms with increasing loads.
From the graph, we can see that in the region between O to A, the curve is linear. In this region, Hooke’s
law is obeyed. The body regains its original dimensions when the applied force is removed. In this
region, the solid behaves as an elastic body.

Sn Proportional limit D
Elastic limit E
or yield point
Fracture
Sy
B C point
A Elastic behaviour
Stress

Elastic behaviour

Permanent set
0 30%
<1% Strain
Fig. Stress-strain curve for a metal.
Beyond hooke’s law :
In the region from A to B, stress and strain are not proportional. Nevertheless, the body still returns to its
original dimension when the load is removed. The point B in the curve is known as yield point (also
known as elastic limit) and the corresponding stress is known as yield strength (Sy) of the material.
If the tensile or compressive stress exceeds the proportional limit, the strain is no longer proportional to
the stress (figure). The solid still returns to its original length when the stress is removed as long as the
stress does not exceed the elastic limit.
If the stress exceeds the elastic limit, the material is permanently deformed. For still larger stresses, the
solid farctures when the stress reaches the breaking point. The maximum stress that can be withstood
without breaking is called the ultimate strength. The ultimate strength can be different for compression
and tension ; then we refer to the compressive strength or the tensile strength of the material. A ductile
material continues to stretch beyond its ultimate tensile strength without breaking ; the stress then
decreases from the ultimate strength (fig. (a) ). Examples of ductile solids are relatively soft metals, such
as gold, silver, copper, and lead. These metals can be pulled like taffy, becoming thinner and thinner until
finally reaching the breaking point.
ELASTICITY, CALORIMETRY & THERMAL EXPANSION [99]
 Ductile
Brittle
Tensile Ultimate
Elastic strength Tensile Ultimate strength
stress and breaking point
limit • stress •
• • •Elastic limit
Breaking point •
• Proportional limit
Proportional
limit

Tensile strain
Tensile strain (b)
(a)

DIFFERENT TYPES OF STRESS :

F
x

F v

L+L L F v
L F

F
F
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. (a) Cylinder subjected to tensile stress stretches it by an amount L. (b) A cylinder subjected
to shearing (tangential) stress deforms by an angle . (c) A book subjected to a shearing stress
(d) A solid sphere subjected to a uniform hydraulic stress shrinks in volume by an amount V.
There are three ways in which a solid may change its dimensions when an external force acts on it. These
are shown in Fig. In Fig.(a), a cylinder is stretched by two equal forces applied normal to its
cross-sectional area. The restoring force per unit area in this case is called tensile stress. If the cylinder
is compressed under the action of applied forces, the restoring force per unit area is known as
compressive stress. Tensile or compressive stress can also be termed as longitudinal stress. In both
the cases, there is a change in the length of the cylinder. The change in the length L to the original length
L
L of the body (cylinder in this case) is known as longitudinal strain. Longitudinal strain .
L
Shearing stress :
However, if two equal and opposite deforming forces are applied parallel to the cross-sectional area of
the cylinder, as shown in Fig. (b), there is relative displacement between the opposite faces of the
cylinder. The restoring force per unit area developed due to the applied tangential force is known as
tangential or shearing stress.
As a result of applied tangential force, there is a relative displacement x between opposite faces of the
cylinder as shown in the Fig. (b). The strain so produced is known as shearing strain and it is defined
as the ratio of relative displacement of the faces x to the length of the cylinder L.
x
Shearing strain = tan 
L
where  is the angular displacement of the cylinder from the vertical (original position of the cylinder).
Usually  is very small, tan  is nearly equal to angle  , (if  = 10°, for example, there is only 1%
difference between  and tan ).

ELASTICITY, CALORIMETRY & THERMAL EXPANSION [100]

 It can also be visualised, when a book is pressed with the hand and pushed horizontally, as shown in Fig.
(c). Thus, shearing strain = tan   
Bulk Modulus :
In Fig. (d), a solid sphere placed in the fluid under high pressure is compressed uniformly on all sides.
The force applied by the fluid acts in perpendicular direction at each point of the surface and the body is
said to be under hydraulic compression. This leads to decrease in its volume without any change of its
geometrical shape. The body develops internal restoring forces that are equal and opposite to the forces
applied by the fluid (the body restores its original shape and size when taken out from the fluid). The
internal restoring force per unit area in this case is equal to the hydraulic pressure (applied force per unit
area). The strain produced by a hydraulic pressure is called volume strain and is defined as the ratio of
change in volume (V) to the original volume (V).
v
Volume strain
v
We have seen that when a body is submerged in a fluid, it undergoes a hydraulic stress (equal in magni-
tude to the hydraulic pressure). This leads to the decrease in the volume of the body thus producing a
strain called volume strain.
Volume Deformation :
Since the fluid presses inward on all sides of the object (figure), the solid is compressed-its volume is
reduced. The fluid pressure P is the force per unit surface area ; it can be through of as the volume stress
on the solid object. Pressure has the same units as the other kinds of stress: N/m2 or Pa.

F=PA 2
F=PA 3 F=PA1

F=PA 1 F=PA 3
F=PA2

Fig. Forces on an object when submerged in a fluid

F
volume stress = pressure = =P
A
The resulting deformation of the object is characterized by the volume strain, which is the fractional
change in volume :
change in volume V
volume strain = original volume =
V
Unless the stress is too large, the stress and strain are proportional within a constant of proportionally
called the bulk modulus B. A substance with a large bulk modulus is more difficult to compress than a
substance with a small bulk modulus. For solids and liquids, the volume strain due
to atmospheric pressure is, for most purposes, negligibly small (5 × 10–5 for water).
Hooke’s law for volume deformation :
V
P = – B
V
V
where V is the volume at atmospheric pressure. The negative sign. equation P = – B allows the
V
bulk modulus to be positive-an increase in the volume stress causes a decrease in volume, so V is
negative.

ELASTICITY, CALORIMETRY & THERMAL EXPANSION [101]

 The reciprocal of the bulk modulus is called compressibility and is denoted by k. It is defined as the
fractional change in volume per unit increase in pressure.
k = (1/B) = – (1/p) × (V/V)
Bulk modulus (all three states of matter)

volume stress
B=
strain

P P
B =  V = – V
V
V

1 1  V 
C= =–  
B V  P 

The bulk moduli of liquids are generally not much less than those of solids, since the atoms in liquids are
nearly as close together as those in solids.
Gases are much easier to compress than solids or liquids, so their bulk moduli are much smaller.

 lateral strain  r / r
Poissons ratio :  = longitudinal strain = L / L

CALORIMETRY

Calorimetry is that branch of heat which deals with its measurement of heat.
SPECIFIC HEAT :
This is also called ' Heat Inertia' of a substance
Specific Heat of solid & Liquid (s) : If a solid or a liquid is heated till the change of the state, there
is no change in their volume hence the work done is zero. Hence there is only one specific heat of
solids and liquids which is constant.
Definition :
1. The amount of heat needed for an unit increase in the temperature of unit mass of a solid or liquid
is called it's specific heat
Unit : kilocalorie / kg-ºC or calorie/g-ºC
1 Kcal / Kg-ºC = 1 Cal/g-ºC
2. If mass of the body is 'm' and specific heat is 's' then amount of heat needed to increases it's
temperature by dT is given by Q = msdT
3. Specific heat of water = 1 kcal / kg-ºC = 1 Cal/ g-ºC = 4.18 × 103 J/kg-ºC
4. Kelvin can also be used instead of ºC is size of both uints is same.

ELASTICITY, CALORIMETRY & THERMAL EXPANSION [102]

THERMAL CAPACITY :
(1) Amount of heat needed to increase the temperature of a substance (any amount) by 1ºC is called
thermal capacity of that substance.
(2) Thermal capacity = ( mass of body ) x (specific heat)  Hc = ms
(3) Unit = calorie /ºC or Kcal/ºC
(4) Thermal capacity is given by reciprocal of slope of heat temperature [Link]
Q
Hc = mS = dT
1
Heat capacity at point 'p' = = cot
tan 
(5) Heat capacity in an isothermal process is infinite (). e.g. process of melting and vaporisation
(6) If heat capacity of a body is Hc, then heat needed to rise it's temperature by d is, dQ = Hc d
WATER EQUIVALENT OF A BODY :
(1) If m gram of a substance is given Q amount of heat which rises its temperature by T . Now
if on giving same amount of heat temperature of w gram of water is also increased by T then
w is called water equivalent of body of mass m.
(2) The value of water equivalent of a body is same as it's heat capacity. The difference is only in units.
e.g If heat capacity of a body is m calorie/0C then it's water equivalent will be m gram.
(3) Physical meaning : The same amount of heat has to be given to a body for increasing it's
temperature by dT as needed for quantity of water equal to it's water equivalent by same
temperature range.
vapouration
Temperature (T)

ur

L V
po
va
fusion

d
ui
liq

Phase transformation curve S L

lid
So

Heat (Q)
Latent Latent
heat heat

LATENT HEAT :
Latent heat of fusion of a substance is the quantity of heat (in kilocalories) required to change its
1 kg mass from solid to liquid state at its melting point (For ice latent heat of fusion = 80 kilocal/kg).
Latent heat of vaporization of a substnce is the quantity of heat required to change its 1 kg mass
from liquid to vapour state at its boiling point.
For water latent heat of vaporisation = 536 kilocal/kg

THERMAL EXPANSION
Thermal Expansion
When matter is heated without change in state, it usually expands. According to atomic theory of matter,
asymmetry in potential energy curve is responsible for thermal expansion as with rise in temperature say
from T1 to T2 the amplitude of vibration and hence energy of atoms increases from E1 to E2 and hence the
average distance between the from r1 to r2.

ELASTICITY, CALORIMETRY & THERMAL EXPANSION [103]

 +
0
E2 r2 T2
E E1 r1 T1
E0 r0 T 0
r
Due to this increase in distance between atoms, the matter as a whole expands. Had the potential energy
curve been symmetrical, no thermal expansion would have taken place in spite of heating.
Normal Solids
To varying extents, most materials expand when heated and contract when cooled. The increase in any
one dimension of a solid is called linear expansion, linear in the sense that the expansion occurs along a
line. A rod whose length is L0 when the temperature is T0 when the temperature increases to T0 + T, the
length becomes L0 + L, where T and L are the magnitudes of the changes in temperature and
length, respectively.
Conversely, when the temperature decreases to T0 – T, the length decreases to L0 – L.
For small temperature changes, experiments show that the change in length is directly proportional to the
change in temperature (L  T). In addition, the change in length is proportional to the initial length of
the rod,
L0
L

Equation L = L0T expresses the fact that L is proportional to both L0 and T(L  L0T) by
using a proportionality constant , which is called the coefficient of linear expansion.
1
Common unit for the coefficient of linear expansion : = (C°)–1
C
The Bimetallic Strip
A bimetallic strip is made from two thin strips of metal that have different coefficients of linear expansion,
as figure shows.
Brass
Steel

(a) (b) Heated (c) Cooled

(a) A bimetallic strip and how it behaves when (b) heated and (c) cooled
Often brass [ = 19 × 10–6 (C°)–1] and steel [ = 12 × 10–6 (C°)–1] are selected. The two pieces are
welded or riveted together. When the bimetallic strip is heated, the brass, having the larger value of ,
expands more than the steel. Since the two metals are bonded together, the bimetallic strip bends into an
arc as in part b, with the longer brass piece having a larger radius than the steel piece. When the strip is
cooled, the bimetallic strip bends in the opposite direction, as in part c.

ELASTICITY, CALORIMETRY & THERMAL EXPANSION [104]

 The expansion in length is called linear expansion. The expansion in area is called area
expansion. The expansion in volume is called volume expansion

  
= = =

Volume Thermal Expansion

The volume of a normal material increases as the temperature increases. Most solids and liquids behave
in this fashion. By analogy with linear thermal expansion, the change in volume V is proportional to the
change in temperature T and to the initial volume V0, provided the change in temperature is not too
large. These two proportionalities can be converted into equation V = V0T with the aid of a
proportionality constant , known as the coefficient of volume expansion. The algebraic form of this
equation is similar to that for linear expansion, L = L0T.
Volume thermal expansion
The volume V0 of an object change by an amount V when its temperature changes by an amount T.
V = V0T
where  is the coefficient of volume expansion.
Common Unit for the coefficient of volume Expansion : (C°)–1
The unit for , like that for , is (C°)–1. Values for  depend on the nature of the material. The values of
 for liquids are substantially larger than those for solids, because liquids typically expand more than
solids, given the same initial volumes and temperature expansion is three times greater than the
coefficient of linear expansion :  = 3.
If a cavity exists within a solid object, the volume of the cavity increases when the object expands, just
as if the cavity were filled with the surrounding material. The expansion of the cavity is analogous to the
expansion of a hole in a sheet of material. Accordingly, the change in volume of a cavity can be found
using the relation V = V0T, where  is the coefficient of volume expansion of the material that
surrounds the cavity.
FLUID EXPANSION
Expansion of liquids
Like solids, liquids also, in general, expand on heating ; however, their expansion is much large
compared to solids for the same temperature rise. A noteworthy point to be taken into account during
the expansion of liquid is that they are always contained in a vessel or a container and hence the
expansion of the vessel also comes into picture. Further, linear or superficial expansion in case of a liquid
does not carry any sense.
Consider a liquid contained in a round bottomed flask fitted with a long narrow stem as shown in fig. Let
the initial level of the liquid be X. When it is heated the level falls initially to Y.
However, after sometime, the liquid level eventually rises to Z.

ELASTICITY, CALORIMETRY & THERMAL EXPANSION [105]

 The entire phenomenon can be understood as follows:
Upon being heated, the container gets heated first and hence ex-
pands. As a result, the capacity of the flask increases and hence
the liquid level falls.
After sometime, the heat gets conducted from the vessel to the
liquid and hence liquid also expands thereby rising its level even-
tually to Z. Since, the volume expansivity of liquids, in general, are
far more than that of solids, so the level Z will be above the level
X.
Effect of temperature on density
When a solid or liquid is heated, it expands, with mass remaining constant. Density being the ratio of
mass to volume, it decreases. Thus, if V0 and Vt be the respective volumes of a substance at 0°C and
t°C and if the corresponding values of densities be 0 and t, then the mass m of the substance is given
by
m = V00 = Vtt
But Vt = V0 (1 + t), so t = 0 (1 + t)–1
Anomolous expansion of water :
While most substances expand when heated, a few do not. For instant, if water at 0°C is heated, its
volume decreases until the temperature reaches 4°C. Above 4 °C water behaves normally, and its
volume increases as the temperature increases.
Because a given mass of water has a minimum volume at 4°C, the density (mass per unit volume) of
water is greatest at 4 °C, as figure shows.
Maximum density
at 4°C
Density, kg/m3

1000.0
999.9
999.8
999.7
999.6
0 2 4 6 8 10
Temperature, °C
The density of water in the temperature range from 0 to 10°C. Water has a maximum density of
999.973kg/m3 at 4°C. (This value for the density is equivalent to the often quoted density of 1.000
grams per milliliter)
When the air temperature drops, the surface layer of water is chilled. As the temperature of the surface
layer drops toward 4°C, this layer becomes more dense than the warmer water below. The denser
water sinks and pushes up the deeper and warmer water, which in turn is chilled at the surface. This
process continues until the temperature of the entire lake reaches 4°C. Further cooling of the surface
water below 4°C makes it less dense than the deeper layers ; consequently, the surface layer does not
sink but stays on top. Continued cooling of the top layer to 0°C leads to the formation of ice that floats
on the water, because ice has a smaller density than water at any temperature. Below the ice, however,
the water temperature remains above 0°C. The sheet of ice acts as an insulator that reduces the loss of
heat from the lake, especially if the ice is covered with a blanket of snow, which is also an insulator. As
a result, lakes usually do not freeze solid, even during prolonged cold spells, so fish and other aquatic life
can survive.

ELASTICITY, CALORIMETRY & THERMAL EXPANSION [106]

 EXERCISE-I

Q.1 (a) Glass is more elastic than rubber

(b) Rubber is more elastic than glass
(c) Steel is more elastic than rubber
(d) Rubber is more elastic than steel
For the above statements–
(A) (a) and (b) are correct (B) (a) and (c) are correct
(C) (b) and (c) are correct (D) (b) and (d) are correct
Q.2 Two similar balls, one of which is made of ivory while the other, of clay, are dropped from the same
height, then–
(A) the ivory ball will bounce to a greater height
(B) the clay ball will bounce to a greater height
(C) both the balls will bounce to the same height
(D) the ivory ball will not at all bounce
Q.3 Which of the following is not a dimension less–
(A) Poisson ratio (B) Sharing strain (C) Longitudinal strain (D) Volume stress
Q.4 A steel wire is stretched by 1 kg. wt. If the radius of the wire is doubled, its Young’s modulus
will–
(A) remain unchanged (B) become half
(C) become double (D) become four times
Q.5 On stretching some substances, permanent elongation is caused, because–
(A) they are perfectly elastic (B) they are perfectly plastic
(C) more stress acts on them (D) their strain is infinite
Q.6 In a wire stretched by hanging a weight from its end, the elastic potential energy per unit volume
in terms of longitudinal strain  and modulus of elasticity Y is–
(A) Y 2/2 (B) Y /2 (C) Y 2 (D) Y2 /2
Q.7 10 gm of ice at – 20°C is added to 10 gm of water at 50°C. Specific heat of water = 1 cal/gm-°C,
specific heat of ice = 0.5 cal/gm-°C. Latent heat of ice = 80 cal/gm. Then resulting temperature is :-
(A) – 20°C (B) 15°C (C) 0°C (D) 50°C
Q.8 When vapour condenses into liquid :-
(A) it absorbs heat (B) it liberates heat
(C) its temperature increases (D) its temperature decreases
Q.9 A block of ice with mass m falls into a lake. After impact, a mass of ice m/5 melts. Both the block of ice
and the lake have a temperature of 0°C. If L represents the heat of fusion, the minimum distance the ice
fell before striking the surface is
L 5L gL mL
(A) (B) (C) (D)
5g g 5m 5g
Q.10 1 kg of ice at – 10°C is mixed with 4.4 kg of water at 30°C. The final temperature of mixture is :
(specific heat of ice is 2100 J/kg/k)
(A) 2.3°C (B) 4.4°C (C) 5.3°C (D) 8.7°C

ELASTICITY, CALORIMETRY & THERMAL EXPANSION [107]

Q.11 A 2100 W continuous flow geyser (instant geyser) has water inlet temperature = 10°C while the water
flows out at the rate of 20 g/sec. The outlet temperature of water must be about
(A) 20°C (B) 30°C (C) 35°C (D) 40°C
Q.12 The specific heat of a metal at low temperatures varies according to S = aT3 where a is a constant and
T is the absolute temperature. The heat energy needed to raise unit mass of the metal from
T = 1 K to T = 2 K is
15 a 2a 12 a
(A) 3 a (B) (C) (D)
4 3 5
Q.13 A spherical ball contracts in volume by 0.01% when subjected to a normal uniform pressure of
100 atmospheres. The bulk modulus of its material in dynes/ cm2 is-
(A) 10 × 1012 (B) 100 × 1012 (C) 1 × 1012 (D) 2.0 × 1011
Q.14 Two wires, one of copper and the other of steel, are of same length and cross section. They are
welded together to form a long wire. On suspending a weight at its one end, increment in length
is found to be 3 cms. If Young's modulus of steel is double that of copper, the increment in steel
wire will be-
(A) 1 cm (B) 2 cm (C) 1.5 cm (D) 2.5 cm
Q.15 The load versus strain graph for four wires of the same material is shown in the figure. The thickest wire
is represented by the line
(A) OB
(B) OA
(C) OD
(D) OC

EXERCISE - II

Q.1 Find the amount of heat supplied to decrease the volume of an ice water mixture by 1 cm3 without any
change in temperature. (ice = 0.9 water, Lice = 80 cal/gm).
(A) 360 cal (B) 500 cal (C) 720 cal (D) none of these
Q.2 Some steam at 100°C is passed into 1.1 kg of water contained in a calorimeter of water equivalent
0.02 kg at 15°C so that the temperature of the calorimeter and its contents rises to 80°C. What is the
mass of steam condensing. (in kg)
(A) 0.130 (B) 0.065 (C) 0.260 (D) 0.135
Q.3 A rod of length 2m rests on smooth horizontal floor. If the rod is heated from 0°C to 20°C. Find the
longitudinal strain developed? ( = 5 × 10–5/°C)
(A) 10–3 (B) 2 × 10–3 (C) Zero (D) None
Q.4 If two rods of length L and 2L having coefficients of linear expansion  and 2 respectively are connected
so that total length becomes 3L, the average coefficient of linear expansion of the composition rod
equals:
3 5 5
(A)  (B)  (C)  (D) none of these
2 2 3
Q.5 A thin copper wire of length L increase in length by 1% when heated from temperature T1 to T2. What is the
percentage change in area when a thin copper plate having dimensions 2L × L is heated from T1 to T2?
(A) 1% (B) 2% (C) 3% (D) 4%

ELASTICITY, CALORIMETRY & THERMAL EXPANSION [108]

Q.6 An open vessel is filled completely with oil which has same coefficient of volume expansion as that of the
vessel. On heating both oil and vessel,
(A) the vessel can contain more volume and more mass of oil
(B) the vessel can contain same volume and same mass of oil
(C) the vessel can contain same volume but more mass of oil
(D) the vessel can contain more volume but same mass of oil
Q.7 A composite rod consists of a steel rod of length 25 cm and area 2A and a copper rod of length 50cm
and area A. The composite rod is subjected to an axial load F. If the Young’s modulus of steel and
copper are in the ratio 2 : 1.
(A) the extension produced in copper rod will be more .
(B) the extension in copper and steel parts will be in the ratio 2 : 1.
(C) the stress applied to the copper rod will be more.
(D) no extension will be produced in the steel rod.
Q.8 The wires A and B shown in the figure are made of the same material
and have radii rA and rB respectively. The block between them has a mass m.
When the force F is mg/3, one of the wires breaks.
(A) A breaks if rA = rB
(B) A breaks if rA < 2rB
(C) Either A or B may break if rA = 2rB
(D) The lengths of A and B must be known to predict which wire will break
Q.9 Four rods A, B, C, D of same length and material but of different radii r, r 2 , r 3 and 2r respectively
are held between two rigid walls. The temperature of all rods is increased by same amount. If the rods
donot bend, then
(A) the stress in the rods are in the ratio 1 : 2 : 3 : 4.
(B) the force on the rod exerted by the wall are in the ratio 1 : 2 : 3 : 4.
(C) the energy stored in the rods due to elasticity are in the ratio 1 : 2 : 3 : 4.
(D) the strains produced in the rods are in the ratio 1 : 2 : 3 : 4.
Q.10 A body of mass M is attached to the lower end of a metal wire, whose upper end is fixed. The elongation
of the wire is l.
(A) Loss in gravitational potential energy of M is Mgl
(B) The elastic potential energy stored in the wire is Mgl
(C) The elastic potential energy stored in the wire is 1/2 Mgl
(D) Heat produced is 1/2 Mgl.
Q.11 An experiment is perfomed to measure the specific heat of copper. A lump of copper is heated in an
oven, then dropped into a beaker of water. To calculate the specific heat of copper, the experimenter
must know or measure the value of all of the quantities below EXCEPT the
(A) heat capacity of water and beaker
(B) original temperature of the copper and the water
(C) final (equilibrium) temperature of the copper and the water
(D) time taken to achieve equilibrium after the copper is dropped into the water
Q.12 When the temperature of a copper coin is raised by 80°C, its diameter increases by 0.2%.
(A) Percentage rise in the area of a face is 0.4 %
(B) Percentage rise in the thickness is 0.4 %
(C) Percentage rise in the volume is 0.6 %
(D) Coefficient of linear expansion of copper is 0.25 × 10–4 C° –1.

ELASTICITY, CALORIMETRY & THERMAL EXPANSION [109]

Q.13 A metallic rod l cm long with a square cross-section is heated through t°C. If Young’s modulus of
elasticity of the metal is E and the mean coefficient of linear expansion is  per degree Celsius, then the
compressional force required to prevent the rod from expanding along its length is :(Neglect the change
of cross-sectional area)
(A) EAt (B) EAt/(1 + t) (C) EAt/(1t) (D) E/t

EXERCISE - III

Q.1 A wire suspended vertically from one of its ends is stretched by attaching a weight of 200 N to the
lower end. The weight stretches the wire by 1 mm. Then the elastic energy stored in the wire is –
[AIEEE-2003]
(A) 10 J (B) 20 J (C) 0.1 J (D) 0.2J
Q.2 A spring of spring constant 5 × 103 N/m is stretched initially by 5 cm from the unstretched position. Then
the work required to stretch it further by another 5 cm is – [AIEEE-2003]
(A) 18.75 N-m (B) 25.00 N-m (C) 6.25 N-m (D) 12.50 N-m
Q.3 A wire fixed at the upper end stretched by length  by applying a force F. The work done in stretching
is – [AIEEE-2004]

F F
(A) 2F (B) F (C) (D)
2 2

Q.4 If 'S' is stress and 'Y' is Young's modulus of material of a wire, the energy stored in the wire per unit
volume is [AIEEE-2005]

S2 2Y S
(A) 2S2Y (B) (C) (D)
2Y S2 2Y

Q.5 A wire elongates by  mm when a load W is hanged from it. If the wire goes over a pulley and two
weights W each are hung at the two ends, the elongation of the wire will be (in mm)– [AIEEE-2006]
(A) zero (B) /2 (C)  (D) 2
Q.6 Two wires are made of the same material and have the same volume. Howerver wire 1 has cross-section
area A and wire 2 has cross-section area 3A. If the length of wire 1 increases by x on applying force F,
how much force is needed to stretch wire 2 by the same amount ? [AIEEE-2009]
(A) F (B) 4 F (C) 6 F (D) 9 F

ELASTICITY, CALORIMETRY & THERMAL EXPANSION [110]

 THEORY
KTG & THERMODYNAMICS
AIEEE Syllabus :
Equation of state of a perfect gas, work doneon compressing a gas. Kinetic theory of gases - assumptions,
concept of pressure. Kinetic energy and temperature, rms spees of gas molecules; Degress of freedom,
Law of equipartition of energy, applications of specific heat capacities of gases; Mean free path, Avogadro's
number. Thermal equilibrium, zeroth law of thermodynamics, concept of temperature. Heat, work and
internal energy. First law of thermodynamics. Second law of thermodynamics: reversible and irreversible
processes. Cannot engine and its efficiency.
Assumptions :
(i) Volume of gas is same as that of vessel. (Defines volume).
(ii) A gas consists of large number of identical, tiny and elastic particles called molecules.
(iii) In a gas molecules are moving in all possible directions with all possible speeds randomly.
(iv) The size of a molecule is much smaller than the average separation between the molecules
(v) The molecules exert no force on each other or on the wall of container except during collision.
(vi) The molecules obey Newton’s Laws of motion.
(vii) All collisions between two molecules are perfectly elastic.
(viii) Time spent during collision is negligibly small compared to avg. duration of time passed between two
collisions.
Note : 1. For real gases these assumptions are true only at low densities.
2. Since there is no force of interaction between moleculas, there is no potential energy of the system of
molecules.
Different Velocities of molecule of a gas :

(1) Instantaneous velocity ( v) : velocity of molecule at any instant of time :

(2) Instantaneous speed (| v |) : speed of molecule at any instant of time.

(3) Average velocity ( v ) :
   
 |v| v1  v 2  .....  v N
 v  v  = =0
N N
Because molecules are in random motion
(4) Average speed ( (| v |) ) :
   
  | v | | v1 |  | v 2 | ... | v N |
| v || v | 
N N

8RT RT kT
  1.59  1.59
M M m
(5) Most probable speed (vmp) : This is defined as the speed with which maximum number of molecules
travel.
2RT 2kT
v mp  
M m
(6) Root mean square speed (RMS speed) (vrms) :

 v2 v12  v 22  ...v 2N
v rms  
N N

3RT 3kT 3PV 3P

   
M m nM d
KTG & THERMODYNAMICS [111]
MAXWELL'S DISTRIBUTION LAW :
(a) Molecules can have all possible velocities in the range from 0 to .
(b) The curve between number of molecule per unit velocity range and velocity at different temperature is as
shown.

dn T=300K T=1000K
dv

vmp vmp
v

(c) The number of molecules belonging to finite velocity range is constant however the velocity of each
molecule is changing.
Conclusion :
(a) Different molecules have different velocities.
(b) As the temperature increases, the number of molecules having higher velocities increases.
(c) At a given temperature, the velocity which maximum number of molecules posses, is called most
probable velocity (vmp).
(d) With the increase in the temperature the most probable velocity increases.
(e) Area under the curve represent the total number of molecules.
Derivation for pressure of gas :
(i) Lets consider a cubical vessel of side L kept such that one of its corner is origin and its sides are along
three axis.
(ii) Lets name wall ar to x-axis as A1 and A2. An ideal gas is filled in this vessel with all molecular of mass
m0.

(iii) Lets consider one of the molecule of this ideal gas having velocity V , w.r.t. centre of mass of the system
component of its velocity along x, y and z are Vx, Vy & Vz respectively.
y

A2 A1
x

z
(iv) Lets consider collision of this particle with wall A1 change in momentum of the molecule
Pf – Pi
Pm = (– m0Vx) – (m0Vx)
= – 2m0Vx
(v)  Pw = 2m0Vx
i.e. the momentum gained by wall per collision is 2m0Vx
(vi) Distance travelled by molecule before it comes back to A1 is 2L.
thus time taken between two consecutive collisions with wall A1 by this molecule
2L
t = v
x

KTG & THERMODYNAMICS [112]

 Pw
(vii) Rate of change of momentum of wall A1 =
t
mv 2x
F1 =
L
(viii) Force experienced by wall A1 due to collision with all the molecule of the container.
 m v 21
0 x
m0 v2 2 m 0 v 2x n 
x
Ftotal =  L  L  .......... L
 

 
m0
= v 2x1  v 2x 2  ......... v 2x n
 
L
n
m0
=  v 2x
L i1
(ix) Pressure exerted on the wall A1
n
Ftotal m0
P= 2 = 3
L L
 v 2x
i 1
(x) We know
V12  Vx21  Vy21  Vz21
V22  Vx22  Vy22  Vz22
V32  Vx23  Vy23  Vz23
:
VN2  VxN
2
 Vy2N  V22N

V 2 = Vx2  Vy2  Vz2

Since distribution is random
2
Vx2 = Vy = Vz2
V 2
 Vx2 =
3
m0
P= V2
3L3

m0 N  V 2 
(xi) P=   ( V 2 is mean square velocity)
 N 
3L3  
m
= 2
3L3 V
 2
= V 
3
V 2
Vrms =
N
1 2
=  Vrms
3
KTG & THERMODYNAMICS [113]
Translational kinetic energy of gas :
Kinetic energy of any molecule is k1

1
k1 = m V2
2 0 1
Total K.E. of all molecules is k
1 2
k =  m0V
2

1 1  V 2 
= m0V2 = m0N  
2 2  N 
 

m 2 m 3RT
= V = ×
2 rms 2 M

3nRT m 
k=   n
2 M 

3 PV
k=
2

3
K.E. / volume = P
2
INTERNAL ENERGY
Degree of freedom :
No of ways in which molecule can passes energy is known as degree of freedom.
S. N. Gas Translatory Rotation Vibration Total
1. Monoatomic 3 0 0 3
2. Diatomic 3 2 0 5
Law of equipartition of energy :
Statement : For an ideal gas average energy associated with its any molecule for each degree of freedom
KT
is .
2
f KT
Let f be the degree of freedom for a gas. Average energy associated with its any molecule =
2
N f KT
Total kinetic energy of a gas =
2
f RT
Kinetic energy of one mole of gas =
2
Value of internal energy of a gas :
Internal energy of gas should be sum of K.E. and P.E. of its constitute molecules.
But for ideal gas we has assumed P.E. = 0

KTG & THERMODYNAMICS [114]

 (Since force of interaction between molecules is zero)
Thus
I.E. of a gas = K.E. of molecules
If f is the degree of freedom of a gas molecules than total K.E. [Trans + Rotation of each molecule ]
f RT
for one mole V=
2
for n mole of gas at T1 kelvin
n f RT1
U1 =
2
n f RT2
at T2 kelvin U2 =
2
nf R
change in I.E. U = (T2 – T1)
2
Gas and Gas Laws :
Properties of gases
(a) It has no shape and size and can be contained in any size and shaped vessel.
(b) It expands indefinitely and uniformly to fill the available space.
(c) It can be compressed very easily.

Gas Laws :
Boyle’s Law :
(a) This law is applicable only for a constant mass (or amount) of gas.
(b) Statement : For a given mass of gas at constant temperature the pressure is inversely proportional to
its volume.
1
P
V
or PV = constant This is called process equation.
Here T is constant & M is constant
(c) Graph

P P

V 1/V
(d) Relation between states
A (P1, V1, T)  B (P2, V2, T)
then P1V1 = P2V2
Note : Ideal gas equation is always applicable.

Charle’s law
(a) This law is valid only for constant mass
(b) For a given amount of gas at constant pressure the volume is directly proportional to its absolute tem-
perature.
V  T at const. pressure

KTG & THERMODYNAMICS [115]

 V
(c) process equation = constant
T
here T is in kelvin only
(d) Graph

V V

T 1/T

(e) Relation between states

A (P, V1, T1)  B (P, V2, T2) m is constant

V1 V2
T1 = T2

Gay Lussac’s law :

(a) Valid only for constant mass.
(b) Statement : For a given amount of gas having constant volume the pressure is directly proportional to
absolute temperature.
P  T at constant volume is in kelvin
(c) Process equation
P
= constant
T
(d) Graph

P P

T 1/T

(e) Relation between states

A (P1, V, T1)  B (P2, V, T2)

P1 P2
T1 = T2

Ideal gas equation :

Ideal gas
(a) It is a hypothetical model of gas on which all the laws that we discuss are applicable
(b) All postulates of K.T.G. are valid.

KTG & THERMODYNAMICS [116]

(c) All gas laws at all possible pressure, temperature and volume are valid.
(d) Ideal gas will always follow ideal gas equation.

Symbols and constants :

P = Pressure of gas
V = Volume of gas
T = Temperature of gas
n = no. of moles
M = mol. wt. of gas
m0 = mass of each atom or molecule
N = total no. of molecules
N0 = Avogadro no.
K = Boltzmann gas constant = 1.38 × 10–23 JK–1
R = Universal gas constant
R
 = Specific gas constant =
M
m = mass of gas
Ideal gas equation :
(a) PV = nRT
d RT
(b) P= (d is density of gas)
M
(c) PV = NKT (per molecule)
(d) PV =mT
m N
* n= = N
M 0
* M = m0N0
R
* K= N
0
MEAN FREE PATH :
(i) The path traversed in a straight line by a molecule of a gas before it collides with another molecules is
called free path.
(ii) The average distance travelled in between two successive collisions by a molecule is called mean free
path. It is represented by  .
total dis tan ce travelled
(iii) Mean free path = total number of collisions

KTG & THERMODYNAMICS [117]

(iv) If a molecule travels distance 1, 2, 3....4 in N different collision during time t. Mean free path will be:
1   2   3  ....   N

N
(v) If the average velocity of molecule is v , then
vt

N
(vi) From kinetic theory the mean free path
1

2 2n
where  is diameter of a molecule and n is the number of molecules in a unit volume of the gas
(vii) If m is the mass of a molecule, then
1 m

2  2 mn
but mn =  = density of the gas
1 m
 
2  2
(viii) Mean free path is related to the temperature and the pressure as
kT

2 2P
where T = temperature, k = Boltzman constant, P = pressure.
1
(ix) Therefore   i.e. the mean free path is inversely proportional to the density of a gas.

P
(x) For constant volume and hence constant number density n of gas molecules, is constant so that 
T
will not depend on P and T.
But if volume of given mass of a gas is allowed to change with P or T then
1
i.e.   T at constant pressure and   at constant temperature.
P
On increasing the temperature at constant pressure the mean free path increases and on increasing the
pressure at constant temperature the mean free path decreases.
REAL GAS VANDER WALL GAS EQUATION :
(i) Real gases do not obey indeal gas equation.
(ii) In order to explain the behaviour of real gases following two modification are considered in ideal gas
equation :
(A) Non-zero size of molecules : A certain portion of volume of a gas is covered by the molecules them-
selves. Therefore the space available for the freely motion of molecules of a gas will be slightly less than
the volume V of a gas. This decreases in volume of a gas will be (V – b). b is about four times the actual
volume occupied by the molecules.
(B) Intermolecular force : Attractive force acts between molecules of real gases. Due to this molecules do
not exert that force on the wall which they would have exerted in absence of intermolecular force.
Therefore the observed pressure P of the gas will be less than the pressure in absence of intermolecular
a
force. This decreases in pressure is assumed to be equal , where 'a' is a constant.
V2

KTG & THERMODYNAMICS [118]

 Therefore pressure of a real gas will be
RT a
P  2 , where P is observed prssure.
( V  b) V
(iii) The equation obtained by using above mentioned modification in ideal gas equation is called Vander
wall's equation or real gas equation. It is as follows :
 a 
 P  2 ( V  b)  RT
 V 
(iv) Real gases at low pressure and high temperatures behave like ideal gases.
(v) a and b are constants and value are different for different gases.
(vi) a is a constant for a gas.
Unit of a = (pressure × volume2)
= (N × m4)
Dimensions of a = M1L5T2
(vii) b is a constant for a gas. The value of b is four times the volume occupied by the molecules.
Unit of b is unit of volume = m3
Dimensions of b = m0L3T0
(viii) Pressure exerted by ideal gases.
(ix) Specific heat of real gas increases with increases of temperature.

CRITICAL POINT OR CRITICAL CONSTANT :

(i) Critical temperature (TC) : Temperature below which a gas can be liquefied only by increase in
pressure and above which no liquification is possible whatever the pressure P be :
(ii) Critical pressure (PC) : The minimum pressure required to liquefy a gas when it is at critical tempera-
ture (TC)
(iii) Critical (specific) volume (VC) : The volume of unit mass of a gas at critical pressure and temperature.
(iv) Triple point : The temperature at which all the three states of matter coexist in equilibrium
8a
TC 
27 Rb
8a 2
PC  b and VC = 3b
27
(Where a and b are constant)

Calculation of work done by gas :

A
If the piston moves towards right a dx distance then work done by this force is dW.
dW = F . dx
= P (A . dx)
dW = PdV

KTG & THERMODYNAMICS [119]

 V2

dW=  PdV
V1

Graphical interpretation :
From above integral it can be understood that area enclosed by PV-curve and V-axis represents the
work done by gas.

P v2
V W+ve
W +ve
(i) (ii) v1

v1 v2 V P

P
W–ve V v1 W–ve
(iii) (iv) v2

v2 v1 V
P
When volume decrease W is –ve
Illustration :
Indirect technique(for quasistatic process) :
Work done by gas + work done by all external agents = 0
 Work done by gas = – (work done by all the external agents)

Illustration :

P0

x
Work done by gas + WD by spring + W.D. by atm press = 0
W.D. by gas = – (W. D. by atm press + W.D. by spring)
= – [(– P0Ax) + (– 1/2 kx2 – 0)
1
= P0Ax + kx2
2

KTG & THERMODYNAMICS [120]

 HEAT

Definition :
Heat is defined as the amount of energy transfer from one body to another body or from one part of a
body to other part of the body by virtue of temperature difference.
Important points :
(a) When two bodies at different temperature are brought in contact the hotter body cools down and the
cooler body warms up due to the transfer of heat from hotter body to cooler body.
(b) “Heat is energy in transit due to temperature different between the body” when heat is transferred from
one body to another body then after the transfer this heat becomes part of internal energy or is used for
doing work.
Unit & Dimension :
SI unit  Joule
Dimension  ML2T–2
Specific heat of gas :
Types of specific heat of gas :
(a) Molar specific heat : Unit mass is taken as one mole
Units  J / mole – k

(b) Gram specific heat : Unit mass is taken as 1kg or 1 gm.

Units  J / kg-k or J / gm-k
C molar
Cgram =
M

Definition :
Amount of heat required to raise temperature of one unit amount (mass or mole) by one unit temperature
through a given process is known as specific heat of that process.
 dQ 
Cprocess =  n T 
  process
Note : Thus any gas can have infinite specific heats depending on the infinite different processes.
T2

Q =  n C dT where C is the sp. heat for the process through which temperature from T to T .
1 2
T1

Note : C remains inside the integral because it may be a variable i.e. C may be a function of temperature
(directly or indirectly).

Specific heat at constant volume :

 dQ 
Represented as Cv Cv =  n dT 
 const. volume

fR
Its experimental value is found to be very close to
2

KTG & THERMODYNAMICS [121]

 fR
thus Cv =
2
Specific heat at constant pressure :
Represented as Cp
 dQ 
Cp =  n dT 
 const. pressure

( f  2) R
its experimental value is found to be almost equal to
2
( f  2) R
Cp =
2
Adiabatic exponent () :
Cp
=
Cv
2 R R
 =1+  Cv =   1  Cp =   1
f

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Statement : dQ = dU + dW (For zero heat loss)

dQ = heat supplied to the system
dU = change in internal energy
dW = work done by the system
* This law is a form of energy conservation.

Sign convention :
(i) Whenever heat is added to the system sign is +ve
(ii) Whenever system rejects the heat sign is -ve

Work (dW) :
(i) ( V) sign is +ve (ii) sign is -ve (V)
Internal energy (dU) :
(i) When temperature increases sign is +ve
(ii) When temperature decreases sign is -ve

Application of first law of thermodynamics :

Isochoric process :
(i) Conditions  V is constant
P
(ii) Process equation  = constant
T
(iii) A  B
( P1 , V, T1 ) ( P2 V, T2 )
,

KTG & THERMODYNAMICS [122]

 P1 P2
T1 = T2 [While PV = nRT will relate variables in same state ]

(iv) P-V curve

P P2

P1

v
V
(v) dW = 0 since dV = 0
n f0R
(vi) U = (T1  T1 )
2
(vii) Q = nCv (T2 – T1)
(viii) Applying F.L.T.
O + U = Q
f R
 n  (T – T1) = nCv (T2 – T1)
 2  1
fR
 Cv =
2
dP
(ix) Bulk modulus = – =–
(dV / V)
(x) sp. heat Cv

Isobaric process :
(i) Condition : P is constant
V
(ii) Process equation  is constant
T
A B
(iii) •
(P, V1, T1) (P, V2, T2)

V1 V2 PV1  nRT1
T1 = T2 PV2  nRT2
(iv) P – V curve

V
v2

(v) W=  P dv
v1

= P (V2 – V1)
= nR (T2 – T1)

KTG & THERMODYNAMICS [123]

(vi) dU = nCv dT
U = nCv (T2 – T1)

(vii) dQ = nCpdT
Q = nCp (T2 – T1)

(viii) Applying FLT

nCp (T2 – T1) = nCv (T2 – T1) + nR (T2 – T1)
 Cp – C v = R
(known as meyer’s relation)

Characteristic gas constant :

Gas constant expressed for particular gas in terms of mass is known as characteristic gas constant of that
particular gas.
R ( universal gas const.)
R characteristic =
M ( mol. wt. of gas )
Units J / gm-k or J / kg-k

(ix) Bulk modulus

 dp
B=
dV / V  = 0
(x) Sp. heat capacity Cp
Isothermal process :
(i) Condition  Temp. is constant
(ii) Process equation  PV = const.
A B
(iii) •
(P 1, V 1, T) (P2, V2, T)
P1V1 = P2V2 P1V1 = nRT
P2V2 = nRT
(iv) P-V curve

P
dP P
slope = =
dV V
V

V2 V2
dV
(v) W =  PdV = k
V1 V1 V

V2
= PV ln V
1

V2 V2
= P1V1 ln V = P1V2 ln V
1 1

KTG & THERMODYNAMICS [124]

 V2 P1
= nRT ln V = nRT ln P
1 2

(vi) dU = 0
(vii) From FLT
dQ = dW
V2
Q = nRT ln V
1

dP
(viii) B= 
dV / V  = P
 dQ 
(ix) Specific heat = C =  n dT  = 
 
By adiabatic process :
(i) Condition dQ = 0
(ii) Process equation PVr = const.
A B
(iii) •
(P1, V 1, T1) (P2, V 2, T2)
P1V1 = P2V2 P1V1 = nRT1
P2V2 = nRT2

(iv) P-V curve

P
dP P
slope = =
dV V
V

V2

(v) W =  PdV (since Pv = k) 

V1

v2 v2
 kv   1 P2 V2  P1V1
=k  V dV = (    1) =
1 
v1 v1

(vi) V = nCv (T2 – T1)

nR (T2  T1 ) P2 V2  P1V1
= =
 1  1

(vii) Applying FLT we can see that

0 = W + U  U = – W
dP
(viii) B = – dV/ V = P

KTG & THERMODYNAMICS [125]

(ix) Sp. heat
dQ
C = n dT = 0

Results :
(i) For expansion from same initial vol. & pressure to same final volume 
Wisobaric > Wisothermal > Wadiabatic

P isobaric
•
isothermal
adiabatic

V1 V V2

(ii) For compression from same initial state to same final volume

Wadia
Wib
Wisobaric
V2 V1

(iii) At pt. of interaction (slope of isothermal) x  = slope of adiabatic.

P adiabatic

isothermal

V
Polytropic process :
(i) Characteristic equation process
PVx = const.

V2

(ii) W=  PdV

V1

V2
k  V2 x 1  V1 x 1 
=  x dV k
=  

V1 V   x  1 

k k
V  x V1
x 2
V V1 P2 V2  P1V1
= =
1 x 1 x
n R ( T2  T1 )
=
lx

n R (T2  T1 )
(iii) U =
(   1)

KTG & THERMODYNAMICS [126]

(iv) From FLT
dQ = dW + dU
 1 1 
Q = nR (T2 – T1) 1  x    1 
 
(v) Sp. heat
Q = nc (T2 – T1)
R R
C= +  1
1 x
Cyclic process :
It is combination of two or more than two processes in which initial and final state of the system is same
(i) dU = 0 P
Total change in I.E. is zero because initial & final temp. is same B
A
(ii) Applying FLT
dQ = dW V
(iii) Net work done in a cyclic process is area bounded by process curve on PV diagram.

P  
P  P  V

V V V P
(iv) Efficiency of cyclic process :
Total work done ( ve and  ve both )
 = Total heat sup plied (only  ve heat ) to the system × 100
Second Law of Thermodynamics :
(A) Heat Engine T H

Heat engine is a device which converts heat into work continuously through QH
a cyclic process.
Every heat engine basically consists of three parts, a hot body called source, W
a working substance and a cold body called sink. In a heat engine work-
ing substance absorbs heat from the source (at a higher temperature TH),
converts a part of it into useful work (usually motion of piston) and rejecting QL
the rest to the sink (usually atmosphere) at a lower temperature TL comes
back to its initial state. By repeating the same cycle over and over again, T L

work is continuously obtained.

The performance of a heat engine is expressed by means of 'efficiency' 
which is defined as the ratio of useful work obtained from the engine to the
heat supplied to it,
work done W
i.e.,   ...(i)
heat input Q H
But by first law of thermodynamics for cyclic process (i.e., U = 0)
Q = Q, i.e., W = QH – QL
Q  QL Q
so  H  1 L ...(ii)
QH QH
A perfect heat engine is one which converts all heat into work, i.e., W = QH so that QL = 0 and hence,
for it , n = 1.

KTG & THERMODYNAMICS [127]

(B) Refrigerator (or Heat Pump) :
A refrigerator or heat pump is a basically a heat engine run in reverse TH
direction. In it working substance takes heat QL from a body at a lower QH
temperature TL, has a net amount of work done W on it by an external agent
(usually compressor) and gives out a larger amount of heat QH to a hot body at
W
teperature TH (usually atmosphere). Thus, it transfers heat from a cold to a hot
body at the expense of mechanical energy supplied to it by an external agent.
The cold body is thus cooled more and more. The working substance is called QL
'refrigerator'.
The performance of a refrigerator is expressed bymeans of 'coefficient TL
of performance' K which is defined as the ratio of the heat extracted from the
cold body to the work needed to transfer it to the hot body
heat extracted
i.e., K
work done
QL
 ...(iii)
W
But by first law of thermodynamics for cyclic process (i.e., U = 0)
Q = W, i.e. W = QH – QL
QL
so K
QH  QL
A perfect refrigerator is one which transfers heat from cold to hot body without doing work, i.e., W = 0
so that QH = QL and hence, for it K = .
(C) The second Law :
The first law of thermodynamics tells us that in a thermodynamic process taking place, energy will be
conserved. However, it does not tell us whether a given process in which energy is conserved will
actually take place or not, e.g.,
(1) When two bodies at different temperatures are put in thermal contact, heat flows from the body at higher
temperature to the body at lower temperature. Can the reverse take place, i.e., can heat flow the body
at lower temperature to the body at higher temperature ?
(2) When a moving body is stopped through friction (e.g., in friction cone method) all the mechanical energy
(work) can be converted into heat. Can the reverse take place, i.e., can a body on cooling start moving
with conversion of all its heat energy into mechanical energy (work) ?
(3) The gas in a container is allowed to diffuse into another evacuated container. Can the reverse of this be
possible, i.e., can the gas collect by itself in the initial container, evacuating the other ?
In all these cases the reverse processes never take place. Though the first law of thermodynamics is not
violated (i.e., energy is conserved both in forward and reverse processes), still the reverse process does
not occur. So there must be law of nature other than the 1st law which decides whether a given process,
allowed by 1st law, will actually take place or not. This law is the second law of thermodynamics.
Though the law has been stated in many forms, the following two forms are worth mentioning :
(a) Kelvin's Statement :
According to Kelvin, "It is impossible for an engine operating in a cyclic process to extract heat from a
reservoir and convert it completely into work." In other words, whole of heat can never be converted
into work (though its reverse is possible, i.e., whole of work can be converted into heat), i.e., a perfect
heat engine can never be constructed.
(b) Clausius Statement
According to it, "It is impossible for a self-acting machine unaided by any external agency to transfer heat
from a cold to a hot reservoir." In other words, heat by itself cannot pass from a colder to a hotter
body.
These two statements of the second law are equivalent to each other because if one is violated the other
is also automatically.
KTG & THERMODYNAMICS [128]
 Question IV. The temperature of the surface of the sun is about 6000 K. Can we produce a tempera-
ture of 8000 K by converging sun's rays with the help of a large lens ?
Answer : No ; as according to 2nd law of thermodynamics heat connot be transferred from a body at
lower temperature to a body at higher temperature by itself. (By the given method we can produce
temperatures upto 6000 K only)
CARNOT HEAT ENGINE :
(A) The Engine :
As according to the second law of thermodynamics whole of heat can never be converted into work, the
question then arises under what conditions the conversion of heat to work is these questions Carnot
developed an ideal heat engine which is supposed to consist of the following four components :
(1) A cylinder with perfectly non-conducting walls and a perfectly conducting base containing a perfect gas
as working substance and fitted with a non-conducting frictionaless piston'
(2) A source of infinite thermal capacity maintained at constant higher temperature TH;
(3) A sink of infinite thermal capacity maintained at constant lower temperature TL; and
(4) A perfectly non-conducting stand for the cylinder.

Ideal Source
Gas TH

Sink
Stand TL

Here it is worth mentioning that as all the above mentioned components cannot exist in reality, Carnot
engine is an ideal (hypothetical) engine which can never be actually constructed.
(B) Carnot Cycle [or Working of the Engine] :
The working substance in a Carnot engine is taken through a TH
A B
reversible cycle consisting of the folloing four steps :
D C
(i) The cylinder containing ideal gas is placed on the source and the gas P TL
is allowed to expand slowly at constant temperature TH absorbing heat
QH. This isothermal change is represented by the curve AB in the indica- VA VD VB VC
tor diagram. V
(ii) The cylinder is then placed on the non-conducting stand and the gas is alloweed to expand adiabatically
till the temperature falls from THto TL. This adiabatic expansion is represented by the curve BC.
(iii) The cylinder is next placed on the sink and the gas is compressed at constant temperature TL. This
adiabatic expansion is represented by the curve BC.
(iv) Finally the cylinder is again placed on the non-conducting stand and the compression is continued so that
the gas returns to its initial stage along DA.
The closed pathABCDA represents the so called Carnot cycle and the four stages taken together
represent a cyclic process
(C) Efficiency of the Engine :
The efficiency of a engine is defined as the ratio of work done to the heat supplied, i.e.,
Work done W
  ...(i)
heat input WH
But as for cyclic process W = i.e., W = QH – QL
So eqn. (i) reduces to

KTG & THERMODYNAMICS [129]

 QH  QL Q
  1 L ...(ii)
QH QH
Now as in an isothermal process internal energy remains constant, in accordance with first law
Q = W = nRT loge (VF/VI) [as U = 0]
 VB 
So QH = nRTH loge  V 
 A
V 
and | QL | nRTL log C  ...(iii)
 RD 
But as for adiabatics BC and DA respectively,
THVB–1 = TLVC–1 and THVA–1 = TLVD–1
Dividing these two results,
 1  1
 VB  V  V V
    C  , i.e., B  C ...(iv)
 VA   VD  VA VD
Substituting the value of QH and QL from, equation (iii) in (ii) in the light of (iv), we get
TL
  1 ...(v)
TH
This is the required result and from this it is clear that :
(1) Efficiency of a heat engine depends only on temperatures of source and sink and is independent of all
other factors.
(2) All reversible heat engines working between same temperatures are equally efficient and no heat engine
can be more efficient than Carnot engine (as it is ideal).
(3) As on Kelvin scale temperature can never be negative (as 0 K is defined as lowest possible temperature)
and TH and TL are finite, efficiency of a heat engine is always lesser than unity, i.e., whole of heat can
never be converted into work which is in accordance with second law.
The efficiency of actual engines is much lesser than that of ideal engine. Actually the practical efficiency of
a steam engine is about (8-15)% while that of a petrol engine 40%. The efficiency of a disesel engine is
maximum and is about (50-55)%.
ENTROPY :
Entropy is a measure of disorder of molecular motion of a system. Greater is the disorder, greater is the
entropy.
Heat absorbed by system
The change in entropy i.e. dS 
AbsoluteTemperature
dQ
or dS 
T
This relation is called the mathematical form of second law of thermodynamics.
dQ
dQ is a path function but called Entropy is a state function.
T
dQ
  dS  Sfinal  Sinitial  S 
T

KTG & THERMODYNAMICS [130]

 EXERCISE-I
Q.1 An ideal gas follows a process PT = constant. The correct graph between pressure & volume is

(A) (B) (C) (D)

Q.2 The expansion of an ideal gas of mass m at a constant pressure P is

given by the straight line B. Then the expansion of the same ideal gas of
mass 2 m at a pressure 2P is given by the straight line
(A) C (B) A (C) B (D) none

Q.3 A given mass of a gas expands from a state A to the state B by three paths 1, 2 T 1 B
and 3 as shown in T-V indicator diagram. If W1, W2 and W3 respectively be
2
the work done by the gas along the three paths, then A 3
(A) W1 > W2 > W3 (B) W1 < W2 < W3 O V

(C) W1 = W2 = W3 (D) W1 < W2, W1 > W3

Q.4 Pressure versus temperature graph of an ideal gas is shown in figure
(A) During the process AB work done by the gas is positive
(B) during the process CD work done by the gas is negative
(C) during the process BC internal energy of the gas is increasing
(D) None
Q.5 One mole of an ideal gas is contained with in a cylinder by a frictionless piston and is initially at
temperature T. The pressure of the gas is kept constant while it is heated and its volume doubles. If R is
molar gas constant, the work done by the gas in increasing its volume is
(A) RT ln2 (B) 1/2 RT (C) RT (D) 3/2 RT
Q.6 A polyatomic gas with six degrees of freedom does 25J of work when it is expanded at constant pressure.
The heat given to the gas is
(A) 100J (B) 150J (C) 200J (D) 250J
Q.7 A cyclic process ABCA is shown in PT diagram. When presented on PV, it would

(A) (B) (C) (D)

Q.8 A vessel contains an ideal monoatomic gas which expands at constant pressure, when heat Q is given to
it. Then the work done in expansion is :
3 2 2
(A) Q (B) Q (C) Q (D) Q
5 5 3
Q.9 A given quantity of an ideal gas is at pressure P and absolute temperature T. The isothermal bulk
modulus of the gas is :
(A) 2P/3 (B) P (C) 3P/2 (D) 2P
Q.10 If the rms speed of the nitrogen molecules of the gas at room temperature is 500 m/s, then the rms speed
of the hydrogen molecules at the same temperature will be -
(A) 1870 m/s (B) 1935 m/s (C) 7000 m/s (D) 83.7 m/s
Q.11 An ideal monoatomic gas is taken round the cycle ABCDA as shown P-V diagram. The work-
done during the cycle is : (2P,V) (2P,2V)
(A) PV B C
(B) 2 PV P
(C) PV/2 A D
(D) zero (P,V) (P, 2V)
V
KTG & THERMODYNAMICS [131]
Q.12 An ideal gas is taken through series of changes ABCA. The amount of work involved in the cycle
is :
(A) 12P1V1 P A
4P1
(B) 6P1V1

(C) 3P1V1 P1 C B
V
O V1 3V1
(D) P1V1
Q.13 During the adiabatic change of ideal gas, the relation between the pressure and the density will be:
1/ 
P1  d 2 
(A)   (B) P1d = P2d2
P2  d1 

1/ 
P1  d1 
(C) P1d1 – = P 2d2 – (D)  
P2  d 2 
Q.14 The increase in temperature of a gas under isothermal compression is Ti. If the gas is compressed
adiabatically, the increase in temperature is Ta. This implies :
(A) Ti = Ta (B) Ti = 0 (C) Ta = 0 (D) Ta < Ti

EXERCISE-II

Q.1 A cylindrical tube of cross-sectional area A has two air tight frictionless pistons at its two ends. The
pistons are tied with a straight two ends. The pistons are tied with a straight piece of metallic wire. The
tube contains a gas at atmospheric pressure P0 and temperature T0. If temperature of the gas is doubled
then the tension in the wire is
(A) 4 P0 A (B) P0A/2
(C) P0 A (D) 2 P0 A
Q.2 At a temperature T K, the pressure of 4.0g argon in a bulb is p. The bulb is put in a bath having
temperature higher by 50K than the first one. 0.8g of argon gas had to be removed to maintained original
pressure. The temperature T is equal to
(A) 510 K (B) 200 K (C) 100 K (D) 73 K
Q.3 An open and wide glass tube is immersed vertically in mercury in such a way that length 0.05 m extends
above mercury level. The open end of the tube is closed and the tube is raised further by 0.43 m. The
length of air column above mercury level in the tube will be : Take Patm = 76 cm of mercury
(A) 0.215 m (B) 0.2 m (C) 0.1 m (D) 0.4 m
Q.4 One mole of a gas expands obeying the relation as shown in the P/V diagram.
The maximum temperature in this process is equal to
PV 3P V 9P V
(A) 0 0 (B) 0 0 (C) 0 0 (D) None of these
R R 8R
Q.5 A vessel contains 1 mole of O2 gas (molar mass 32) at a temperature T. The pressure of the gas is P. An
identical vessel containing one mole of He gas (molar mass 4) at a temperature 2T has a pressure of
(A) P/8 (B) P (C) 2P (D) 8P
Q.6 A gas mixture consists of 2 moles of oxygen and 4 moles of argon at temperature T. Neglecting all
vibrational modes, the total internal energy of the system is
(A) 4 RT (B) 15 RT (C) 9 RT (D) 11 RT

KTG & THERMODYNAMICS [132]

Q.7 Three particles have speeds of 2u , 10u and 11u. Which of the following statements is correct?
(A) The r.m.s. speed exceeds the mean speed by about u.
(B) The mean speed exceeds the r.m.s. speed by about u.
(C) The r.m.s. speed equals the mean speed.
(D) The r.m.s. speed exceeds the mean speed by more than 2u.
Q.8 Two identical vessels A & B contain equal amount of ideal monoatomic
gas. The piston of A is fixed but that of B is free. Same amount of heat is
absorbed by A & B. If B's internal energy increases by 100 J the change
in internal energy of A is
500
(A) 100 J (B) J
3
(C) 250 J (D) none of these
Q.9 An ideal gas is taken through cyclic thermodynamic process through four steps. The amount of heat
involved these steps are Q1 = 5960 J, Q2 = – 5585 J, Q3 = – 2980 J and Q4 = 3645 J respectively. The
corresponding quantities of work involved are W 1 = 2200 J, W 2 = – 825 J,
W3 = – 1100 J, and W4 respectively. Then, the value of W4 is :
(A) Zero (B) 275 J (C) 765 J (D) 1040 J
Q.10 The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a diatomic gas by 1°C at constant pressure is
Qp and at constant volume is Qv. The amount of heat which goes as internal energy of the gas in the
two cases is nearly :-
(A) Qp and Qv (B) 0.71 Qp and 0.71 Qv
(C) 0.71 Qp and Qv (D) 0.7 Qp and 0.9 Qv

EXERCISE - III

Q.1 A cylinder of height 20 m is completely filled with water. The velocity of efflux of water (in ms–1) through
a small hole on the side wall of the cylinder near its bottom is : [AIEEE-2002]
(A) 10 m/s (B) 20 m/s (C) 25.5 m/s (D) 5 m/s
Q.2 1 mole of gas with  = 7/5 is mixed with 1 mole of a gas with  = 5/3, then the value of  for the resulting
mixture is : [AIEEE-2002]
(A) 7/5 (B) 2/5 (C) 24/16 (D) 12/7
Q.3 A wire fixed at the upper end stretches by length l by applying a force F. The work done in stretching is:
[AIEEE-2004]
(A) F/2l (B) Fl (C) 2Fl (D) Fl/2
Q.4 Spherical balls of radius 'R' are falling in a viscous fluid of viscosity '' with a velocity 'v'. The retarding
viscous force acting on the spherical ball is : [AIEEE-2004]
(A) directly proportional to 'R' but inversely proportional to 'v'
(B) directly proportional to both radius 'R' and velocity 'v'
(C) inversely proportional to both radius 'R' and velocity 'v'
(D) inversely proportional to 'R' but directly proportional to velocity 'v'
Q.5 If two soap bubbles of different radii are connected by a tube : [AIEEE-2004]
(A) air flows the bigger bubble to the smaller bubble till the sizes become equal
(B) air flows from bigger bubble to the smaller bubble till the sizes are interchanged
(C) air flows from the smaller bubble to the bigger
(D) there is no flow of air

KTG & THERMODYNAMICS [133]

Q.6 If the terminal speed of a sphere of gold (density = 19.5 kg/m3) is 0.2 m/s in a viscous liquid
(density = 1.5 kg/m3), find the terminal speed of a sphere of silver (density = 10.5 mg/m3) of the same
size in the same liquid : [AIEEE-2006]
(A) 0.2 m/s (B) 0.4 m/s (C) 0.133 m/s (D) 0.1 m/s
Q.7 A carnot engine, having an efficiency of  = = 1/10 as heat engine is used as a refrigerator. If the work
done on the system is 10 J, then amount of energy absorbed from the reservoir at lower temperature is
:- [AIEEE-2007]
(A) 99 J (B) 90 J (C) 1 J (D) 100 J
Q.8 If Cp and Cv denote the specific heats of nitrogen per unit mass at constant pressure and constant
volume respectively, then :- [AIEEE-2007]
(A) Cp – Cv = R/28 (B) Cp – Cv = R/4 (C) Cp – Cv = R (D) Cp – Cv = 28 R
Q.9 When a system in taken from state i to state f along the path iaf, it is found that Q = 50 cal and W = 20
cal. Along the path ibf Q = 36 cal. W along the path ibf is :- [AIEEE-2007]
(A) 6 cal a f
(B) 16 cal
(C) 66 cal
(D) 14 cal i b
Q.10 An insulated container of gas has two chambers separated by an insulating partition. One of the chambers
has volume V1 and contains ideal gas at pressure P1 and temperature T1. The other chamber has volume
V2 and contains ideal gas at pressure P2 and temperature T2. If the partition is removed without doing
any work on the gas, the final equilibrium temperature of the gas in the container will be
T1T2 ( P1V1  P2 V2 ) P1V1T1  P2 V2 T2
(A) P V T  P V T (B) P1V1  P2 V2 [AIEEE 2008]
1 1 2 2 2 1

P1V1T2  P2 V2 T1 T1T2 ( P1V1  P2 V2 )

(C) P1V1  P2 V2 (D) P V T  P V T
1 1 1 2 2 2
Q.11 A diatomic ideal gas is used in a Carnot engine as the working substance. If during the adiabatic expansion
part of the cycle the volume of the gas increases from V to 32V, the efficiency of the engine is
[AIEEE 2010]
(A) 0.99 (B) 0.25 (C) 0.5 (D) 0.75
Q.12 100 g of water is heated from 30°C to 50°C. Ignoring the slight expansion of the water, the change in its
internal energy is (specific heat of water is 4184 J/kg/K) : [AIEEE-2011]
(A) 4.2 kJ (2) 8.4 kJ (C) 84 kJ (D) 2.1 kJ
1
Q.13 A Carnot engine operating between temperatures T1 and T2 has efficiency . When T2 is lowered by
6
1
62 K ; its efficiency increases to . Then T1 and T2 are respectively [AIEEE-2011]
3
(A) 372 K and 310 K (B) 372 K and 330 K
(C) 330 K and 268 K (D) 310 K and 248 K
Q.14 Three perfect gases at absolute temperatures T1, T2 and T3 are mixed. The masses of molecules are m1,
m2 and m3 and the number of molecules are n1, n2 and n3 respectively. Assuming no loss of energy, the
final temperature of the mixture is [AIEEE-2011]
(T1  T2  T3 ) n1T1  n 2 T2  n 3T3
(A) (B) n1  n 2  n 3
3

n1T12  n 2T22  n 3T32 n12T12  n 22T22  n 32 T32

(C) (D)
n1T1  n 2T2  n 3T3 n1T1  n 2T2  n 3T3
KTG & THERMODYNAMICS [134]
 HEAT TRANSFER
Conduction :
When the atoms or molecules in a hotter part of the
material vibrate or move with greater energy than
those in a cooler part then by means of collisions, the
more energetic molecules pass on some of the their
energy to their less energetic neighbors. For example,
imagine a gas filling the space between two walls that Coolar
Warmer ground
face each other and are maintained at different tem-
Coolar ground
peratures. Molecules strike the hotter wall, absorb
energy from it, and rebound with a greater kinetic ground
energy than when they arrived.
As these more energetic molecules collide with their less energetic neighbors, they transfer some of their
energy to them. Eventually, this energy is passed on until it reaches the molecules next to the cooler wall.
These molecules, in turn, collide with the wall, giving up some of their energy to it in the process. Through
such molecular collisions, heat is conducted from the hotter to the cooler wall.
Steady and variable state :
consider a metal rod AB, with one end A inserted into a chamber containing a heater with other end B left
free and exposed to the surrounding as shown fig. The rod is thermally insulated sideways with some bad
conductor of heat say cotton or felt. Three thermometers are installed in the rod at three distinct sections
numbered (1), (2) and (3). Initially, the enitre system is at the room temperature and the three thermom-
eters show the same room temperature. The heater is then switched on. The end A first gets heated up
and simultaneously heat is conducted to the adjacent sections towards end B.
T1 T2 T3

A B

Heater

1 2 3

Due to heat absorption at each sections, the corresponding temperatures start rising with T1 > T2 > T3.
Such a state, encountered initially, is known as a variable state. It is in this state, the heat coming through
end A, is continuously absorbed at each sections with a temperature rise as time elapses.
After some time when the temperature of end B becomes equal to that of surrounding and thus becomes
constant. Consequently, the heat absorption at different sections of the rod ceases. So, there is no more
rise in temperatures of any sections. Such a state is known as a steady state. It is in the steady state that
temperatures of each section attain steady (constant) value with time.
T1 T2

Area = A
L
Consider a portion of the rod of cross sectional area A as shown fig. Let the temperatures of the two
sections separated by a length L be T1 and T2 respectively (with T1 > T2). Temperature gradient (fall in
T1  T2
temperature per unit length) along the length of the rod will be .
L

HEAT TRANSFER [135]

 Experiments reveal that, the amount of heat Q flowing in a small time interval t is given by
Q T1  T2
 ... (i)
t L
A ... (ii)
Q A (T1  T2 )
Combining eqs. (i) and (ii), 
t L
Q KA (T1  T2 ) KA(T2  T1)
or = =
t L L
where K is a positive constant known as the coefficient of thermal conduction or simply thermal
conductivity of the material of the rod. Substances having high values of K are good conductors of heat,
while those having low values are poor conductors.

In the differential form, the above equation can be written as

dQ dT
  KA
dt dx
where length is measured along X-axis. (along the direction of heat flow).

Thermal resistance :
Q KA (T1  T2 )
From equation =
t L
Q
where = rate of heat flow = thermal current = i (say)
t
L T1  T2 T
= =
KA i i
V
which is analogous to Ohm’s law R = ; where R is the electrical resistance, V is potential
i
difference and i the electric current.
L
So, = Rth is known as the thermal resistance.
KA
1
The reciprocal of thermal conductivity, i.e., is called thermal resistivity or thermal specific resistance.
K
Note :
In thermodynamics heat current, temperature difference, and thermal resistance resembles, electric
current, potential difference and electrical resistance respectively in electrodynamics.
Temperature distribution along a conductor :
In order to study conduction in more detail consider figure (i), which shows a metal bar AB whose ends
have been soldered into the walls of two metal tanks, H and C. H contains boiling water, and C contains
ice-water. Heat flows along the bar from A to B, and when conditions are steady, the temperature  of
the bar is measured at points along its length.

HEAT TRANSFER [136]

 100°C 100

t 

O O
H H A B
A D B C C
heat heat
(i) unlagged (ii) lagged

Figure : Temperature fall along lagged and unlagged bars

The curve in the upper part of the figure shows how the temperature falls along the bar, less and less
steeply from the hot end to the cold. So the temperature gradient decreases from the hot end to the cold.
The figure (ii) shows how the temperature varies along the bar, if the bar is well lagged with a bad
conductor, such as Asbestos wool. It now falls uniformly from the hot to the cold end, so the temperature
gradient along the bar is constant.
The difference between the temperature distributions is due to the fact that, when the bar is unlagged,
heat escapes from its sides, by convection in the surrounding air, figure (i). So the heat flowing past D per
second is less than that entering the bar at A by the amount which escapes from the surface AD. The
arrows in the figure represent the heat escaping per second from the surface of the bar, and the heat
flowing per second along its length. The heat flowing per second along the length decreases from the hot
end to the cold. But when the bar is lagged, the heat escaping from its sides is negligible, and the flow per
second is now constant along the length of the bar, figure (ii).
Growth of Ice on Ponds :
When atmospheric temperature falls below 0°C the water in the lake will start –°C
y Ice
frezing. Let at any time t, the thickness of ice in the lake by y and atmospheric .... ......... ................. ...... ......... ....... ......... .. .. ........ . ..
.. . . 0°C . . .. . . .. . dy........ .....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. ..
temperature is –°C. The temperature of water in contact with the lower sur-
Water
face of ice will be zero. If A is the area of the lake, heat escaping through ice in
time dt,
[0  ()]
dQ1  KA dt
y
Now due to escaping of this heat if dy thickness of water in contact with lower surface of ice freezes,
dQ2 = mL = (dy A) L [as m = V = A dy]
But at dQ1 = dQ2, the rate of growth of ice will be
dy K 1
 
dt L y
Convection :
Convection requires a medium and is the process in which heat is transferred
from one place to the other by the actual movement of heated substance (usu-
ally fluid). When a fluid in a container is heated, the fluid at the bottom gets
C–H
heated due to conduction through the bottom of the container. Its density de-
creases and consequently it rises up. At the same time denser cool fluid will
move down and thus convection currents are set up in the liquid and the whole
fluid is heated by actual movement of mass. This type of convection which
results from difference in densities is called natural convection. However, if a
heated fluid is forced to move by a blower, fan or pump, the process is called

HEAT TRANSFER [137]

 forced convection.
Radiation :
Radiation is the process in which energy is transferred by means of electromagnetic waves.
All bodies continuously radiate energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. Even an ice cube radiates
energy, although so little of it is in the form of visible light that an ice cube cannot be seen in the dark.
The surface of an object plays a significant role in determining how much radiant energy the object will
absorb or emit.
Nature of Radiation :
(i) Radiation is electromagnetic wave (0 to  wavelength) and travels with velocity of light
(ii) Radiation travels in straight line
(iii) Radiation can travel through vacuum
(iv) Radiation obeys the laws of reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction, polarization etc
(all optical phenomena)
Definitions :
(i) Reflecting power or refracting coefficient (r) :
Ratio of amount of radiation reflected by the surface to the amount of heat incident over it
(ii) Transmitting power or transmitting coefficient (t) : Ratio of amount of radiation transmitted by the
surface to the amount of heat incident over it.
(iii) Absorption power or absorption coefficient (a) : Ratio of amount of radiation absorbed by the
surface to the amount of heat incident over it
Note :-
(a) A radiation incident over a surface is either refracted, transmitted or absorbed, so
a+t+r=1
(b) The reflecting, refracting and transmitting powers of a surface depends on nature of surface as well as on
the wavelength of radiation falling on them
(c) Emissive power (e) : Emissive power is defined as the amount of heat radiated by unit area of the
surface in one second at a particular temperature. It's unit is Joule/m2 or watt-sec/m2.
Black body :
The experiments described before lead us to the idea of a perfectly black body ; one which absorbs all
the radiation that falls upon it, and reflects and transmits none. The experiments also lead us to suppose
that such a body would be the best possible radiator.
Laws of Radiation:
(a) Prevost's theory of heat exchange
(i) Mutual exchange of heat between any object and its' surroundings occurs according to their
temperatures.
(ii) This process is continuous
(iii) A body at high temperature emits more radiations and absorbs less. Therefore it experiences cooling.
While the body at low temperature absorbs more heat and experiences heating
(iv) At absolute zero temperature the radiated energy is zero.
(v) The rate of radiation of energy from a body depends upon it's area, its' temperature and the nature of
surface. This does not depends upon temperature difference between body and its surroundings.
(B) Kirchoff's law :
The ratio of emissive power to absorptive power is the same for all bodies at a given temperature and is
equal to the emissive power of a blackbody at that temperature. Thus,
E (body)
 E(black body)
a (body)

HEAT TRANSFER [138]

 Kirchhoff's law tells that if a body has high emissive power, it should also have high absorptive power to
have the ratio E/a same. Similarly, a body having low emissive power should have low absorptive power.
Kirchhoff's law may be easily proved by a simple argument as described below.

A B
Consider two bodies A and B of identical geometerical shapes placed in an enclosure. Suppose
A equilibrium, both the bodies will have the same temperature as the temperature of the enclosure.
Suppose an amount U of radiation falls on the body A in a given time t. As A and B have the same
geometrical shapes, the radiation falling on the blackbody B is also U. As the temperature of the
blackbody remains constant, it also emits an amount U of radiation in that time. If the emissive power
of the blackbody is E0, we have
U  E0 or U = kE0 ...(i)
where k is a constant.
Let the absorptive power of A be a. Thus, it absorbs an amount aU of the radiation falling on
it in time t. As its temperature remains constant, it must also emit the same amount aU in that time. If
the emissive power of the body A is E, we have,
aU = kE. ...(ii)
The same proportionality constant k is used in (i) and (ii) because the two bodies have identical
geometrical shapes and radiation emitted in the same time t is considered.
From (i) and (ii),
E E
a or,  E0
E0 a
E ( body)
or,  E ( black body)
a ( body)
This proves Kirchhoff's law.
Stefan’s radiation law :
An idealized body that absorbs all the radiation incident upon it is called a blackbody. A blackbody
absorbs not only all visible light, but infrared, ultraviolet, and all other wavelengths of electromagnetic
radiation. It turns out that a good absorber is also a good emitter of radiation. A blackbody emits more
radiant ower per unit surface area than any real object at the same temperature. The rate at which a
blackbody emits radiation per unit surface area is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute
temperature.
P = AT4
In equation, A is the surface area and T is the surface temperature of the blackbody in kelvins. Since
Stefan’s law involves the absolute temperature and not a temperature difference, °C cannot be
substituted. The universal constant  (Greek letter sigma) is called Stefan’s constant :
 = 5.670 × 10–8 W/(m2.K4)

The fourth-power temperature dependence implies that the power emitted is extremely sensitive to
temperature changes. If the absolute temperature of a body doubles, the energy emitted increases by a
factor of 24 = 16.

Since real bodies are not perfect absorbers and therefore emit less than a blackbody, we define the
emissivity (e) as the ratio of the emitted power of the body to that of a blackbody at the same
temperature. Then Stefan’s law becomes.

HEAT TRANSFER [139]

Stefan’s law of radiation :
P = eAT4
The emissivity ranges from 0 to 1 ; e = 1 for a perfect radiator and absorber (a blackbody) and e = 0 for
a perfect reflector. The emissivity for polished aluminium, an excellent reflector, is about 0.05 ; for soot
(carbon black) it is about 0.95.
Hot object in enclosure :
Consider a black body at a temperature of T0 where T0 is the temperature of the room or enclosure
containing the body. Since the body is in temperature equilibrium, the energy per second it radiates must
equal the energy per second it absorbs. If A is the surface area of the body, then, from Stefan’s law,
energy per second radiated = AT04
So the energy per second absorbed from the surroundings or encloser = AT04.
Now suppose the black body X is heated electrically by a heater of power W watts and finally reaches
a constant temperature T. In this case, from Prevost’s theory,
energy per second from heater, W = net energy per second radiated by X
The net energy per second radiated by X = AT4 – AT04. So
W = AT4 – AT04 = A (T4 – T04)
Newtons' Law of Cooling :
Suppose, a Board of surface area A at an absolute temperature T is kept in a surrounding having a lower
temperature T0. The net rate of loss of thermal energy from the body due to radiation is
u = eA(T4 – T04)
If the temperature difference is small, we can write
T = T0 + T
or, T4 – T04 = (T0 + T)4 – T04
4
 T 
 T04 1    T04
 T0 
 T T 
 T04 1  4  higher powers of   T04
 T0 T0 
 4T03T  4T03 (T  T0 )
Thus, u = 4 eAT03 (T–T0)
= b (T – T0)
dT b
  (T  T0 )
dt ms
Spectral emissive power :
To speak of the intensity of a single wavelength is meaningless. The slit of the spectrometer always
gathers a band of wavelengths, the narrower the slit the narrower the band –and we always speak of the
intensity of a given band. We express it as follows :
energy radiated m–2 s–1, in band  to  + = E 
The quantity E is called emissive power of a black body for the wavelength  and at the given
temperature ; its definition follows from equation  to  + = E  :
energy radiated m 2 s 1 , in band   
E =
band width , 
power radiated m 2 in band  to 
E =

In the figure, E is expressed in watts per m2 per nanometre (10–9 m).
The quantity E  in equation  to  + = E  is the area beneath the radiation curve between the
wavelength  and  (figure). Thus the energy radiated per meter2 per second between those
wavelengths is proportional to that area.

HEAT TRANSFER [140]

 Similarly, the total radiation emitted per metre2 per second over all wavelengths is proportional to the
area under the whole curve.

Em

area = energy
E in band

m   + 

Figure : Definition of E·m and Em

Laws of black body radiation :

The curves of figure can be explained only by Planck’s quantum theory of radiation, which is outside our
scope. Both theory and experiment lead to three generalisations, which together describe well the
properties of black body radiation.
(i) If m is the wavelength of the peak of the curve for T (in K), then
mT = constant ... (2)
The value of the constant is 2.9 × 10 m K. In figure the dotted line is the locus of the peaks of the
–3

curves for different temperatures.

The relationship in (2) is sometimes called Wien’s displacement law.
(ii) If Em is the height of the peak of the curve for the temperature T, then
Em  T5 ... (3)
–9
22 × 10
T = 1650K 20
18
16
–1
relative intensity

watt metre nm

14
1450K
–2

12
10
1260K 8
6
1000K
4
2
2
10 20 30 40 50 60 × 10
violet- -red
visible
Figure : Distribution of intensity in black body radiation

(iii) If E is the total energy radiated per metre2 per second at a temperature T, which is represented by the
total area under the particular E –  curve, then
E = T4

So in figure, which shows four E –  graphs at different temperatures T, the total area below the graphs
should be proportional to the corresponding value of T4.

HEAT TRANSFER [141]

 EXERCISE-I

Q.1 One end of a 2.35m long and 2.0cm radius aluminium rod (K = 235 W.m1K1) is held at 200C. The other
end of the rod is in contact with a block of ice at its melting point. The rate in kg.s1 at which ice melts is
10
[Take latent heat of fusion for ice as ×105 [Link]1]
3
(A) 48 × 106 (B) 24 × 106 (C) 2.4 × 106 (D) 4.8 × 106

Q.2 A wall has two layer A and B each made of different material, both the layers have the same thickness.
The thermal conductivity of the material A is twice that of B. Under thermal equilibrium the temperature
difference across the wall B is 36°C. The temperature difference across the wall A is
(A) 6°C (B) 12°C (C) 18°C (D) 72°C
Q.3 The rate of emission of radiation of a black body at 273°C is E, then the rate of emission of radiation of
this body at 0°C will be
E E E
(A) (B) (C) (D) 0
16 4 8
Q.4 From Kirchoff’s law the ratio of emissive power and absorption power of all bodies –
(A) Are different.
(B) Is equal to emissive power of black body at same temperature.
(C) Is equal to emissive power of white body.
(D) Is equal to emissive power of black body at any temperature.
Q.5 If at temperature T, the emissive power and absorption power of a body for wave length are e
and arespectively, then –
(A) e = a
(B) e > a
(C) e < a
(D) There will not be any definite relation between eand a
Q.6 The temperature of a black body becomes half of its original temperature, the amount of radiation
emitted by the body will reduce to-
(A) 1/16 (B) 1/4
(C) 1/2 (D) remains unchanged.
Q.7 A body at temperature T (K) is kept in the surroundings at T0 (K) . If T >> T0, then the rate
of emission of heat by the body to the surroundings is proportional to-
(A) (T – T0)4 (B) T4 – T04 (C) (T – T0)1/4 (D) T / T0
Q.8 If the rate of emission of radiation by a body at temperature TK is E then graph between log E
and log T will be –

(A) log E (B) log E (C) log E (D) log E

log T log T log T log T

Q.9 Temperatures of two hot bodies B1 and B2 are 100ºC and 80ºC respectively. The temperature of
surrounding is 40ºC. At t = 0, the ratio of rates of cooling of the two bodies (liquid) R1 : R2 will
be –
(A) 3 : 2 (B) 5 : 4 (C) 2 : 1 (D) 4 : 5

HEAT TRANSFER [142]

Q.10 Wein’s displacement law is shown by the following relation mT = b then the curve drawn between
log T and log m will be –

Log m
(A) Log m (B) (C) Log m (D) Log m

Log T Log T
Log T Log T
Q.11 Two rods are connected as shown. The rods are of same length and same cross sectional area.
In steady state, the temperature () of the interface will be –

(A) 60°C (B) 73.3°C (C) 46.7°C (D) 37.3°C

Q.12 Two rods A & B are connected in series as shown in fig. the conductivity of A is K1 = 100 w/
m -°C and conductivity of B is K2 = 50 w/m - °C. The free ends of the rods A & B has temp.
30° & 60° respectively the temp. of common meeting point will be

(A) 35°C (B) 40°C (C) 45°C (D) 50°

Q.13 A slab consists of two parallel layers of two different materials of same thickness and having
thermal conductivities K1 and K2. The equivalent thermal conductivity K of the slab is
2K1K 2 K1  K 2
(A) K1 + K2 (B) K  K (C) K1K 2 (D) K1 K2
1 2

Q.14 The wall with a cavity consists of two layers of brick separated by a layer of air. All three layers have the
same thickness and the thermal conductivity of the brick is much greater than that of air. The left layer is
at a higher temperature than the right layer and steady state condition exists. Which of the following
graphs predicts correctly the variation of temperature T with distance d inside the cavity?

(A) (B) (C) (D)

Q.15 A ring consisting of two parts ADB and ACB of same conductivity k carries an
amount of heat H. The ADB part is now replaced with another metal keeping
the temperatures T1 and T2 constant. The heat carried increases to 2H. What
ACB
should be the conductivity of the new ADB part? Given = 3:
ADB
7 5
(A) k (B) 2 k (C) k (D) 3 k
3 2

HEAT TRANSFER [143]

 EXERCISE-II

Q.1 A composite rod made of three rods of equal length and cross-section as shown in the fig. The thermal
conductivities of the materials of the rods are K/2, 5K and K respectively. The end A and end B are at
constant temperatures. All heat entering the face A goes out of the end B there being no loss of heat from
the sides of the bar. The effective thermal conductivity of the bar is
A B

K/2 5K K
(A) 15K/16 (B) 6K/13 (C) 5K/16 (D) 2K/13.
Q.2 Spheres P and Q are uniformly constructed from the same material which is a good conductor of heat
and the radius of Q is thrice the radius of P. The rate of fall of temperature of P is x times that of Q when
both are at the same surface temperature. The value of x is :
(A) 1/4 (B) 1/3 (C) 3 (D) 4
Q.3 Figure shows three different arrangements of materials 1, 2 and 3 to form a wall. Thermal conductivities
are k1 > k2 > k3 . The left side of the wall is 20°C higher than the right side. Temperature difference T
across the material 1 has following relation in three cases :

1 2 3 1 3 2 3 1 2

a b c
(A) Ta > Tb > Tc (B) Ta = Tb = Tc
(C) Ta = Tb > Tc (D) Ta = Tb < Tc
Q.4 A black metal container is heated by radiation emitted by a small sphere at temperature T and
placed at a distance r. It is found that the power received by metal container is P. If the temperature
and the distance are reduced to half their initial values, then the power received by metal container
will be –
P P P
(A) (B) (C) (D) P
16 4 2
Q.5 Rs and Rc are the radius of sun , distance between sun and earth and radius of earth respectively.
If temperature of sun is T. Then amount of radiation incident on earth is –
2 2

(A)
FG R IJ
s
T 4 (B)
FG R IJ T (2R 2)
s 4
H dK H dK e

2
FG R IJ T 4
FR I s 4
(C) s
H dK (Re2) (D) GH R JK T ((d2)
e

Q.6 If the rates of loss of energy by unit area of an iron ball are E1, E2 and E3 when it cools from 75ºC
to 70ºC, 70ºC to 65ºC and 65ºC to 60ºC respectively then –
(A) E1 = E2 = E3 (B) E1 > E2 > E3 (C) E1 < E2 < E3 (D) E1 < E3 < E2
Q.7 The coefficient of thermal conductivity of copper is nine time that of steel. In the composite
cylindrical bar shown in Fig. What will be the temp. at the junction of copper and steel?

(A) 75°C (B) 67°C (C) 33°C (D) 25°C

HEAT TRANSFER [144]

Question No. 1 to 3 (3 questions)
Two rods A and B of same cross-sectional are A and length l connected in
series between a source (T1 = 100°C) and a sink (T2 = 0°C) as
shown in figure. The rod is laterally insulated
Q.8 The ratio of the thermal resistance of the rod is
RA 1 RA RA3 4
(A) R = (B) R = 3 (C) R = (D)
B 3 B B 4 3
Q.9 If TA and TB are the temperature drops across the rod A and B, then
TA 3 TA 1 TA 3 TA 4
(A) T = (B) T = (C) T = (D) T =
B 1 B 3 B 4 B 3
Q.10 If GA and GB are the temperature gradients across the rod A and B, then
GA 3 GA 1 GA 3 GA 4
(A) G = (B) G = (C) G = (D) G =
B 1 B 3 B 4 B 3
Q.11 Statement-1 : The leaves of a tree will look black when illuminated with green colored light.
Statement-2 : A good emitter is a good absorber as well.
(A) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is correct explanation for statement-1.
(B) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is NOT the correct explanation for statement-1.
(C) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is false.
(D) Statement-1 is false, statement-2 is true

EXERCISE-III
Q.1 Which of the following is more close to a black body ? [AIEEE-2002]
(A) Black board paint (B) Green leaves (C) Black holes (D) Red roses
Q.2 Infrared radiation is detected by– [AIEEE-2002]
(A) Spectrometer (B) Pyrometer (C) Nanometer (D) Photometer
Q.3 Two spheres of the same material have radii 1m and 4m and temperatures 4000 K and 2000 K respectively.
The ratio of the energy radiated per second by the first sphere to that by the second is
[AIEEE-2002]
(A) 1 : 1 (B) 16 : 1 (C) 4 : 1 (D) 1 : 9
Q.4 The earth radiates in the infra-red region of the spectrum. The spectrum is correctly given by –
[AIEEE-2003]
(A) Planck’s law of radiation (B) Stefan’s law of radiation
(C) Wien’s law (D) Rayleigh Jeans law
Q.5 According to Newton’s law of cooling, the rate of cooling of a body is proportional to ()n, where 
is the difference of the temperature of the body and the surroundings, and n is equal to –
[AIEEE-2003]
(A) Three (B) Four (C) One (D) Two
Q.6 If the temperature of the sun were to increase from T to 2T and its radius from R to 2R, then the ratio of
the radiant energy received on earth to what it was previously will be – [AIEEE-2004]
(A) 4 (B) 16 (C) 32 (D) 64
Q.7 A radiation of energy E falls normally on a perfectly reflecting surface. The momentum transferred to the
surface is – [AIEEE-2004]
(A) E/c (B) 2E/c (C) Ec (D) E/c 2

HEAT TRANSFER [145]

Q.8 Assuming the Sun to be a spherical body of radius R at a temperature of T K, evaluate the total radiant
power, incident on Earth, at a distance r from the Sun – [AIEEE-2006]
2 2 4
(A) r0 R  T / 4 r 2 2
(B) R  T / r4 2
2 2
(C) 4 r0 R  T / r 4 2 (D)  r02 R2  T4 / r2
where r is the radius of the Earth and  is Stefan's constant.
Q.9 The temperature of the two outer surfaces of a composite slab, consisting of two materials having
coefficients of thermal conductivity K and 2K and thickness x and 4x, respectively, are T2 and
 A (T2  T1 ) K 
T1 (T2 > T1). The rate of heat transfer through the slab, in a steady state is   f, with f equal
 x 
to – [AIEEE-2004]
(A) 1
(B) 1/2
(C) 2/3
(D) 1/3
Q.10 The figure shows a system of two concentric spheres of radii r1 and r2 and kept at temperatures T1 and
T2 respectively. The radial rate of flow of heat in a substance between the two concentric spheres is
proportional to [AIEEE-2005]
r  r1r2
(A) (r2 – r1)/(r1r2) (B) ln  2  (C) (r  r ) (D) (r2 – r1)
 r 1  2 1

Q.11 One end of a thermally insulated rod is kept at a temperature T1 and the other at T2. The rod is composed
of two sections of lengths l1 and l2 and thermal conductivities k1 and k2 respectively. The temperature at
the interface of the two sections is [AIEEE-2007]
(A) (k2 l 2 T1 + k1 l 1 T2) / (k1 l 1 + k2 l2)
T 1 l1 l2 T2
(B) (k2 l 1 T1 + k1 l 2 T2) / (k2 l 1 + k1 l2)
(C) (k1 l 2 T1 + k2 l 1 T2) / (k1 l 2 + k2 l1) k1 k2
(D) (k1 l 1 T1 + k2 l 2 T2) / (k1 l 1 + k2 l2)
Q.12 A long metallic bar is carrying heat from one of its ends of the other end under steady-state. The
variation of temperature  along the length x of the bar from its hot end is best described by which
of the following figures? [AIEEE– 2009]

(A) (B)

(C) (D)

Q.13 The thermally insulated vessel contains an ideal gas of molecular mass M and ratio of specific heat . It
is moving with speed v and is suddenly brought to rest. Assuming no heat is lost to the surroundings, its
temperature increases by : [AIEEE-2011]
(   1)
Mv 2 K (B)
(   1)
Mv 2 K Mv 2 (   1)
(A) (C) K (D) Mv 2 K
2(   1)R 2 R 2R 2R

HEAT TRANSFER [146]

 Theory
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

SHM syllabus:
Periodic motion - period, frequency, displacement as a function of time. Periodic functions, Simple
Harmonic Motion (S.H.M) and its equation; phase; oscillations of a spring -restoring force and force
constant; energy in S.H.M. - Kinetic and potential energies; Simple pendulum - derivation of
expression for its time period; Free, forced and damped oscillations.
Periodic motion :
Any motion in which all the parameters of motion are repeated after a definite time interval, is called as
periodic motion. The time which elapses between successive passages in the same direction through any
point is termed the periodic time, or the period of the motion.
The number of periods comprised in one second is called the frequency ; thus, if T is the period, and n is
the frequency of a periodic motion, we have n = I/T.
Ex. The motion of the hands of a clock is periodic, the period of the motion of the minute hand being one
hour, or 3600 seconds. The bob of a pendulum moves periodically, the period being equal to the time of
one complete (to and fro) oscillation. Periodic motion can be along any path.
Oscillatory motion :
If in a case of periodic motion particle moves to and fro on the same path, the motion is said to be
oscillatory motion. A body that undergoing oscillatory motion always does so about a stable equilibrium
position. When it is moved away from this position and released, it experiences a net force or torque to
pull it back toward equilibrium position. But by the time it gets there, the restoring force/torque would
have done some positive work on it. Thus it must have gained some kinetic energy, so it overshoots, the
equilibirium position. Now it stops somewhere on the other side, and is again pulled back toward
equilibrium. Imagine a ball rolling back and forth in a round bowl or a pendulum that swings back and
forth past its lowest position.
Imp. characteristics of oscillatory motion :–

1. When a particle in stable equilibrium is disturbed, then it has tendency to return to the position of
equilibrium and this tendency is exhibited as oscillatory motion.
2. The force on the body acts towards the mean position i.e. Force is always opposite to the displacement
vector of the particle w.r.t. mean position. (This force is known as restoring force)
F̂ = – r̂ , ˆ = – ˆ
Where r̂ and ˆ are displacement and angular displacement from mean position.
3. Energy is also conserved. If energy is not conserved then the particle will not be able to repeat the
parameters of the motion.
4. It is to be noted here that every oscillatory motion is periodic but every periodic motion is not oscillatory.

SHM :
If the restoring force/ torque acting on the body in oscillatory motion is directly proportional to the
displacement of body / particle and is always directed towards equilibrium position then the
motion is called simple Harmonic Motion (SHM). It is the simplest (easy to analyses) form of oscillatory
motion.
Restoring force :
When a system is displaced from its equillibrium position, then a force acts on it in such a direction
so as to restore the system back to its equilibrium position. This force is called restoring force. It
is directed opposite to the displacement.
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION [147]
TYPES OF SHM :
S.H.M. are of two types :
(a) Linear S.H.M. :
When a particle moves to and fro (or up and down) about a fixed point (Called K
m
equillibrium position) along a straight line then its motion is called linear simple
harmonic motion.
Example : Motion of a block connected to spring
(b) Angular S.H.M. :
When a system oscillates angularly with respect to a fixed axis then its

motion is called angular simple harmonic motion
Example : Motion of a bob of a simple pendulum.

Necessary Condition to execute S.H.M. :

(a) Motion of particle should be periodic oscillatory
(b) Total mechanical energy of particle should be conserved. KE + PE = constant
(c) In linear S.H.M.: the restoring force (or acceleration) acting on the particle should always be
proportional to the displacement of the particle from mean position (x) and directed towards the
equilibrium condition
F–x
a–x
(–) ve sign shows that direction of force & acceleration is towards equilibrium position and
y is displacement of particle from equilibrium position.
(d) In angular S.H.M.: the restoring torque (or acceleration) acting on the particle should always be
proportional to the angular displacement of the particle & directed towards the equilibrium condition.
–
   – .
COMPARISON OF LINEAR & ANGULAR S.H.M. :

[Link]. Linear S.H.M. Angular S.H.M.

a. F–x –
F = – kx  = – C 
where k is restoring Where C is
force constant restoring torque

constant.
k C
b. a=– x =– 
m I

d2x k d2  C
c. + x=0 +
=0
dt 2 m dt 2
I
d. a = – 2x  = – 2

k C 2
e. 2 =  = = 2n =
m I T

k 2
= =
m T

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION [148]

Geometrical Interpretation of S.H.M. :
If a particle is moving with uniform speed along the circumference of a circle, then the straight-line
motion of the foot of the perpendicular drawn from the particle on the diameter of the circle is
called 'SHM'

Description of S.H.M. Based on Circular Motion :

Y

P
y t
0 A t=0

(a) Draw a circle, having radius equal to amplitude (A) of S.H.M.

(b) Suppose particle is executing S.H.M. with angular frequency  on the circumference of the circle.

(c) Shadow of particle performs S.H.M. on vertical or horizontal diameter of circle.

(d) Position of particle shadow can be represented on diameter at t = 0 or any instant & position of
particle performing circular motion can be determined by direction of velocity.

(e) By joining centre of circle to particle position, angle  is determined from horizontal or vertical
[Link] time t, radius vector will turn t. Based on these unknown values can be calculated.

EQUATION OF SHM :
The necessary and sufficient condition for SHM is
F = –kx
where k = positive constant for a SHM = Force constant
x = displacement from mean position
d2x
or m 2 = –kx
dt

d2x k
 2 + x=0 [differential equation of SHM]
dt m

d2x k
 + 2x = 0 where  =
dt 2 m
Its solution is x = A sin (t + )

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION [149]

DERIVATION :
k
F = – kx a=– x
m
k
put = 2 a = – 2x
m
v x
v2 2 2
 vdv = –  2 xdx 2
=–
2
A2]
[x – A
0 A

dx
v=± A2  x 2 =± A2  x 2
dt
dx
 = ±   dt sin–1 x/A = ± t + k
A 2  2
at t = 0 x = x0 x = A sin {t + }

CHARACTERISTICS OF SHM :
In the figure shows, path of the particle is on a straight line.
(a) Displacement : It is defined as the distance of the particle from the mean position at that instant.
Displacement in SHM at time is given by x = A sin (t + )
(b) Amplitude : It is the maximum value of displacement of the particle from its equilibrium position
equilibrium extreme
extreme position position
position

A
B Amplitude Amplitude

Amplitude = 1/2 (distance between extreme points/position)

It depends on energy of the system.
2
(c) Angular Frequency () :  = = 2f and its units is rad/sec.
T
(d) Frequency (f) : Number of oscillations completed in unit time interval is called frequency of oscillations,
1 
f= = , its units is sec–1 or Hz.
T 2
(e) Time period (T) : Smallest time interval after which the oscillatory motion gets repeated is called time
2 m
period, T = = 2
 k
(f) Phase : The physical quantity which represents the state of motion of particle (eg. its position and
direction of motion at any instant.) argument of sine function is called phase.
(g) Phase constant () : Constant  in equation of SHM is called phase constant or initial phase. It
depends on initial position and direction of velocity.
(h) Velocity (v) : It is the rate of change of particle’s displacement w.r.t. time at that instant.
Let the displacement from mean position is given by
x = A sin (t + )
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION [150]
 dx d
Velocity, v= = [A sin (t + )]
dt dt
v = A cos (t + )
or, v= A2  x2
Important Points regarding velocity :
(i) Velocity will be maximum when the displacement x = 0 i.e. at mean position vmax = a
(ii) Velocity will be minimum when x = ± a i.e. at the position of maximum displacement vmin = 0
(iii) Velocity is always ahead of displacement by phase angle /2
v2 x2
(iv) The graph between displacement and velocity is ellipse, as + =1
2 A 2 A2
if  = 1, then curve would be a circle

v =  A2  x2 v2 = 2 (A2 – x2)

v2 x2
v2 + 2x2 = 2A2  1
 A 2 A 2

(i) Acceleration : It is the rate of change of particle velocity w.r.t. time at that instant.
dv d
Acceleration, a= = [A cos (t + )]
dt dt
a = –2A sin (t + )
a = –2x
Negative sign shows that acceleration is always directed towards the mean position.
At mean position (x = 0), modulus of acceleration is minimum
amin = zero
At extreme position (x = A), acceleration is maximum
amax = 2A
Special points regarding Acceleration :
(i) Acceleration will be maximum when x = ± a i.e. amax = ± 2A (towards mean position)
(ii) Acceleration will be minimum when x = 0 i.e. amin = 0
(iii) Acceleration is ahead of displacement by an angle . i.e. opposite to displacement.

(iv) Acceleration leads the velocity by an angle
2
(v) The graph between acceleration and displacement is straight line and which passes through the
origin and has slop (–2)
(vi) The graph between velocity and acceleration is an ellipse if  = 1, then the graph is in the form
of circle.

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION [151]

Graphical representation of displacement, velocity and acceleration in SHM :
Displacement, x = A sin t

Velocity, v = A cos t = A sin (t + )
2
or v =  A2  x2
Acceleration, a = –2A sin t = 2 A sin (t + )
or a = –2x
Note : v =  A 2  x 2
a = –2x
These relations are true for any equation of x.

Time , t 0 T/4 T / 2 3T / 4 T
Displacement , x 0 A 0 A 0
Velocity, v A 0  A 0 A
2 2
Acceleration , a 0  A 0 A 0

x
T/4 T/2 3T/4 T 5T/4 3T/2
A
t
–A
v
A
t
–A
a
2A
t
2
– A

1. All the three quantities displacement, velocity and acceleration vary harmonically with time, having same
period.
2. The velocity amplitude is  times the displacement amplitude (vmax = A).

3. The acceleration amplitude is 2 times the displacement amplitude (amax = 2A).


4. In SHM, the velocity is ahead of displacement by a phase angle of .
2

5. In SHM, the acceleration is ahead of velocity by a phase angle of .
2

ENERGY OF SHM :Kinetic Energy (KE) :

1 1 1
mv2 = m2 (A2 – x2) = k (A2 – x2)
2 2 2
1 1
= mA22 cos2 (t + ) = kA2 cos2 (t + )
2 2

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION [152]

 1
(i) At y = 0, K Emax = m2A2
2
(ii) At y = ± A, [Link] = 0
1 1 1
KEmax = kA2 ;  KE 0T  kA 2 ;  KE  0  A  kA 2
2 4 3
Frequency of KE = 2 (frequency of SHM)
1 1
Potential Energy (PE) Kx2 + U0 = kA2 sin2 (t + ) +U0
2 2
If U0 = 0
1 1
Kx2 = kA2 sin2 (t + )
2 2

(i) At x = 0 , P.E. = 0
1
(ii) At x = ± A, U = Umax = KA2
2

Total Mechanical Energy :

Total mechanical energy = Kinetic energy + Potential energy
1 1 1
= k(A2 – x2) + Kx2 = KA2
2 2 2
Hence total mechanical energy is constant in SHM.
Average Energy in S.H.M.
(i) For average time, (in one period - time)
1
(a) < KE >T = KA2
4
1
(b) < PE >T = KA2
4
1
(c) < TE >T = KA2
2
(ii) For average displacement
(between x = 0 to x = A)
1
(a) < KE >X= KA2
3
1
(b) < PE >X = KA2
6
1
(c) < TE >X = KA2
2
1
(1) If U0 = 0 then KEmax = PEmax = TE = KA2
2
1 1
(2) If U0  0 then PEmax = TE = KA2 + U0 & KE = KA2
2 2
(3) If frequency of S.H.M. is f then frequency of oscillation of KE = Frequency of oscillation of
PE = 2f
Frequency of K.E. to P.E. = Frequency of PE to KE = 4f & frequency of total energy = 0.

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION [153]

 GRAPHICAL STUDY OF DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, ENERGY

[Link]. In form of t In form of x Max. value

1. Displacement x = A sin t x = x x = A

2. Velocity v = A cos t v = ±  A2  x2 v = A

3. Acceleration a = – 2 A sint a = – 2x a = 2A

1 1
4. Energy TE TE = K.E. + P.E. TE = KA2 T.E. = KA2
2 2

SPRING-MASS SYSTEM :
Case(A) : System, given in figure, is in equilibrium condition.
Mass m is displaced by x distance in + x direction.
From F.B.D.
F = – kx
a = – k/m x k
m
a = – 2x
k 2
= = = 2n
m T

1 k m
 n= or T = 2
2 m k /////////////// /////////////// ///////////////
CASE (B) :
In figure (a) only spring is hanging . One mass is
hanged as shown in figure. It displaces spring to
x0 distance. At condition of balance,
mg = kx0
x0
In fig (c) mass m is displaced by x distance m 0
x
F
(a) (b) (c)
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION [154]
 Then, F = – k(x + x0) + mg
F = – kx – kx0 + mg
F = – kx [  kx0 = mg]
k
a=– x
m
a=– 2x
k 2
= = = 2n
m T
CASE (C) : Series combination of springs :
Total displacement x = x1 + x2
Force acting on both springs
F = – k 1 x 1 = – k 2x 2
F F F F
 x 1= – & x2 = –  x=– –
k1 k2 k1 k2

LM 1 1 OP LM k 1 k2 OP
 x = – F k k  F = – k  k x
1 2N Q 1 2N Q
 equivalent constant in series combination
= 1/k = 1/k1 + 1/k2
m m(k 1  k 2 )
 T = 2  T = 2 k1 k 2
k
1 k k
n= ,=
2 m m

(a) In series combination same force exerts in all spring & extension will be different.
(b) In series combination, extension of springs will be reciprocal of its spring constant.
(c) Spring constant of spring is reciprocal to its length
 k  1/l
 k 1l 1 = k 2 l 2 = k 3 l 3
(d) If n pieces are made of spring then spring constant of one piece will be nk.
CASE D Parallel combination of springs :
Extension is same for both spring but force acting will be different. m
k1
Force acting on the system = F
 F = – (k1 x + k2x) k2
 F = – (k1 + k2)x
 F = – kx
 k = k1 + k2

k1  k 2 1 k1  k 2
= ,n=
m 2 m

m
T = 2 k1  k 2

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION [155]

SIMPLE PENDULUM :
If a heavy point-mass is suspended by a weightless, inextensible and perfectly flexible string from a rigid
support, then this arrangement is called a simple pendulum.
Derivation for Time Period of Simple Pendulum : S
Restoring force acting on pendulum
F = – mg sin 
T
fig, sin   = OA / SA = x/
 F = – mg (x/)
 A
 F = ma
 ma = – mg (x/)
a = – (g/) x ....(1) mgcos
a–x O mgsin mg
It proves that simple pendulum performs S.H.M. if displacement is negligible.
 We know that,
2
T= & a = 2x 2 = a/x


a
 =
x

2 a Displacement
 T = = 2 = 2
 x Acceleration
By equation (1),

Displacement x 
= =
Acceleration a g

T = 2 g

(a) If angular amplitude of simple pendulum is more, then time period

  02 
T = 2 1  
g  16 
 
where 0 is in radians.
(b) General formula for time period of simple pendulum.
1
T = 2 g 1  1 
R 
(c) On increasing length of simple pendulum, time period increases, but time period of simple pendulum of
R
infinite length is 84.6 min which is maximum and is equal to T = 2 .
g
(Where R is radius of earth)
(d) Time period of seconds pendulum is 2 sec and  = 0.993 m.
(e) Simple pendulum performs angular S.H.M. but due to small angular displacement, it is considered as
linear SHM.

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION [156]

(f) If time period of clock based on simple pendulum increases then clock will be slow but if time period
decrease then clock will be fast.
T 1 
(g) If g remains constant and  is change in length, then ×100 = × 100 = 50 
T 2 
(where  is coefficient of linear expansion of wire and  is change in temperature)
T 1 g
(h) If  remains constant and g is change in acceleration then, × 100 = – ×100
T 2 g
(i) If  is change in length and g is change in acceleration due to gravity then,
T  1  1 g 
 100      100
T 2  2 g 
Time Period of simple Pendulum in accelerating Reference Frame :

T = 2 g where
eff .
 
geff. = Effective acceleration due to gravity in reference system = | g  a |

a = acceleration of the point of suspension w.r.t. ground.
 
Condition for applying this formula: | g  a | = constant.
(a) If reference system is lift,
(i) If velocity of lift is constant,
v = constant
 a = 0  geff = g

 T = 2 g
(ii) If lift is moving upwards with acceleration a
geff = g + a

 T = 2 ga
(iii) If lift is moving downwards with acceleration a,
geff = g – a

 T = 2 ga
(iv) If lift falls downwards freely,
geff = 0
T=
(b) If reference system is vehicle moving with acceleration a,
geff = g2  a2


T = 2 g2  a2
(c) One charged sphere is oscillating in electric field E. For it,
mg  qE
geff =
m

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION [157]

 
T = 2 qE
g
m
(d) If d distance & v potential are between two plates then electric field E = V/d

mg  qE
 geff =
m
qV
geff = g +
md

T = 2p q V
g
m d

(mg) 2  (qE) 2
(e) geff =
m


2
T = 2 (mg) 2 
FG qE IJ
HmK
(f) One pendulum of density d1 is drown in liquid of density d2 then,
[Link] pendulum  wt. of displaced liquid by buyoancy force
g eff 
mass
vd1g  vd2 g d1g  d2 g
geff = vd1 = d1

F 2 d I
geff = g 1  d
GH JK
1


 T = 2 FG d2 IJ
g 1
H d1 K
Compound pendulum / Physical pendulum :
When a rigid body is suspended from an axis and made to oscillate about that then it is called compound
pendulum.
C = Initial position of centre of mass
C = Position of centre of mass after time t
S = Point of suspension
l = Distance between point of suspension and centre of mass (it remains constant during motion)
for small angular displacement  from mean position
The restoring torque is given by
 = mgl
or, I = – mgl where, I = Moment of inertia about point of suspension.
S
mgl 2
mgl
or, =–  or,  =
I I  C'
I
Time period, T = 2 I = ICM + ml2 C
mgl

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION [158]

 where ICM = momentum of inertia relative to the axis which passes from the centre of mass & parallel to
the axis of oscillation.

k2
I CM  ml 2 2 2 
T = 2 = 2 mk  m  2 
mg l mg g

where ICM = mk2

k = gyration radius (about axis passing from centre of mass)
Torsional pendulum
In torsional pendulum, an extended object is suspended at the centre by a light
torsion wire. A torsion wire is essentially inextensible, but is free to twist about
its axis. When the lower end of the wire is rotated by a slight amount the wire
applies a restoring torque causing the body to oscillate rotationally
when released. The restoring torque produced is given by

 = – C where, C = Torsional constant

or, I = – C where, I = Moment of inertia about the vertical axis.

C I
or, =–   Time period, T = 2
I C

Superposition of two SHM’s

(a) In same direction and of same frequency
x1 = A1 sin t
x2 = A2 sin (t + f) , then resultant displacement
x = x1 + x2 = A1 sin t + A2 sin (t + ) = A sin (t + f)

 A 2 sin  
where A = A 12  A 22  2A 1A 2 cos  &  = tan–1  A  A cos  
 1 2 

If  = 0, both SHM’s are in phase and A = A1 + A2

If  = , both SHM’s are out of phase and A = | A1 – A2 |
The resultant amplitude due to superposition of two or more than two SHM’s of this case can also be
found by vector diagram also.
(b) In same direction but are of different frequencies. (special case, if A1 = A2)
x1 = A1 sin 1t x2 = A2 sin 2 t
then resultant displacement x =x1 + x2 = A1 sin 1t + A2 sin 2t

(c) In two perpendicular directions.

x = A sin t y = B sin (t + )

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION [159]

Case (i) :
If  = 0 or  then y = ± (B/A) x. So path will be straight line & resultant displacement will be
R = (x2 + y2)½ = (A2 + B2 )½ sint
Case (ii) :

If  = then.
2

x = A sin t
y = B sin (t + /2) = B cos t

x2 y2
so, resultant will be + = 1. i.e. equation of an ellipse and if A = B, then superposition will be an
A2 B2
equation of circle.
Superposition of SHM’s along the same direction (using phasor diagram)
If two or more SHM’s are along the same line, their resultant can be obtained by vector addition by
making phasor diagram.
1. Amplitude of SHM is taken as length (magnitude) of vector
2. Phase difference between the vectors is taken as the angle between these vectors. The magnitude of
resultant of vector’s give resultant amplitude of SHM and angle of resultant vector gives phase constant
of resultant SHM.
For example :
x1 = A1 sin t A2
x2 = A2 sin (t + )
A
If equation of resultant SHM is taken as x = A sin (t + ) 

A1
A= A12  2A1A 2 cos 

A1 sin 
tan  = A  A cos 
1 2

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION [160]

 EXERCISE - I
Q.1 The displacement of a particle from its mean position (in m) varies with time according to the
relation y = 0.2 sin (10t + 1.5) cos (10t +1.5). The motion of the particle is
(A) not simple harmonic
(B) simple harmonic with time period 0.2 s.
(C) simple harmonic with time period 0.1 sec
(D) along a circular path

d2x 2
Q.2 The differential equation representing the S.H.M. of a particle is 2 +  x = 0. The natural frequency
dt
of the particle is then given by
2 
(A)  (B) (C) (D) 2 
 2
Q.3 The motion of a particle varies with time according to the relation y = a (sin t + cos t)
(A) the motion is oscillatory but not S.H.M.
(B) the motion is S.H.M. with amplitude a
(C) the motion is S.H.M. with amplitude a 2
(D) the motion is S.H.M. with amplitude 2a
Q.4 The displacement of an oscillator is given by
x = a sin t + b cos t
where a, b and , are constant. Then -
(A) motion is simple harmonic but not periodic
(B) motion is periodic but not simple harmonic
(C) motion is simple harmonic as well as periodic
(D) motion is neither simple harmonic nor periodic
Q.5 The displacement of particle executing S.H.M. is given by y = 5 sin 20t. Its frequency is
(A) 10 Hz (B) 20 Hz (C) 0.1 Hz (D) 20Hz
Q.6 For a particle executing SHM, which of the following statements does not hold good ?
(A) the total energy of the particle always remains the same
(B) the restoring force is always directed towards a fixed point
(C) the restoring force is maximum at the extreme positions
(D) the velocity of the particle is minimum at the centre of motion of the particle
Q.7 A simple pendulum can attain a maximum height h. Then its maximum velocity v will be :
(A) 2gh (B) 2 gh (C) 2gh (D) 4g2h2
Q.8 The total energy of a particle executing S.H.M. is proportional to
(A) displacement from equilibrium position (B) frequency of oscillation
(C) velocity in equilibrium position (D) square of amplitude of motion
 
Q.9 Displacement-time equation of a particle executing SHM is x = A sin  t   .
 6
A A
Time taken by the particle to go directly from x = – to x = + is:
2 2
  2 
(A) (B) (C) (D)
3 2  

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION [161]

Q.10 A particle executing S.H.M. has maximum velocity '' and maximum acceleration , the period of
oscillation shall be
(A) 2 () (B) 2 () (C) 2 (/)1/2 (D) 2 (/)1/2
Q.11 Acceleration-displacement graph of a particle executing SHM is as shown in given figure. The time
period of its oscillation is: (in sec)
a(m/s2)

x(m)
45º

 
(A) (B) 2 (C)  (D)
2 4
Q.12 The given figure shows the displacement-time graph of a simple harmonic oscillator. The amplitude, time
period and initial phase of the oscillator are respectively
Displacement (cm)

2
1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 Time (s)
–1
–2
 
(A) 1 cm, 2 s, (B) 2 cm, 4 s, (C) 2 cm, 4 s, zero (D) 2 cm, 2 s, zero
2 4
Q.13 The simple pendulum shown here has time period T if the cart moves with constant speed. With what
T
acceleration should the cart move so that the time period is ? (g is acceleration due to gravity)
2
(A) g

(B) 2 g cart

(C) 3 g
(D) 2 g

Q.14 A simple pendulum suspended from the ceiling of a stationary trolley has a length l. Its period of
oscillation is 2  / g . What will be its period of oscillation if the trolley moves forward with an
acceleration f ?
   
(A) 2 f g (B) 2 f  g (C) 2 ( f 2  g2 )1/ 2 (D) 2 f 2  g2

EXERCISE - II
Q.1 The time period of a particle in simple harmonic motion is equal to the time between consecutive
appearances of the particle at a particular point in its motion. This point is
(A) the mean position
(B) an extreme position
(C) between the mean position and the positive extreme
(D) between the mean position and the negative extreme

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION [162]

Q.2 Figure represents two simple harmonic motion.

The parameter which has different values in the two motions is

(A) amplitude (B) frequency
(C) phase (D) maximum velocity
Q.3 The average energy in one time period in simple harmonic motion is
1 1
(A) m2A2 (B) m2 A2 (C) m2A2 (D) zero
2 4
Q.4 The left block in figure moves at a speed towards the right block placed in equilibrium. All collisions to
take place are elastic and the surfaces are frictionless. Show that the motions of the two blocks are
periodic. Find the time period of these periodic motions. Neglect the widths of the block.
V
m m
L

m L  m L m 2L m 2L
(A)   (B)  (C)   (D) 2 
K V 2 K V K V K V
Q.5 A particle is executing S.H.M. of amplitude 'a' and time period = 4 second. Then the time taken
by it to move from the extreme position to half the amplitude is
1 2 4
(A) 1 sec (B) sec (C) sec (D) sec
3 3 3
Q.6 A particle is executing SHM with an amplitude 4cm. The displacement at which its energy is half
kinetic and half potential is
(A) 1 cm (B) (2)1/2 cm (C) 2 cm (D) 2(2)1/2 cm.
Q.7 The figure shows the graph between velocity(v) and acceleration (a) in SI units; then frequency of
oscillations is

4 10
V 2 e 5
0 0
5
10

(A) 1.25/ (B) 2.5 (C) / 1.25 (D) 1/1.25

Q.8 A simple harmonic motion having an amplitude A and time period T is represented by the equation :
y = 5 sin (t + 4) m
Then the values of A (in m) and T (in sec) are :
(A) A = 5; T = 2 (B) A = 10 ; T = 1 (C) A = 5 ; T = 1 (D) A = 10 ; T = 2
Q.9 A particle of mass 1 kg is undergoing S.H.M., for which graph between force and
displacement (from mean position) as shown. Its time period, in seconds, is:
(A) /3
(B) /3
(C) /6
(D) 

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION [163]

 (3 questions)
The graphs in figure show that a quantity y varies with displacement d in a system undergoing simple
harmonic motion.

(I) (II) (III) (IV)

Which graphs best represents the relationship obtained when y is

Q.10 The total energy of the system

(A) I (B) II (C) III (D) IV
Q.11 The time
(A) I (B) II (C) III (D) IV
Q.12 The unbalanced force acting on the system.
(A) I (B) II (C) III (D) None
Q.13 Statement-1 : A particle is moving along x-axis. The resultant force F acting on it at position x is given
by F = – ax – b. Where a and b are both positive constants. The motion of this particle is
not SHM.
Statement-2 : In SHM restoring force must be proportional to the displacement from mean position.
(A) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is correct explanation for statement-1.
(B) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is NOT the correct explanation for statement-1.
(C) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is false.
(D) Statement-1 is false, statement-2 is true.
Q.14 The amplitude of the vibrating particle due to superposition of two SHMs,
 
y 1 = sin   t   and y2 = sin  t is :
 3
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 2
Q.15 Two simple harmonic motions y1 = A sin t and y2 = A cos t are superimposed on a particle of mass m.
The total mechanical energy of the particle is:
1 1
(A) m2A2 (B) m2A2 (C) m2A2 (D) zero
2 4

EXERCISE - III

Q.1 A spring when connected by mass m gives time period 'T'. If spring is cut in n equal parts and each part
connected in parallel with same mass. New time- period will be - [AIEEE-2002]
(A) nT (B) T/n (C) T n (D) nT
Q.2 A child is sitting on a swing and swinging. If he stands up. The time period of swing will
[AIEEE-2002]
(A) increase
(B) decrease
(C) remain same
(D) increase if the child is long and decrease if the child is short
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION [164]
Q.3 In a simple harmonic oscillator, at the mean position – [AIEEE-2002]
(A) Kinetic energy is minimum, potential energy is maximum
(B) Both kinetic energy and potential energies are maximum
(C) Kinetic energy is maximum, potential energy is minimum
(D) Both kinetic & potential energies are minimum
Q.4 A mass M is suspended from a spring of negligible mass. The spring is pulled a little and then released so
that the mass executes SHM of time period T. If the mass is increased by m, the time period becomes
5T m
. Then the ratio of is – [AIEEE-2003]
3 M
(A) 25/9 (B) 16/9 (C) 5/3 (D) 3/5
Q.5 The length of a simple pendulum executing simple harmonic motion is increased by 21%. The percentage
increase in the time period of the pendulum of increased length is – [AIEEE-2003]
(A) 21% (B) 42% (C) 10% (D) 11%
Q.6 Two particles A and B of equal masses are suspended from two massless springs of spring constants k1
and k2 , respectively. If the maximum velocities, during oscillation, are equal, the ratio of amplitudes of A
and B is [AIEEE-2003]
k2 k2 k1 k1
(A) k (B) k1 (C) k (D) k
1 2 2

Q.7 The displacement of a particle varies according to the relation x = 4 (cos t + sin t). The amplitude of
the particle is – [AIEEE-2003]
(A) 4 (B) 42 (C) 8 (D) – 4
Q.8 A body executes simple harmonic motion. The potential energy (P.E.), the kinetic energy (K.E.) and total
energy (T.E.) are measured as a function of displacement x. Which of the following statement is true ?
[AIEEE-2003]
(A) T.E. is zero when x = 0
(B) K.E. is maximum when x is maximum
(C) P.E. is maximum when x = 0
(D) K.E. is maximum when x = 0
Q.9 The bob of a simple pendulum executes simple harmonic motion in water with a period t, while the
period of oscillation of the bob is t0 in air. Neglecting frictional force of water and given that the density
of the bob is (4/3) × 1000 kg/m3. What relationship between t and t0 is true ? [AIEEE-2004]
(A) t = t0 (B) t = t0 / 2 (C) t = 2t0 (D) t = 4t0
Q.10 A particle at the end of a spring executes SHM with a period t1, while the corresponding period for
another spring is t2. If the period of oscillation with the two springs in series is T, then –[AIEEE-2004]
(A) T = t1 + t2 (B) T2 = t 12 + t 22 (C) T–1 = t 11 + t 21 (D) T–2 = t 12 + t 22
Q.11 The total energy of a particle, executing simple harmonic motion is – [AIEEE-2004]
(A)  X
(B)  X2
(C) Independent of X
(D)  X1/2
where x is the displacement from the mean position.

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION [165]

Q.12 A particle of mass m is attached to a spring (of spring constant k) and has a natural angular frequency 0.
An external force F(t) proportional to cos  t (  0) is applied to the oscillator. The time displacement
of the oscillator will be proportional to – [AIEEE-2004]
m 1 1 m
(A) (B) (C) (D)
( 02  )2
m ( 02 2
 ) m ( 02 2
 ) ( 02  2 )
Q.13 In forced oscillation of a particle the amplitude is maximum for a frequency 1 of the force, while the
energy is maximum for a frequency 2 of the force ; then – [AIEEE-2004]
(A) 1 = 2
(B) 1 > 2
(C) 1 < 2 when damping is small and 1 > 2 when damping is large
(D) 1 < 2
Q.14 The function sin2(t) represents [AIEEE-2005]
(A) a periodic, but not simple harmonic motion with a period 2/
(B) a periodic, but not simple harmonic motion with a period /
(C) a simple harmonic motion with a period 2/
(D) a simple harmonic motion with a period /
d2 x
Q.15 If a simple harmonic motion is represented by  x = 0, its time period is [AIEEE-2005]
dt 2
2 2
(A) (B) (C) 2 (D) 2
 
Q.16 The bob of a simple pendulum is a spherical hollow ball filled with water. A plugged hole near the bottom
of the oscillating bob gets suddenly unplugged. During observation, till water is coming out, the time
period of oscillation would [AIEEE-2005]
(A) first increases and then decrease to the original value
(B) first decrease and then increase to the original value
(C) remain unchanged
(D) increase towards a saturation value
Q.17 The maximum velocity of a particle, executing simple haromonic motion with an amplitude
7 mm, is 4.4 m/s. The period of oscillation is – [AIEEE 2006]
(A) 0.1 s (B) 100 s (C) 0.01 s (D) 10 s
Q.18 Starting from the origin a body oscilates simple haromonically with a period of 2 s. After what time will
its kinetic energy be 75% of the total energy – [AIEEE 2006]
1 1 1 1
(A) s (B) s (C) s (D) s
3 12 6 4
Q.19 A coin is placed on a horizontal platform which unergoes vertical simple harmonic motion of angular
frequency . The amplitude of oscillation is gradually increased. The coin will leave contact with the
platform for the first time– [AIEEE 2006]
2
(A) for an amplitude of g / 2 (B) at the highest position of the platform
(C) at the mean position of the platform (D) for an amplitude of g/2
Q.20 The displacement of an object attached to a spring and executing simple harmonic motion is given
by x = 2 × 10-2 cos t metres. The time at which the maximum speed first occurs is -
[AIEEE 2007]
(A) 0.5 s (B) 0.75 s (C) 0.125 s (D) 0.25 s

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION [166]

Q.21 A point mass oscillates along the x-axis according to the law x = x0 cos (t – /4). If the
acceleration of the particle is written as a = A cos (t + ), then [AIEEE 2007]
 
(A) A = x0 ,  = – (B) A = x0 2 ,  =
4 4
 3
(C) A = x0 2,  = – (D) A = x0 2,  =
4 4
Q.22 A block of mass ‘m’ is connected to another block of mass ‘M’ by a spring (mass less) of spring
constant ‘k’. The blocks are kept on a smooth horizontal plane. Initially the blocks are at rest and
the spring is stretched. Then a constant force ‘F’ starts acting on the block of mass ‘M’ to pull
it. Find the force on the block of mass ‘m’. [AIEEE 2007]
mF (M  m )F mF MF
(A) (B) (C) (m  M ) (D) (m  M )
M m
Q.23 Two springs, of force constant k1 and k2, are connected to a mass m as shown. The frequency
of oscillation of the mass if f. If both k1 and k2 are made four times their original values, the
frequency of oscillation becomes [AIEEE 2007]
k1 m k2

(A) f/2 (B) f/4 (C) 4f (D) 2f

Q.24 A particle of mass m executes simple harmonic motion with amplitude ‘a’ and frequency ‘v’. The
average kinetic energy during its motion from the position of equilibrium to the end is
[AIEEE 2007]
1
(A) 2m a2 v2 (B) m a2 v 2 (C)2m a2 v2 (D) 22m a2 v2
4
Q.25 If x, v and a denote the displacement, the velocity and the acceleration of a particle executing
simple harmonic motion of time period T, then, which of the following does not change with time ?
[AIEEE-2009]
(A) aT/x (B) aT + 2v (C) aT/v (D) a T2 + 42v2
2

Q.26 A mass M, attached to a horizontal spring, executes S.H.M. with amplitude A1. When the mass M
passes through its mean position then a smaller mass m is placed over it and both of them move together
 A1 
with amplitude A2. The ratio of   is [AIEEE-2011]
A
 2
1/ 2 1/ 2
M Mm  M  Mm
(A) (B) (C)   (D)  
Mm M Mm  M 
Q.27 Two particles are executing simple harmonic motion of the same amplitude A and frequency  along the
x-axis. Their mean position is separated by distance X0(X0 > A). If the maximum separation between
them is (X0 + A), the phase difference between their motion is : [AIEEE-2011]
   
(A) (B) (C) (D)
2 3 4 6
Q.28 A mass m hangs with the help of a string wrapped around a pulley on a frictionless bearing. The pulley
has mass m and radius R. Assuming pulley to be a perfect uniform circular disc, the acceleration of the
mass m, if the string does not slip on the pulley, is : [AIEEE-2011]
3 2 g
(A) g (B) g (C) g (D)
2 3 3
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION [167]
 THEORY
MECHANICAL WAVES
SYLLABUS :
Wave motion. Longitudinal and transverse waves, speed of a wave. Displacement relation for a progressive
wave. Principle of superposition of waves, reflection of waves, Standing waves in strings and organ
pipes, fundamental mode and harmonics, Beats, Doppler effect in sound

TYPES OF WAVES
A wave is disturbance that propagates in space, transports energy and momentum from one point to
another without the transport of matter.
The ripples on a water surface, the sound we hear, visible light, radio and TV signals are a few
examples of waves.
There are two types of wave.
Mechanical Waves :
Require material medium (elasticity and inertia) for their propagation. These waves are also called
elastic waves, water waves and sound waves are example of mechanical waves. They are of two
types : Transverse and longitudital. Comparison between the two is given there :
Electromagnetic or non-mechanical Waves :
Do not require any material medium for their propagation, such as light and TV signals. Important
points regarding these waves are :
(a) Elasticity or inertia do not affect their propagation.
(b) They are always transverse in nature.

WAVE FUNCTION :
Various functions and their implications :
1. If y = f (x + vt), then wave is moving in negative x-direction with velocity v.
2. If y = f(x – vt), then wave is moving in positive x-direction with velocity v.
3. y = f (x ± vt)2, y  f  x  vt  or f (x ± vt)3 are valid wave equation.
4. y f  x  vt  , y = f (x2 ± v2t) or f (x3 ± v3t) are not wave equation.
Here y, x, v, t stand for displacement, position, speed of wave, time respectively.

Differential Equation of Travelling Wave :

2 y 2
2  y
 v
t 2 x 2
EQUATION OF A PLANE PROGRESSIVE WAVE :
(1) When a particle execute S.H.M. then displacement is given by :
y = A sin(t +) where  is phase difference
(2) In progressive wave each particle performs S.H.M & transfer its energy & momentum to nearest
particle. Let point P is reference point and it oscillates in simple harmonic manner.
y = A sin t. This is oscillation equation of point P.
Let wave travels in (+) ve direction with constant velocity (v). Point Q is at x distance from point
P. At time t, the displacement of point Q will be same as that of displacement of point P at time
(t – x/v)
 displacement of point Q at time t,
y = A sin  (t - x/v) .....................(a)

MECHANICAL WAVES [168]

 (i) Equation of progressive wave in positive x direction -
y = A sin  (t – x/v) .......................(1)
x is coordinate of point P w.r.t origin
(ii) Equation of progressive wave in negative x direction -
y = A sin  (t + x/v) .......................(2)
x is coordinate of point Q w.r.t. origin.
NOTE :
(1) Equation (1) & (2) represents displacement of particle from equilibrium at time t. It means
that y is displacement of point Q from mean position.
(2) Periodic motion of point Q can be expressed by y = A sin t, in the same way as that of
point P. In equation (1) & (2), it is supposed that point P is reference point, that's why sign
of x is opposite, otherwise equation (1) & (2) is same.
y x
(3) At time t, Velocity of particle = , Wave velocity =
t t
(4) Equation (A) represents displacement of particle in the perpendicular direction of wave motion
w.r.t. mean position. By this equation we can calculate displacement of particle in the direction
perpendicular to wave motion. Equation (A) is called the equation of plane progressive wave.

VARIOUS TERMS RELATED TO WAVE MOTION :

(1) Amplitude (A) - The maximum displacement of a vibrating particle of the medium from the
mean position. 'A' shows amplitude in y = A sin t

(2) Periodic time (T) - Time taken to complete one oscillation and denoted by T.

1
T= n is called frequency
n
(3) Wave Frequency (n) - Number of vibrations made per second by the particles and is denoted
by n.
n = 1/T unit : Hz
Angular Frequency :  = 2n unit : rad/sec
(4) Wave Length () - The distance between two consecutive particle in the same phase or the distance
travelled by the wave in one periodic time and denoted by 
 Wave Velocity V = n

MECHANICAL WAVES [169]

 Other Relation :

  
V = n = =  =
T 2 k
where k is defined as wave number.
(5) Intensity of Wave :
In medium, propagation energy perpendicular to per unit area per second is called
intensity of wave.
I = 22n2a2v
Where  = density of the medium , v = Wave velocity, a = amplitude , n = Wave frequency
Unit : W/m2 It v &  is constant, then I  (frequency)2 & I  (Amplitude)2

(6) Energy Density : Energy per unit volume is called energy density.
Energy Intensity
E = Energy density = Energy Velocity

2 2n2 a2v
= , E = 22n2a2
v
(7) Wave Pressure : When a wave incidents on surface then it produces pressure on it, it is
called wave pressure.

Point O is considered as reference point.

Speed of Wave Motion
1
(1) Speed of non-mechanical i.e., electromagnetic wave in vaccum is c 
 0 0
where 0 = absolute permeability and 0 = absolute permittivity

(2) Speed of mechanical waves :

(a) Transverse wave in a stretched string
T = tension in the string
 = mass per unit length
D = diameter of pipe W

MECHANICAL WAVES [170]

  = density

T stress 2 T D 2
v     Ad  
 density D  4
(b) Transverse wave in a solid

(i) In a long bar v  Y where Y = Young’s modulus,  = Density of material



4
Y
(ii) In an extended solid v  3 where  = modulus of rigidity,,

 = Density of material
Some Important Points :
Now v = 
 = frequency of wave, which is a constant.
 = wavelength
  v
As a wave changes medium its speed and wavelength changes but frequency remains same.
Relation between phase difference and path difference :
 2 x

x 
 = Phase difference
x = Path difference
Analysis of harmonic waves :
1. For a transverse wave y = A sin(t – kx)
at t = 0, photograph of the wave is For the particle at x = 0
y y
v
D

R S
A x t=0 t
C E
P Q
B

y = A sin(–kx) y = A sint
Particles at A, P, S, E are moving upwards This particle is moving upward at t = 0
Particles at Q, C, R are moving downwards
Particles at B and D are at rest
2. For wave y = A sin(kx – t)
at t = 0, photograph of the wave is For the particle at x = 0
y y
v
B
P Q
C E
A x t=0 t
R S
D y = Asin(– t)
y = A sin kx

MECHANICAL WAVES [171]

 Particles at A, P, S, E are moving downwards This particle is moving downward at t = 0
Particles at Q, C, R are moving upwards
Particles at B and D are at rest

Some Important Points :

 y  y
1. Particle velocity, VPa   V  where V = wave velocity and = slope of the wave
 x  x

 y 
2. In general, points with positive slope   move downward.
 x 
3. The points with negative slope move upward.
4. The points with maximum slope (A, C, E) have maximum velocity.
5. The points with zero slope are at rest.

INTERFERENCE & PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES

Principle of Superposition of Waves
(1) Superposition principle states that the net disturbance at a given place and time caused by a
number of waves in the same space is the vector sum of the disturbances which would have been
produced by each wave independent of the other.
(2) Resultant displacement
   
y = y1 + y 2 + y 3 + -----------
(3) Value of resultant displacement depends on
(a) Amplitude of waves
(b) Phase difference & path difference of waves
(c) Frequency of waves
(d) Direction of wave motion
Phenomenon observed due to superposition depends on above points (a), (b), (c), (d).

Interference :
When waves of equal frequency & nearly equal amplitude is superimposed, interference occurs

Mathematical Interference :
At a time t, at point x two waves of equal frequency y1 = a1sin(1t – k1x + 1) &
y2 = a2sin(2t – k2x + 2) is super-imposed, then Amplitude A & Intensity I of Resultant wave
:
A2 = a12 + a22 + 2a1 a2 cos 
& I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos 
 = (2 – 1)t – (k2 – k1) x + 2 – 1
Intensity of resultant wave changes periodically from minimum to maximum & maximum to min-
imum from one point to another point
Constructive Interference :
Where, phase difference  = 2n
path difference x = n,
Imax (a1 + a2)2

MECHANICAL WAVES [172]

Destructive Interference :
Where phase difference  = (2n – 1)
FG 1 IJ
path difference x = n  2 
H K
Imin (a1 – a2)2
Reflection of Waves
If a wave travelling in a medium of high velocity gets reflected from the surface of a medium of low
velocity, it suffers a phase change .
(1) At the interface of a rarer and denser medium.
(a) Wave is moving from rarer to denser medium.
v1
v2
Incident
wave
v2
 v2 < v1
v1
Reflected wave Transmitted wave

(b) Wave is moving from denser to rarer medium

v2
v1
Incident
wave

v1 v2
 v2 < v1
Transmitted wave Reflected wave

The transmitted wave is always in phase with incident wave.

Reflection from fixed end :

v
Fixed

Fixed


Incident v

Reflection from free end :

v v
frictionless 
ring

STANDING WAVES IN STRINGS AND NORMAL MODES OF VIBRATION :

Let a harmonic wave be set up on a string of length L, fixed at the two ends x = 0 and x = L.
This wave gets reflected from the two fixed ends of the string continuously and as a result of
superimposition of these waves, standing waves are formed on the string.
Let the wave pulse moving on the string from left to right (i.e. along positive direction of x axis)
be represented by

MECHANICAL WAVES [173]

 2
y1 = r sin (vt - x)

where the symbols have their usual meanings. Note that, here x is the distance from the origin in
the direction of the wave (from left to right). It is often convenient to take the origin (x = 0) at
the interface (the site of reflection), on the right fixed end of the string. In that case, sign of x is
reversed because it is measured from the interface in a direction opposite to the incident wave. The
equation of incident wave may, therefore, be written as
2
y1 = r sin (vt + x) ........(1)

A s there is a phase change of  radian on reflection at the fixed end of the string, therefore, the
reflected wave pulse travelling from right to left on the string is represented by
 2 
y2 = r sin   ( vt  x )  
 

2
= – r sin (vt – x) .......(2)

According to superposition principle, the resultant displacement y at time t and position x is given
by
y = y1 + y2
2 2
= r sin (vt + x) – r sin (vt – x)
 

 2 2 
y = r sin  (vt  x)  sin  (vt  x) ........(3)
 
Using the relation,
CD C D
sin C – sin D = 2 cos sin ,
2 2
we get
2 2
y = 2r cos vt sin x ........(4)
 
As the arguments of trigonometrical functions involved in (4) do not have the form (vt ± x),
therefore, it does not represent a moving harmonic wave rather , it represents a new kind of waves
called standing or stationary waves.
At one end of the string, where x = 0
From (4) ,
2 2
y = 2r cos  vt sin (0) = 0

( sin 0º = 0)
At the other end of the string, where x = L
From (4)
2 2
y = 2r cos vt sin L .........(5)
 
As the other end of the string is fixed,
 y = 0, at this end
For this, from (5)

MECHANICAL WAVES [174]

 2
sin L = 0 = sin n ,

where n = 1, 2, 3 ..............
2L 2L
 = n or =
 n
Note : n = 1, 2, 3 ..............correspond to Ist, IInd , IIIrd ...........normal modes of vibration of
the string.
LAWS OF VIBRATION IN A STRETCHED STRING :
(1) Law of Length - n  1/L  n1/n2 = L2/L1, where T & m are constants
T1
(2) Law of Tension - n  T  n1/n2 = T , where L & m are constant
2

1 m2
(3) Law of Mass - n  n1/n2 = m ,
m 1

where L & T are constant

1
(4) Law of Radius - n  n1/n2 = r2/r1,
r
where d, L & T are constant
1 d2
(5) Law of Density - n  n1/n2 = d1 , where r, T & L are constant
d
P T
General Formula - n = ,
2L m

P T P Mg
n= d
=
2Lr 2Lr d
EXPERIMENT OF MELDE'S :
(1) This is experimental show of transverse stationary wave.
(2) Unknown frequency of tuning fork can be determined by this experiment.
(3) Laws of transverse vibration in stretched string can be proved by this experiment
(4) One stretched string is tied to arm of tuning fork. Now it is vibrated.

MECHANICAL WAVES [175]

 SOUND WAVES
They are mechanical and longitudinal waves. They propagate in form of compressions and rarefactions.
Particle displacements can be represented by wave function
S = A sin(t – kx)
As particles oscillate, pressure variation takes place according to the wave function.
P = P0 cos(t – kx), P0 = maximum pressure variation
Note : Points where displacement is maximum, pressure variation is zero i.e. there is a phase
difference of 90° between pressure wave and displacement wave.
Characteristic of Sound :
Loudness :
Sensation of sound produced in human ear due to amplitude. It depends upon intensity, density of
medium, presence of surrounding bodies,
(a) Intensity of Wave
I = 22f 2A2v
I  f 2 and I  A2
P
I P = Power of point source
4r 2

1
I (for a point source)
r2

1
I (for a line source)
r
(b) Intensity Level or (Sound Level) ()
 I 
  10 log10   (dB)

 I0 

I 0  minimum intensity of audible sound  10 12 W/m 2 

 
I  measured intensity 

Sound level range for audible sound [0 dB to 120 dB]

I2  
2 – 1 = 10 log10  I  , Unit of sound level  is decibel (dB)
 1
Quality :
Sensation produced in human ear due to shape of wave. Quality is that characteristic of sound by
which we can differentiate between the sound of same pitch and loudness coming from different
sources.
Pitch :
Sensation produced in human ear due to frequency.
(a) Pitch is the characteristics of sound that depends on frequency.
(b) Smaller the frequency smaller the pitch, higher the frequency higher the pitch.
(c) Humming of mosquito has high pitch (high frequency) but low intensity (low loudness) while the roar
of a lion has high intensity (loudness) but low pitch.

MECHANICAL WAVES [176]

VELOCITY OF SOUND IN A MEDIUM :
Medium is necessary for sound propagation. These are longitudinal. In a medium, velocity of sound
wave & mechanical wave depends on property of medium. It does not depends on amplitude & nature
of wave.
WAVE VELOCITY IS AFFECTED BY FOLLOWING PROPERTIES OF MEDIUM :
(i) Elasticity (ii) Inertia
LAW OF NEWTON :
In a medium, velocity of sound is given by
E = Elasticity coefficient of medium
d = Density of medium.
E
v=
d
(A) VELOCITY OF SOUND IN SOLID : for solid E = Y (elasticity coefficient of young)
Y
 v=
d
(B) VELOCITY IN LIQUID : for liquid E = B (elasticity coefficient of volume),
B
v=
d
(C) VELOCITY OF SOUND IN GAS :
(I) NEWTON'S LAW : According to it, in a gaseous medium compression & rarefaction are formed
slowly during wave propagation. So medium has sufficient time for energy transfer. Thus, temperature
of medium remains constant. Sound wave motion is isothermal phenomenon.
dP P RT
E=– for isothermal E = P  v = d
=
dv / v M
LAPLACE'S CORRECTION : According to it, compression & rarefactions are formed so fast
that sufficient time is not available to energy transfer. Thus, sound wave motion in gaseous medium
is adiabatic process.
FOR ADIABATIC PROCESS :
dP
E=– = p
dv / v

P RT
 v= =
d M

FACTORS AFFECTING VELOCITY OF SOUND IN GASEOUS MEDIUM :

(A) EFFECT OF PRESSURE AT CONSTANT TEMPERATURE : No effect, because density
increases on pressure increasing.
RT
v=
M
(B) EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE : On increasing temperature, velocity of sound increases.
RT
v= v T
M
where T = Temperature in Kelvin.
 v  273  t ,

MECHANICAL WAVES [177]

 where t = temperature in ºC
v1 273  t1
For a gi ven gas  = , t1 & t2 are in ºC
v2 273  t 2
If velocity of sound at 00C in gas is V0 then at tºC
vt = v0 + 0.61 t m/sec,
where v0 = 331 m/sec.
NOTE :
(1) At tºC, on increasing temperature velocity of sound increases by 0.61 m/sec
(2) At same temperature velocity in different gases
v1  1M2
=
v2  2M1
(C) EFFECT OF HUMIDITY :
On increasing humidity, velocity of sound increases because density decreases with humidity increase.
Dry air has more density than humid air.
 Velocity of sound in dry air is less than in humid air.
(D) EFFECT OF AMPLITUDE & FREQUENCY :
No effect. In a medium, all sound waves which falls in sonic range, travels with equal velocity.
Resultant velocity of wave remain same due to superposition of these waves.
(Sonic velocity = 20Hz - 20000 Hz)
INTERFERENCE OF SOUND WAVES :
When two coherent sound waves superpose in a certain region interference takes place. For waves
to be coherent, the phase difference between the two waves should not change with time. This
requires that the wavelength (frequency) of the two waves must be the same. Further more to have
a better contrast between the maximum and minimum intensities, the two waves producing interference
and should propagate in the same direction.
Consider two waves,
y1 = a1sin(t)
y2 = a2sin(t + )
where  is the phase difference between the two waves. This phase difference may arise because
of the path difference [ = 2 (path diff)/] or may be some initial phase difference or may be
both. Then the resultant wave obtained from their superposition is written as,
y = y1 + y2
= a sin(t + )
where the resultant amplitude a is given by,
a = a12  a22  2a1a2 cos 
The phase  of the resultant wave is not of any importance in our discussions.
The intensity of the resultant wave is,
I = Ka2,
or I = I1 + I2 + 2  1 2 cos
The intensity will be maximum or minimum depending on the value of .
Constructive interference : The constructive interference takes place when the phase difference
between the two waves is,
 = 0, 2, 4, 6..... = 2n,
Then cos = +1
and the resultant wave amplitude and intensity are maximum
amax = a1 + a2,
Imax = I1 + I2 + 2  1 2

MECHANICAL WAVES [178]

 2
= e 1   2 j
Destructive interference : The destrucitve interference takes place when the phase difference
between the two waves is,
 = 0, 3, 5,..... = (2n–1),
Where n = 1, 2, 3,.....
Then the resultant wave amplitude and intensity are minimum,
amin= a1 – a2
Imin = I1 + I2 – 2  1 2
2
Imin = e 1 –  2 j
Note :
(1) If the two interfering waves have the same amplitudes, then
Imax = 4I0, amax = 2a0,
Imin = 0, amin = 0
where a0 is the amplitude and I0 is the intensity of one wave.
(2) The condition on path difference for observing constructive or destructive interference is,
path diff = n for constructive
FG 1 IJ
path diff H = n– 2 
K for destructive
PHASE DIFFERENCE & PATH DIFFERENCE
If the shape of wave does not change as the wave propagates in a medium, with increase in t, x
will also increase in such a way that
               t – kx= constant
The argument of harmonic function (t – kx) is called phase of the wave and is constant if the
shape of wave remains unchanged. Further if we consider two points at position x1 and x2 on a
wave at a given instant then,
        1= t – kx1 and 2 = t – kx2,
so 2 ~ 1 = k(x2 – x1)
2 LMas 2 OP
i.e.,  = x k
 N  Q
From this it is clear that if x = ,  = 2, i.e., a path difference  corresponds to a phase
change of (2) rad.
REFLECTION OF SOUND WAVES :
(i) Because sound propagates in the form of waves, it shows both the phenomenon of reflection and
refraction. When sound wave travelling in a medium strikes the surface separating the two media, a
part of incident wave is reflected back into initial medium obeying ordinary laws of reflection while
the rest is partly absorbed and partly refracted or transmitted into second medium.
(ii) When a sound wave gets reflected from a rigid boundary, the particles at the boundary are unable
to vibrate. Thus, a reflected wave is generated which interferes with the oncoming wave to produce
zero displacement at the rigid boundary. At these points of zero displacement, the pressure variation
is maximum. This implies that the phase of wave is reversed but the nature of sound wave does
not change i.e. on reflection the compression is reflected back as compression and rarefaction as
rarefaction. If the incident wave is represented by the equation : y = asin (t – kx), then the
equation of reflected wave takes the form y = a´sin (t + kx + ) = –a´sin(t + kx) whre a´ is
the amplitude of reflected wave.
(iii) A sound wave is also reflected if it encounters a rarer medium or free boundary or low pressure
region. A practical example is when a sound wave travels in a narrow open tube. When the wave
reaches an open end, it gets reflected. The force on the particles there due to the outside air is
quite small and hence, the particles vibrate with the increasing amplitude. As a result, the pressure
there remains at the average value. This implies that there is no change in the phase of wave but
the nature of sound wave is changed i.e. on reflection the compression is reflected back as
rarefaction and vica versa. If the incident wave is y = a sin(t – kx), then the equation of
reflected wave take the form y = a´sin(t + kx) where a´ is the amplitude of reflected wave.

MECHANICAL WAVES [179]

STATIONARY WAVES IN SOUND :
(1) Two progressive wave of equal amplitude & frequency, travelling in opposite direction are
superimposed.
Due to superposition one new waves form which do not travel in either direction, this wave is
called stationary wave.
(2) Energy do not propagate in medium.
(3) These waves extend & contract relative to its mean position.

EQUATION & MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS OF STATIONARY WAVE

Let y = A sin(t - kx) is equation of progressive wave.

S.N. IF IT IS REFLECTED FROM FREE END IF IT IS REFLECTED FROM RIGID END

(1) y1 = A sin(t – kx) y1 = A sin(t – kx)

y2 = A sin(t + kx) y2 = – A sin(t + kx)
y2 = A sin (t + kx + )
(2) According to superposition According to superposition
y = y1 + y2 y = y1 + y2
y = (2A sint)coskx y = – (2a cost)sinkx
(3) Maximum displacement from mean Maximum displacement from
position mean position
R = 2a coskx R = 2a sinkx
(4) Amplitude is maximum, Amplitude is maximum ,
When coskx = ± 1 When sinkx = ± 1.
Displacement changes with time Displacement changes with time
kx = n, n = o, 1,2,3, ---- kx = (2n + 1) /2, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ----
x = n/2 x = (2n + 1) /4
(5) At antinode, amplitude is maximum At antinode, amplitude is maximum.
Position of antinode; Position of antinode;
x = 0, /2, 2/2, ------- x = /4, 3/4, 5/4, -------------
(6) Distance between two consecutive Distance between two consecutive
antinode is /2 antinode is /2
(7) If coskx = 0 then displacement If sinkx = 0 then displacement of particle
of particle is always zero. It is called is always zero irrespective of time. It is
nodes. called nodes
(2n  1)
kx = , n = 0, 1, 2, 3,----- kx = n, n = 0, 1, 2, -----------
2
x = (2n + 1)/4 x = n/2
Position of nodes : Position of nodes :
x = /4, 3/4, 5/4,------ x = 0, /2, 2/2, --------
(8) Distance between two consecutive nodes Distance between two consecutive
is /2 nodes is /2
(9) One antinode lies between two consecutive O ne antinode lies between two
nodes and one nodes lies between two consecutive nodes & one nodes lies
consecutive antinode between two consecutive antinodes

MECHANICAL WAVES [180]

CHARACTERISTICS OF STATIONARY WAVES :
(1) Certain point in the bounded medium, situated at equal distances; are always in the position of rest,
i.e., their displacement remain zero. These points are called nodes. If the stationary waves are
longitudinal then at these nodes the change in pressure and density is maximum as compared to
other points.
(2) The displacement of the midpoints between the nodes is always maximum as compared to other
points. These points are called antinodes. In the longitudinal stationary waves there is no change
in pressure & density at these points.
(3) All points between two successive nodes vibrate in the same phase. They reach simultaneously
their positions of maximum displacement and pass simultaneously through their mean position.
(4) Except nodes, all points of the medium vibrate but the amplitude of vibration is different from one
point to the other. It is zero at the nodes and maximum at the antinodes.
(5) The distance between two consecutive nodes, or between two consecutive antinodes is /2. The
distance between a node and its neighbouring antinode is /4.
(6) At any instant, the phase of vibration of the points on one side of a node is opposite from the phase
of vibration of the points on the other side.
(7) All points of the medium pass through their mean positions simultaneously twice in each period, that
is the stationary wave takes the form of a straight line twice.
(8) In longitudinal stationary waves, the nodes are found alternately in the state of maximum compression
and maximum rarefaction twice in each period.

VIBRATIONS OF AIR COLUMNS IN PIPES :

(1) Organ Pipe : In this case, longitudinal stationary waves are formed
(a) Open organ Pipe :

l l l

Displacement
Node
Pressure antinode
 3
l  or  = 2l l= l 
2 2
V V V 2l
1     21 
 2l l 3
3V
1st harmonic or 2nd harmonic 0   31
2l
Fundamental mode Ist overtone 3rd harmonic
2nd overtone

MECHANICAL WAVES [181]

(2) Closed organ pipe :

 3 4l 5 4l
l     4l l   l  
4 4 3 4 5

V 3V 5V
  
4l 4l 4l
Fundamental mode Ist overtone 2nd overtone
Ist harmonic 3rd harmonic 5th harmonic

Pipe Fundamental Ist Overtone

th
(n – 1) overtone
length ‘’l Mode

Open V V V
      n 1:2:3:4
2l l 2l
st nd th
I Harmonic 2 Harmonic n Harmonic

V 3V V
Closed       ( 2n  1) 1:3:5:7
4l 4l l
st th
I Harmonic 3 Harmonic (2n – 1) Harmonic
rd

Note : Even numbered (i.e., 2nd, 4th .....) harmonics do not exist in close organ pipe.

End correction :
As the antinodes are formed slightly out side the open end.
e = 0.6r = end correction. Thus, we have,
For closed organ pipe For open organ pipe
e

l + 2e
l+e

e
(2n  1)V nV
 
4(l  e ) 2(l  2e )

MECHANICAL WAVES [182]

BEATS:
It is the phenomenon of periodic variation in intensity at a particular position on account of
superposition of wave of nearly equal frequencies. When two waves of same amplitude and nearly
equal frequencies 1 and 2 superimpose on each other.
1   2
(1) The amplitude at a given position varies with frequency 2
.
(2) The intensity at a given position varies with frequency |1 – 2|. This frequency of variation of intensity
is called beat frequency.
(3) Frequency of the resulting wave is (v1 + v2)/2.
Note : To observe the phenomenon of beats, beat frequency should be less than 10 Hz.

TO FIND VELOCITY OF SOUND :

RESONANCE TUBE METHOD :

A resonance column or a resonance tube is merely a pipe closed at one end with a convenient
provision for varying the length of the column. A simple form is shown in figure, where the portion
of the pipe above water level acts as the resonan ce tube. The surface of water inside the pipe
serves as a closed end of the air column.
A tuning fork of known frequency is struck with a rubber or cork hammer and is held near the
mouth of the tube. The water level is gradually adjusted till for a particular position the air column
resonates.
For resonance, the natural frequency of the air column must be equal to that of the tuning fork (nt).
If 1 is the length of the resonating column, then if end corrections are ignored,

1 =
4
V
and n = 4  = n t,
1

MECHANICAL WAVES [183]

 Thus a knowledge of nt and 1 determines the velocity of sound,
V = nt,
= nt(41)
However, if end correction is not neglected, then the true length that appears in the formula will
be,

L = 1 + e =
4
So that unless e is known, V can not be determined. To eliminate e, the experiment is repeated
for a greater length. This time resonance occurs for the mode shown in fig (b) i.e., when nt =
frequency of the first overtone. Let now the length is 2 then,
3
L´ = 2 + e =
4
From the relations (ignoring subscript t on nt,)
V V
n= and n=3
4L 4L
L
we expect L=
3

2  e
or   1 +e =
3
This gives,
(  2 – 3 1 )
e=
2
and, velocity of sound is determined from the formula
V
n=
2(  2 – 1 )
The wavelength of the sound in the air column is,
 = 2(2 – 1)
KUNDT'S TUBE METHOD :
The apparatus consists of a long glass tube about 5cm in diameter, fixed horizontally. A metal rod
R clamped firmly at the centre is mounted so that its one end carrying a light disc P1 (of cork or
card board) projects some distance into the glass tube. The other end of the glass tube is closed
with a moveable piston P2. Any desired length of the air or gas can be enclosed in between the
two discs P1 and P2. A small amount of dry lycopodium powder or cork dust is spread along base
of the entire length of the tube.

MECHANICAL WAVES [184]

 The free end of the metal rod R is rubbed (stroked) along the length with resined cloth. The rod
begins to vibrate longitudinaly and emits a very high pitched shrill note. These vibrations are
impressed upon the air column in the tube through disc P1. Let disc P2 is so adjusted, that the
stationary waves are formed in the air (gas) column in the tube. At antinodes powder is set into
oscillations vigorously while it remains uneffected at nodes. Heaps of powder are formed at nodes.
(a) Theory of Kundt's tube
Let n is the frequency of vibration of the rod then, this is also the frequency of sound wave in the
air column in the tube.
 rod
For rod : = rod
2
 air
For air : = air
2
Where air is the distance between two heaps of powder in the tube (i.e. distance between two
nodes). If vair and vrod are velocity of sound waves in the air and rod respectively, then
v air v rod
n=  = 
air rod

v air  air
Therefore, =
v rod  rod

=  air

rod

Thus knowledge of vrod, determines vair.

Kundt's tube may be used for
(i) Comparison of velocities of sound in different gases
(ii) Comparison of velocities of sound in different solids
(iii) Comparison of velocities of sound in a solid and in a gas
(iv) Comparison of density of two gases
(v) Determination of  of a gas
(vi) Determination of velocity of sound in a liquid
LONGITUDINAL VIBRATIONS OF ROD :
(A) ROD FREE AT BOTH ENDS
A rod clamped at the middle and free at both ends, vibrate longitudinally with the node in middle
and antinodes at the free end. The first two possible modes are shown in figure. The fundamental
mode (lowest frequency note) is shown in figure.(a)

MECHANICAL WAVES [185]

 2 1 V V
(a)  ,  1 = 2 Its frequency is, n1= =
4 1 2
6 2
(b) , 2 = 2 / 3
4
The next mode has a frequency of, ( See in fig (b) )

V FG V IJ
n2 =  = 2 3
2 H K
n2 = 3n1

(B) ROD CLAMPED AT ONE END

Fundamental mode frequency
V V
n1 =  =
1 4

First overtone frequency

V V
n2 = =3
2 4

n2 = 3n1
Thus again the overtone frequencies are 3,5,7,......times that of the fundamental.

MECHANICAL WAVES [186]

 DOPPLER’S EFFECT
If a wave source and a receiver are moving relative to each other, the frequency observed by the
receiver (f) is different from the actual source frequency (f0) given by,
 v  v0 
f  f0  
 Where v = speed of sound, v0 = speed of observer, vs = speed of source
 v  vs 
Various cases :
1. Source at rest, observer moves

(a) Observer moves away from source, f  f0  v  v 0 

 v 
(b) Observer moves towards source,  v v0 
f  f0  
 v 
2. Observer at rest, source moves
 v 
(a) Source moves towards observer, f  f0  

 v  vs 

(b) Source moves away from observer, f  f0  v 

 v  vs 
3. Both move
(a) Both approaching each other
 v  v0 
f  f0   S vS v0 O

 v  vS 
(b) Source following the observer
 v  v0 
f  f0   S vS O v0

 v  vS 
(c) Observer following the source
 v  v0 
f   f0 vS S v0

 v  vS 
(d) Both moving away from each other
 v  v0 
f   f0 vS S O v0

 v  vS 
Application of beats and Doppler Effect :
Case - I :
f = frequency of source vs = velocity of source
f  = frequency of direct sound v = velocity of sound
f  = frequency of reflected sound S
O vs
 v 
f    f
 (source moving away)
 v  vs 
 v  Cliff/Wall
f    f
 (source moving towards)
 v  vs  at rest
 v v   v  2v s 
Beat frequency = f   f     f  
 v2  v2 
f vs P vs
 v  vs v  vs   s 
Case - II :
A source of frequency ‘f ’ is revolving in a circle of B R
O D
radius R with speed vs. An observer is standing at x
a distance x from the centre.
At B and D, observed frequency is ‘f ’ . At ‘P’ vs
Q
frequency is maximum as OP  PR, i.e., C v
s

MECHANICAL WAVES [187]

  v 
f    f
 OP  OR 2  PR 2  x2  R2
 v  vs 
 v 
At Q frequency is minimum as OQ  QR, i.e., f    f

 v  vs 
Case - III :
v1 v0
v = velocity of sound
S1 O S2 (rest)
(f1) (f2)
 v  v0 
f1    f1
 v  v1 
 v  v0 
f2     f2 beat frequency = f1 – f2
 v 
Case - IV : ‘f ’ v = velocity of sound
Direct frequency = f
S v
 v  v  O (movable reflecting wall)
Reflected frequency =  v  v  f
   (rest)
 v  v   2v  
Beat frequency =  f   1  f  

 v  v    v  v 
DOPPLER’S EFFECT IN LIGHT :
The velocity of light in free space is independent of the motion of source or observer and it is
a universal constant given as c = 3 x 108m/s. Thus the doppler’s effect in light depends only upon
the relative motion of the light source and the observer and it does not matter which one is moving.
(i) When a light source and an observer are approaching each other with a velocity v, then the
apparent frequency of light will be .
’ = 
and ’ =  (1 – v/c) if v < < c
or =  v/c
Case (a) When the light source is going away from the earth then
 =  
’ < and = or ’ >  i.e.  is increased or spectral line will shift towards the
red end of the spectrum. This is known as red shift.
Case (b) When the light source is coming nearer to earth.
 = or ’ > 
and  = – or ’ < 
 wavelength appears to be decreasing i.e. the spectral line in electromagnetic spectrum gets
displaced towards violet end, hence it is known as violet shift.
APPLICATION OF DOPPLER EFFECT :
(1) To determine the width of spectral lines (W).
(2) To determine the velocity of stars and galaxies.
(3) To determine the frequency of a tuning fork.
(4) To determine the speed of rotation of sun.
(5) In the discovery of Saturn rings.
(6) In the discovery of twin stars.
(7) In E.C.G.
(8) In very high frequency unidirectional radio ranging (V.O.R.)
(9) In tracking of artificial satellites.
(10) In RADAR
(11) In SONAR.
MECHANICAL WAVES [188]
 EXERCISE-I

Q.1 The property of a medium necessary for wave propagation is -

(A) Its inertia (B) Its elasticity (C) Its low resistance (D) All of above
Q.2 By which of the following waves, energy is not carried ?
(A) stationary waves (B) longitudinal progressive waves
(C) transverse progressive waves (D) electromagnetic waves
Q.3 In stationary waves, energy is –
(A) transferred
(B) not transferred
(C) zero at every point
(D) transferred in the direction of propagation of waves.
Q.4 The amplitude of a wave represented by displacement equation :
1 1
y= sin t ± cos t will be -
a b
ab a b a b ab
(A) (B) (C) (D)
ab ab ab ab
Q.5 The relation between the particles velocity and wave velocity is -
dy V dy
(A) u = –v (B) u =  dy  (C) u = V (D) u = V +
dx dx
 
 dx 
Q.6 If the speed of the wave shown in the figure is 330 m/s in the given medium, then the equation
of the wave propagating in the positive x-direction will be - (all quantities are in MKS units)

(A) y = 0.05 sin 2  (4000 t – 12.5 x) (B) y = 0.05 sin 2  (4000 t – 122.5 x)
(C) y = 0.05 sin 2  (3300 t – 10 x) (D) y = 0.05 sin 2  (3300 x – 10 t)
Q.7 The displacement of the medium in a sound wave is given by the equation
y1 = A cos (ax + bt) Where A, a and b are positive constants. Then the wavelength and frequency
of the incident wave are –
2 2 2 b
(A) a, b (B) 2 a , 2 b (C) , (D) ,
a b a 2
Q.8 A uniform rope of length 10 m and mass 15 kg hangs vertically from a rigid support. A block of
mass 5 kg is attached to the free end of the rope . A transverse pulse of wavelength 0.08 m is
produced at the lower end of the rope. The wavelength of the pulse when it reaches the top of the
rope will be-
(A) 0.08 m
(B) 0.04 m 15 kg
(C) 0.16 m
5kg

MECHANICAL WAVES [189]

 (D) 0 m
Q.9 The correct equation of one dimensional wave is -
d2 y 1 d2 y d2 y d2 y d2 y 1 d2 y d2 y d2 y
(A) = (B) = V2 (C) = (D) =V
dx 2 V 2 dt 2 dx 2 dt 2 dx 2 V dt 2 dx 2 dt 2
Q.10 The resultant amplitude, when two waves of same frequency but with amplitudes a1 an a2

superimpose at phase difference of , will be -
2
(A) a1 + a2 (B) a1 – a2 (C) a12  a 22 (D) a12  a22
Q.11 The frequencies of sources A and B as shown in figure are same. The nature of interference at

points P, Q and R will be if AB = and the two sources are in same phase.
2

(A) constructive at P. destructive at Q and R.

(B) constructive at P and R. destructive at Q.
(C) constructive at P and Q. destructive at R.
(D) constructive at R. destructive at P and Q
Q.12 Two waves of same frequency but of amplitudes a and 2a respectively superimpose over each other.
3
The intensity at a point where the phase difference is , will be
2
(A) 9a2 (B) 3a2 (C) a (D) 5a2
Q.13 If two progressive waves of amplitude A1 and A2 superpose, while moving in the same direction,
then the amplitude of the resultant wave will be -
(A) A1 + A2 (B) A 12  A 22
(C) Between A1 + A2 and A1 – A2 (D) A1 – A2
Q.14 Two waves of intensities I and 4I produce interference. Then the intensity at constructive and
destructive interference respectively is –
(A) 3I, 5I (B) 5I, 3I (C) I, 9I (D) 9I, I
Q.15 The equation y = 0.15 sin 5x cos 300t represents a stationary wave. The wavelength of this
stationary wave will be -
(A) zero (B) 1.256 m (C) 2.512 m (D) 0.628 m

EXERCISE - II
Q.1 Disturbances of two waves are shown as a function of time in the following figure. The ratio of
their intensities will be -

(A) 1 : 4 (B) 4 : 1 (C) 1 : 2 (D) 1 : 1

MECHANICAL WAVES [190]

Q.2 Two sound waves are respectively y = a sin (t – kx) and y = b cos (t – kx) the phase difference
between the two waves is -
(A)  / 2 (B)  / 4 (C)  (C) 3 /4
Q.3 A sonometer wire of density d and radius r is held between two bridges at a distance L apart. The
wire has a tension T. The fundamental frequency of the wire will be :
1 T r d 1 d 1 d
(A) f = (B) f = (C) f = (D) f =
2Lr d 2L T 2Lr T 2L T
Q.4 A stretched wire of length 114 cm is divided into three segments whose frequencies are in the ratio
1 : 3 : 4, the length of the segments must be in the ratio :
(A) 18 : 24 : 72 (B) 24 : 72 : 18 (C) 24 : 18 : 72 (D) 72 : 24 : 18
Q.5 The beats are produced by two sound sources of same amplitude and of nearly equal frequencies.
The maximum intensity of beats will be ..... that of one source
(A) Same (B) Double (C) Four times (D) Eight times
Q.6 The keys of two pianos are simultaneously pressed. The frequencies of nodes produced by them
are n1 and n2. The number of beats produced per second is
(n1  n 2 ) (n1  n 2 )
(A) (n1 – n2) (B) (C) (D) 2(n1 – n2)
2 2
Q.7 The frequency of an open pipe is 300Hz. The first overtone of this pipe is the same as the first
overtone of a closed pipe. The length of the closed organ pipe is
(A) 21 cm (B) 42 cm (C) 11 cm (D) 84 cm
Q.8 The fundamental frequency of an open pipe is n. Keeping the pipe vertical it is submerged in water
so that half of its length is filled with water. The fundamental frequency of the air column above
water is -
(A) n/2 (B) 3n/4 (C) n (D) 2n
Q.9 A whistle is rotated with 2 rotations/sec in a circle of radius 1 meter. A listener is setting in the plane
of circle outside the centre, then ratio of maximum and minimum frequencies heard by him will be
( V  4 ) ( V  4 ) ( V  2) ( V  4)
(A) ( V  4) (B) ( V  2) (C) ( V  2) (D) ( V  4)
Q.10 In a standing wave particles at the positions A and B, have a phase difference of

A B

 5
(A) 0 (B) (C) (D) 
2 6
Q.11 A transverse wave pulse is generated at lower end of a hanging rope of uniform linear mass density
and length L. Time taken by pulse to travel from lower end to the ceiling is
L
(A) g
L
(B) 2
g
L
(C) 2g
3l
(D) g

MECHANICAL WAVES [191]

Q.12 Identify the figure, which correctly represent the given wave function at t = 0 ?
y  2 3 sin 2 x  3t 
y y

2 3 2 3
x 3
(A) (B) x
2 3
y y
2 3 2 3
3
(C) x (D) x
–3
2 3 –2 3

Q.13 A transverse wave has amplitude A, maximum particle speed B, angular wave number C. Speed of
the wave is
B A AB CB
(A) (B) (C) (D)
AC BC C A
Q.14 Statement 1 : A wave can represented by function y = f(kx ± t).

2y 1   2 y  
Statement 2 : Because it satisfy the differential equation = where v = .
x 2 v 2  t 2  K
(A) Both Statement-1 and Statement-2 are true, and Statement-2 is the correct explanation of State-
ment-1.
(B) Both Statement-1 and Statement-2 are true but Statement-2 is not the correct explanation of
Statement-1.
(C) Statement-1 is true but Statement-2 is false.
(D) Statement-1 is false but Statement-2 is true.
Q.15 Statement 1 : The transverse wave is traveling along a string in the positive x-axis is shown.

Points (A & P1) moving downward and point (C & P2) moving upward.
Statement 2 : In a wave propagating in positive x direction, the points with +ve slope move downward
and vice versa.
(A) Both Statement-1 and Statement-2 are true, and Statement-2 is the correct explanation of State-
ment-1.
(B) Both Statement-1 and Statement-2 are true but Statement-2 is not the correct explanation of
Statement-1.
(C) Statement-1 is true but Statement-2 is false.
(D) Statement-1 is false but Statement-2 is true.

MECHANICAL WAVES [192]

 EXERCISE-III

Q.1 A wire of length 40 cm is taut at both ends. The maximum wavelength of standing waves generated in the
wire will be – [AIEEE-2002]
(A) 40 cm (B) 80 cm (C) 20 cm (D) None
Q.2 A wave y = a sin (t – kx) on a string meets with another wave producing a node at x = 0. Then the
equation of the unknown wave is – [AIEEE-2002]
(A) y = a sin (t + kx) (B) y = – a sin (t + kx)
(C) y = a sin (t – kx) (D) y = – a sin (t – kx)
Q.3 A metal wire of linear mass density of 9.8 g/m is stretched with a tension of 10 kg-wt between two rigid
supports 1 metre apart. The wire passes at its middle point between the poles of a permanent magnet
and it vibrates in resonance when carrying an alternating current of frequency n. The frequency n of the
alternating source is – [AIEEE-2003]
(A) 100 Hz (B) 200 Hz (C) 25 Hz (D) 50 Hz
Q.4 A tuning fork of known frequency 256 Hz makes 5 beats per second with the vibrating string of a piano. The
beat frequency decreases to 2 beats per second when the tension in the piano string is slightly increased. The
frequency of the piano string before increasing the tension was – [AIEEE-2003]
(A) 256 – 2 Hz (B) 256 – 5 Hz (C) 256 + 5 Hz (D) 256 + 2 Hz
Q.5 A string is stretched between fixed points separated by 75.0 cm. It is observed to have resonant
frequencies of 420 Hz and 315 Hz. There are no other resonant frequencies between these two. Then,
the lowest resonant frequency for this string is – [AIEEE 2006]
(A) 1050 Hz (B) 10.5 Hz (C) 105 Hz (D) 1.05 Hz
Q.6 A wave travelling along the x- axis is described by the equation y(x,t) = 0.005 cos (x –t). If the
wavelength and the time period of the wave are 0.08 m and 2.0 s, respectively, then  and  in appropriate
units are [AIEEE 2008]
0.08 2.0 0.04 1.0
(A)  = , = (B)  = , =
   


(C)  = 12.50  = (D)  = 25.00 = 
2.0

Q.7 Three sound waves of equal amplitudes have frequencies (v – 1), v, (v + 1). They superpose to give
beats. The number of beats produced per second will be – [AIEEE– 2009]
(A) 4 (B) 3 (C) 2 (D) 1
Q.8 A motor cycle starts from rest and accelerates along a straight path at 2 m/s2. At the starting point of the
motor cycle there is a stationary electric siren. How far has the motor cycle gone when the driver hears
the frequency of the siren at 94% of its value when the motor cycle was at rest ?
(Speed of sound = 330 ms–1) [AIEEE-09]
(A) 49 m (B) 98 m (C) 147 m (D) 196 m

MECHANICAL WAVES [193]

Q.9 The equation of a wave on a string of linear mass density 0.04 kg m–1 is given by y = 0.02(m) sin
  t x 
2   . The tension in the string is [AIEEE-2010]
  0.04(s) 0.50(m) 
(A) 0.5 N (B) 6.25 N (C) 4.0 N (“D) 12.5 N
Q.10 The transverse displacement y(x, t) of a wave on a string is given by
2
 bt 2  2 ab xt )
y ( x , t )  e  ( ax [AIEEE-2011]

a
(A) wave moving in +x direction with speed
b

b
(B) wave moving in –x direction with speed
a

(C) standing wave of frequency b

1
(D) standing wave of frequency
b

MECHANICAL WAVES [194]

 THEORY
FLUID MECHANICS

Definition of Fluid :
The term fluid refers to a substance that can flow and does not have a shape of its own. For example
liquid and gases.
Fluid includes property  (A) Density (B) Viscosity (C) Bulk modulus of elasticity (D) Pressure (E)
specific gravity

Pressure in a Fluid :
The pressure p is defined as the magnitude of the normal force acting on a unit surface area.

F
P= F = normal force on a surface area A.
A
The pressure is a scalar quantity. This is because hydrostatic pressure is transmitted equally in all
directions when force is applied, which shows that a definite direction is not associated with pressure.

A
F F

Variation of Pressure with height :

Weight of the small element dh is balanced by the excess pressure. It means = g.

P h

 dp  g  dh  P = Pa + gh
Pa 0

h
dh

Pascal’s Law :
If the pressure in a liquid is changed at a particular, point the change is transmitted to the entire liquid
without being diminished in magnitude. In the above case if Pa is increased by some amount than P must
increase to maintained the difference (P – Pa) = hg. This is Pascal’s Law which states that Hydraulic lift
is common application of Pascal’s Law.

FLUID MECHANICS [195]

Hydraulic press :

f W W
p= = or f = ×a
a A A
as A >> a then f << W.
This can be used to lift a heavy load placed on the platform of larger piston or to press the things placed
between the piston and the heavy platform. The wor done by applied force is equal to change in potential
enrgy of the weight in hydraulic press.

f Applied W
force

f = pa F = pA

Hydraulic Brake :
Hydraulic brake system is used in auto-mobiles to retard the motion.

Hydrostatic Paradox :
Pressure is directly proportional to depth and by applying pascal's law it can be seen that pressure is
independent of the size and shape of the containing vessel.

A B C
PA = PB = PC

Atmospheric Pressure :
Definition :
The atmospheric pressure at any point is numerically equal to the weight of a column of air of unit
cross-sectional area extending from that point to the top of the atmosphere.

At 0°C, density of mercury = 13.595 g cm–3, and at sea level, g = 980.66 cm s–2
Now P = hg.
Atmospheric pressure = 76 × 13.595 × 980.66 dyne cm–2 = 1.013 × 10–5 N-m2 (pa)

FLUID MECHANICS [196]

Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure :
1. Mercury Barometer.
To measure the atmospheric pressure experimentally, torricelli invented a mercury barometer in 1643.
pa = hg
The pressure exerted by a mercury column of 1mm high is called 1 Torr.
1 Torr = 1 mm of mercury column
Torricelli
Vaccum
h A
Mercury
Trough

2. Open tube Manometer :

Open-tube manometer is used to measure the pressure gauge.
When equilibrium is reached, the pressure at the bottom of left limb is equal to the pressure at the bottom
of right limb.

pa
y = y2–y1
p y2
p + y, g y1
pa + y2g

i.e. p + y1 g = pa + y2 g
p – pa = g (y2 – y1) = gy
p – pa = g (y2 – y1) = gy
p = absolute pressure, p – pa = gauge pressure.
Thus, knowing y and  (density of liquid), we can measure the gauge pressure.

3. Water Barometer :
Let us suppose water is used in the barometer in stead of mercury.

5
1.013  105
hg = 1.013 × 10 or h =
g
The height of the water column in the tube will be 10.0 m. Such a long tube cannot be managed easily,
thus water barometer is not feasible.
ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE :
According to this principle, when a body is immersed wholly or partially in a fluid, it loses its weight
which is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.
Up thrust = buoyancy = Vlg V = volume submerged
l = density of liquid.

Relation between density of solid and liquid :

Weight of the floating solid = weight of the liquid displaced
1 V2
V1 1 g = V2 2 g  
2 V1

FLUID MECHANICS [197]

 Density of solid Volume of the immersed portion of the solid
or Density of liquid = Total volume of the solid
This relationship is valid in accelerating fluid also. Thus, the force acting on the body are
(i) Its weight Mg which acts downward and
(ii) Net upward thrust on the body or the buoyant force (mg).
Hence the apparent weight of the body = Mg – mg = weight of the body – weight of the displaced liquid.
Or Actual weight of body – Apparent weight of body = weight of the liquid displaced.

The point through which the upward thrust or the buoyant force acts when the body is immersed in the
liquid is called its centre of buoyancy. This will coincide with the centre of gravity if the solid body is
homogeneous. On the other hand if the body isnot homogeneous, then the centre of gravity may not lie
on the line of the upward thrust and hence there may be a torque that causes rotation in the body.

If the centre of gravity of the body and the centre of buoyancy lie on the same straight line, the body is in
equilibrium.

If the centre of gravity of the body does not coincide with the centre of buoyancy (i.e., the line of
upthrust), then torque acts on the body. This torque causes the rotational motion of the body.
Pressure in Case of Accelerating fluid :
(i) Liquid Placed in elevator : a0
When elevator accelerates upward with acceleration a0 then
pressure in the fluid, at depth 'h' may be given by,
h
p = h [g + a0]
and force of buoyancy, B = m(g + a0)
B
(ii) Free surface of liquid in horizontal acceleration : a0
a0 mg
tan  =
g

p1 – p2 = la0 where p1 and p2 are pressures at point 1 and 2.
h1 h2 
a0
la 0 1 2
Then h1 – h2 =
g
FLUID DYNAMICS :
Streamline Flow :
The path taken by a particle in flowing fluid is called its line of flow. In the case of steady flow all the
particles passing through a given point follow the same path and hence we have a unique line of flow
passing through a given point which is also called streamline.
Characteristics of Streamline :
1. A tangent at any point on the stream line gives the direction of the velocity of the fluid particle at that
point.
2. Two steamlines never intersect each other.

Laminar flow :
If the liquid flows over a horizontal surface in the form of layers of different velocitities, then the flow of
liquid is called Laminar flow. The particle of one layer do not go to another laye. In general, Laminar flow
is a streamline flow.

FLUID MECHANICS [198]

Turbulent Flow :
The flow of fluid in which velocity of all particles crossing a given point is not same and the motio of the
fluid becomes disorderly or irregular is called turbulent flow.
RREYNOLD'S NUMBER :
According to Reynold, the critical velocity (vc) of a liquid flowing through a long narrow tube is
(i) Directly proportional to the coefficient of viscosity () of the liquid.
(ii) Inversely proportional to the density  of the liquid and
(iii) Inversely proportional to the diameter (D) of the tube.
 R v cD
That is vc  or vc = or R = ...... (1)
D D 
where R is the Reynold number.
If R < 2000, the flow of liquid is streamline or laminar. If R > 3000, the flow is turbulent. If R lies between
2000 and 3000, the flow is unstable and may change from streamline flow to turbulent flow.
B

A a2, v2

a1, v1

1. Equation of Continuity
The equation of continuity expresses the law of conservation of mass in fluid dynamics.
a1v1 = a2v2
In general av = constant. This is called equation of continuity and states that as the area of cross section
of the tube of flow becomes larger, the liquid's (fluid) speed becomes smaller and vice-versa.

2. Energy of a liquid
A liquid can posses three types of energies :
(i) Kinetic energy :
The energy possessed by a liquid due to its motion is called kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of
1
a liquid of mass m moving with speed v is mv2.
2

1
mv2
2 1
 K.E. per unit mass =  V2
m 2
(ii) Potential energy :
The potential energy of a liquid of mass m at a height h is m g h.
mgh
 P.E. per unit mass = = gh
m
(iii) Pressure energy :
The energy possessed by a liquid by virtue of its pressure is called pressure energy.
Consider a vessel fitted with piston at one side (figure). Let this vessel is filled with a liquid. Let
'A' be the area of cross section of the piston and P be the pressure experienced by the liquid.

The force acting on the piston = PA

FLUID MECHANICS [199]

 If dx be the distance moved by the piston, then work done by the force = PA dx = PdV
where dV = Adx, volume of the liquid swept.

This work done is equal to the pressure energy of the liquid.

 Pressure energy of liquid in volume dV = PdV.
The mass of the liquid having volume dV = dV,  is the density of the liquid.

PdV P
 Presure energy per unit mass of the liquid = = .
dV 

dx
3. Bernoulli's Theorem :
It states that the sum of pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy per unit mass or per unit
volume or per unit weight is always constant for an ideal (i.e. incompressible and non-viscous) fluid
having stream-line flow.
P 1
i.e.  V2 + gh = constant.
 2

B
P2

A a2, v2
P1
h2
a1, v1
h1

4. Application of Bernoulli's Theorem :

A
(i) Bunsen burner
(ii) Lift of an airfoil. h
(iii) Spinning of a ball (Magnus effect) B
V
(iv) The sprayer.
(v) A ping-pong ball in an air jet
(vi) Torricelli's theorem (speed of efflux)
At pont A, P1 = P, V1 = 0 and h1 = h
At point B, P2 = P, V2 = v (speed of efflux) and h = 0
p1 1 2
Using Bernoulli's theorem + gh1 + v
 2 1
p2 1 2
= + gh2 = v , we have
 2 2

FLUID MECHANICS [200]

 p p 1 1
+ gh + 0 = = 0 + v2  V2 = gh or v = 2gh
  2 2
(vii) It is a gauge put on a flow pipe to measure the flow of speed of a liquid (figure). Let the liquid of
density  be flowing through a pipe of area of cross section A1. Let A2 be the area of cross
section at the throat and a manometer is attached as shown in the figure. Let v1 and P1 be the
velocity of the flow and pressure at point A, v2 and P2 be the corresponding quantities at point B.


v1 v2
A1 P2 A2
P1
A B
h

m

Using Bernoulli's theorem :

p1 1 2 p2 1
+ gh1 + v1 = + gh2 + v 22 , we get
 2  2
p1 1 2 p2 1
+ gh + v1 = + gh + v 22 (since h1 = h2 = h)
 2  2
1
or (P1 – P2) =  v 22  v12
 
....... (1)
2
According to continuity equation, A1v1 = A2 v2
 A1 
or V2 =  A  v1
 2
Substituting the value of v2 in equation (1) we have

 A  2   A  2 
1  1  V 2  V 2  1 2  1   1
(P1 – P2) =   A 2  1 1
 2  v1  A 2  
2    
Since A1 > A2, therefore, P1 > P2

2( P1  P2 ) 2A 22 ( P1  P2 )
or v12 = =
 A  2  (A12  A 22 )
  1   1
 A 2  
 
where (P1 – P2) = m gh and h is the difference in heights of the liquid leves in the two tubes.

2 m gh
v1 =
 A  2 
  1   1
 A 2  
 
The flow rate (R) i.e., the volume of the liquid flowing per second is given by R = v1A1.

FLUID MECHANICS [201]

 (viii) During wind storm,
The velocity of air just above the roof is large so according to Bernoulli's theorem, the pressure
just above the roof is less than pressure below the roof. Due to this pressure difference an
upward force acts on the roof which is blown of without damaging other parts of the house.
(ix) When a fast moving train corss a person standing near a railway trace, the person has a tendensy
to fall towards the train. This is because a fast moving train produces large velocity in air between
person and the train and hence pressure decreases according to Bernoulli's theorem. Thus the
excess pressure on the other side pushes the person towards the train.
VISCOSITY :
When a solid body slides over another solid body, a frictional force begins that between them. This force
opposes the relative motion of the bodies. Similarly, when a layer of a lquid slides over another layer of
the same liquid, a frictional-force acts between them which opposes the relative motion between the
layers. This force is called 'internal frictional-force'
Velocity Gradient and Coefficient of Viscosity :
The property of a liquid by virtue of which an opposing force (internal firction) comes into play when
ever there is a relative motion between the different layers of the liquid is called viscosity. Consider a flow
of a liquid over the horizontal solid surface as shown in figure. Let as consider two layers AB and CD
  
moving with velocities v and v + dv at a distance x and (x + dx) respectively from the fixed solid
surface.
According to Newton, the viscous drag or back ward force (F) betwen these layers depends.
(i) Directly proportional to the area (A) of the layer and (ii) directly proportional to the velocity gradient
 dv    A
  between the layers. v + dv D
 dx  C
A B dx
dv dv
i.e. F  A or F  A ...(1) x
dx dx
 is called coefficient of viscosity. Negative sign shows that the direction
of viscous drag (F) is just opposite to the direction of the motion of the
liquid.
Similarities and Differences between viscosity and slid friction similarities :
Viscosity and solid friction are similar as
1. Both oppose relative motion. Whereas viscosity opposes the relative motion between two adjacent
liquid layers, solid friction opposes the relative motion between two solid layers.
2. Both come into play, whenever there is relative motion between layers of liquid or solid surfaces as
thecase may be.
3. Both are due to molecular attractions.
Effect of temperature on the viscosity:
The viscosity of liquids decrease with increase in temperature and increase with the decrease in
1
temperature. That is,   . On the other hand, the value of viscosity of gases increases with the
T
increase in temperature and vice-versa. That is,  T .
Stoke's Law :
Stokes proved that the viscous drag (F) on a spherical body of radius r moving with velocity v in a fluid
of viscosity  is given by F = 6  rv. This is called Stoke's law.

FLUID MECHANICS [202]

Terminal velocity :
When a body is dropped in a viscous fluid, it is first accelerated and then its acceleration becomes zero
and it attains a constant velocity called terminal velocity.
Calculation of Terminal Velocity :
Let us consider a small ball, whose radius is r and density is , falling freely in a liquid (or gas), whose
density is  and coefficient of viscosity . When it attains a terminal velocity v. It is subjected to two
forces :
(i) effective force acting downward
4 3
= V( – ) g  r ( – )g,
3
(ii) viscous force acting upward
= 6  rv
Since the ball is moving with a constant velocity v i.e., ther is no acceleration in it, the net force actin on
it must be zero.
That is
v
4
6rv = p r3 ( – )g
3
4/3r3(–)g
2 r 2 (  )g
or v
9 
Thus, terminal velocity of the ball is directly proportional to the square of its radius.
SURFACE TENSION :
Surface tension is a property of liquid at rest by virtue of
which a liquid surface gets contracted to a minimum area and behaves
Imaginary
like a stretched membrane.
Surface tension of liquid is meausured by force perunit length on either Line
side of any imaginary line drawn tengentitally over the liquid surface,
force being normal to the imaginary line as shown in the figure.
i.e. surface tension
total force on either of the imginary line ( F)
(T ) 
Length of the line ()
Units of surface tension :
In C.G.S. system the unit of surface tension is dyne/cm (dyne cm–1) and SI system its units is Nm–1
Explanation of some observed phenomena :
1. Lead ball are spherical in shape.
2. Rain drops and a globule of mercury placed on glass pate are spherical.
3. Hiar of a shaving brush/painting brush, when dipped in water spread out, but as soon as it is taken out.
Its hair stick together.
4. A greased needle placed gently on the free surface of water in a beaker does not sink.
5. Similarly, insects can walk on the free surface of water without drowining.
6. Bits of Camphor gum move irregularly when placed on water surface.

FLUID MECHANICS [203]

Surface Energy :
We know that the molecules on the liquid surface experience net downward force. So to bring a molecle
from the interior of the liquid to the free surface, some work is required to be done against the
intermolecular force of attraction, which will be stored as potential energy of the molecules on the sur-
face. The potential energy of surface molecules per unit area of the curface is called surface energy. Unit
of surface energy is erg cm–2 in C.G.S. system and Jm–2 in SI system. Dimensional formula of surface
energy is [MLºT–2] surface energy depends on number of surfaces e.g. a liquid drop is having one liquid
air surface while bubble is having two liquid air surface.
EXCESS PRESSURE INSIDE A LIQID DROP AND A BUBBLE :
Inside a bubble :
r
Consider a soap bubble of radius r. Let p be the pressure
insdie the bubble and pa outside. The excess pressure = p – pa.
Imagine the bubble broken into two halves, and consider
one half of it as shown in fig. Since there are two surfaces,
inner and outer, so the force due to surface tension is
F = surface tension x length = T × 2 (circumference of the bubble) = T × 2 (2T  r) ...(1)
The excess pressure (p – pa) acts on a cross-sectional area p r2, so the force due to excess pressure is
 F = (p – pA) r2 ...(2)
The surface tension force given by equation (1) must balence the force due to excess pressure given by
equation (2) to maintain the equilibrium. i.e.
(p – pa)r2 = T × 2 (2r)

4T
or (p – pa) =  p excess
r
above expression can also be obtained by equation of excess pressure of curve by putting R1 = R2.
inside the drop :
In a drop, there is only one surface and hece excess pressure can be written as

2T
(p – pa) =  p excess pa
r
Inside air bubble in a liquid : pa 4T
r1

2T
(p – pa) =  p excess r2
r
A charged bubble :
If bubble is charged, its' radius increases.
2
Bubble has pressure excess due to charge too. pa+ 4T –
r1 20
pa
4T
Initially pressure inside the bubble  p a  r r2
1

FLUID MECHANICS [204]

 4T 2
For charge bubble, pressure inside = pa +  .
r2 2 0
where  surface is surface charge density. Taking temperature remains constant then from boyle's law

 4T  4 3  4T 2  4 3
 pa   pr1  pa    pr2
 r1  3  r2 2 0  3

From above expression the radius of charged drop may be calculated. It can conclude that radius of
charged bubble increases, i.e. r2 > r1
Excess of Pressure Inside a Curved Surface :
T T
Plane Surface :
If the surface of the liquid is plane [as shown in figure], the molecule on
the liquid surface is attracted equally in all directions. The resultant force
due to surface tension is zero.
The pressure, therefore, on the liquid surface is normal.
Plane Surface

Concave Surface :
Resultant
If the surface is concave upwards [as shown in figure], there will be T T
upwards resultant force due to surface tension acting ont he molecule.
Since the molecule on the surface is in equilibrium, there must be an B
excess of pressure on the concave side in the downward direction to
2T
balance the resultant force of surface tension pA – pB = Concave Surface
r
Convex Surface : A
If the surface is convex [as shown in figure], the resultant force due to T T
surface tension acts in the downward direction. Since the molecule on Resultant
the surface are in equilibrium, there must be an excess of pressure on B
the concave side of the surface acting in the upward direction to
balance the downward resultant force of surface tension, Hence there
is always an excess of pressure on concave side of a curved surface Concave Surface
over that on the
2T
convex side. pB – pA =
r
Capllary Rise :
The force of cohesion :
The force of attraction between the molecules of the same substance is called cohesion.
In case of solids, the force of cohesion is very large and due to this solids have definite shape and size.
On the other hand, the force of cohesion in case of liquids is weaker than that of solids. Hence liquids do
not have definite shape but have definite volume. The force of cohesion is negligible in case of gases.
Because of this fact, gases have neither fixed shape nor volume.

FLUID MECHANICS [205]

Example :
(i) Two drops of a liquid coalesce into one when brought in mutual contact becuase of the cohesive force.
(ii) It is difficult to separate two sticky pates of glass wetted with water because a large force has to be
applied against the cohesive force between the molecules of water.
(iii) It is very difficult to break a drop of mercury into small droplets because of large cohesive force between
mercury molecules.
Force of Adhesion :
The force of attraction between molecules of different substances is called adhesion.
Example
(i) Adhesive force enables us to write on the black board with a chalk.
(ii) Adhesive force helps us to write on the paper with ink.
(iii) Large force of adhesion between cement and bricks helps us in construction work.
(iv) Due to force of adhesive, water wets the glass plate.
(v) Fevicol and gum are used in gluing two surfaces together becuase of adhesive force.
Angle of contact :
The angle which the tangent to the liquid surface at the point of contact makes with the solid surface
inside the liquid is called angle of contact. Those liquids which wet the walls of the container (say in case
of water and glass) have meniscus concave upwards and their value of angle of contact is less than 90°
(also called acute angle), However, those liquids which don't wet the walls of the container (say in case
of mercury and glass) have meniscus convex upwards and their value of angle of contact is greater than
90° (also called obtuse angle). The angle of contact of mercury with glass about 140°, whereas the angle
of contact of water with glass is about 8°. But, for pure water, then angle of contact  with glass is taken
as 0°.

Glass Glass

Point of Point of
conact conact 

Water Mercury

Capillarity :
A glass tube of very fine bore throughout the length of the tube is called capillary tube. If the capillary
tube is dipped in water, the water wets the inner side of the tube and rises in it [shown in figure a]. If the
same capillary tube is dipped in the mercury, then the mercury is depressed [shown in figure b]. The
phenomenonn of rise or fall of liquids in a capillary tube is called capillarity

FLUID MECHANICS [206]

 water Mercury



(a) (b)

Capillary Rise (Height of a Liquid in a Capillary Tube) Ascent Formula :

Consider the liquid which wets the walls of the tube, forms concave meniscus shown in figure. Consider
a capillary tube of radius r dipped in a liquid of surface tension T and desnity p. Let h be the height
through which the liquid rises in the tube. Let p be the pressure on the concave side of the meniscus and
pa be the pressure on the convex side of the meniscus. The excess pressure (p – pa) is given by
2T O
(p – pa) = A C
R
water
h

Where R is the radius of the meniscus. Due to this excess pressure, the
liquid will rise in the capillary tube till it becomes equal to the hydrostatic
pressure hpg. Thus in equilibrium state.
2T
Excess pressure = Hydrostatic pressure or = hpg
R
Let  be the angle of contact and r be the radius of the capillary tube shown in the figure.

OC r 2T cos 
From OAC,  cos  or R   h
OA cos  rg
This expression is called Ascent formula.

FLUID MECHANICS [207]

 EXERCISE-I

Q.1 The height of a barometer filled with a liquid of density 3.4 g/cc under normal condition is
approximately -
(A) 8 m (B) 5 m (C) 3 m (D) 1 m
Q.2 If 1 g of substance of realtive density 2 and 4g of another substance of relative density 3 are mixed
together, then the relative density of the mixture is -
(A) 2.4 (B) 2.5 (C) 2.7 (D) 2.8
Q.3 Three identical vessels are filled to the same height with three different liquids A, B and
C (A > B > C). The pressure at the base will be
(A) Equal in all vessels (B) Maximum in vessel A
(C) Maximum in vessel B (D) Maximum in vessel C
Q.4 Three identical vessels are filled with equal masses of three different liquids A, B and C (A >
B > C). The pressure at the base will be
(A) Equal in all vessels (B) Maximum in vessel A
(C) Maximum in vessel B (D) Maximum in vessel C
Q.5 A vertical U-tube of uniform inner cross section contains mercury in both sides of its arms. A
glycerin (density = 1.3 g/cm3) column of length 10 cm is introduced into one of its arms. Oil of
density 0.8 gm/cm3 is poured into the other arm until the upper surfaces of the oil and glycerin are
in the same horizontal level. Find the length of the oil column, Density of mercury = 13.6 g/cm3
Glycerine

Oil h
10 cm

Mercury

(A) 10.4 cm (B) 8.2 cm (C) 7.2 cm (D) 9.6 cm

Q.6 Pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to every portion of the fluid and
the walls of the containing vessel. This law was first formulated by
(A) Bernoulli (B) Archimedes (C) Boyle (D) Pascal
Q.7 A block of ice floats on a liquid of density 1.2in a beaker then level of liquid when ice completely
melt
(A) Remains same (B) rises (C) Lowers (D) (A), (B) or (C)
Q.8 If two liquids of same masses but densities 1 and 2 respectively are mixed, then density of
mixture is given by
1   2 1   2 21 2 12
(A)   (B)   2  (C)      (D)     
2 1 2 1 2 1 2

Q.9 Three liquids of densities d, 2d and 3d are mixed in equal proportions of weights. The relative
density of the mixture is
11d 18d 13d 23d
(A) (B) (C) (D)
7 11 9 18

FLUID MECHANICS [208]

Q.10 A cubical block of wood 10 cm on a side floats at the interface between oil and water with its
lower surface horizontal and 4 cm below the interface. The density of oil is 0.6 gcm–1. The mass
of block is

6 cm

Block
4 cm

(A) 706 g (B) 607 g (C) 760 g (D) 670 g

Q.11 According to Bernoulli's equation

P 1 v2
h  constant
g 2 g
The terms A, B and C are generally called respectively:
(A) Gravitational head, pressure head and velocity head
(B) Gravity, gravitational head and velocity head
(C) Pressure head, gravitational head and velocity head
(D) Gravity, pressure and velocity head
Q.12 Several spherical drops of a liquid each of radius r coalesce to form a single drop of radius R. If
T is the surface tension, then the energy liberated will be -
 1 1
  1 1
 4  1 1  1 1
(A) 4R3T  r  R  (B) 2R3T  r  R  (C) r2T  r  R  (D) 2RT  R  r 
    3    

Q.13 The excess of pressure inside a water drop is Pd and that inside an air bubble of same radius in
water is Pb. Which of the following relation is correct ?
(A) Pd = Pb (B) 2 Pd = Pb
(C) Pd = 2Pd (D) none of the above
Q.14 A capillary tube (A) is dipped in water. Another identical tube (B) is dipped in a soap-water solution.
Which of the following shows the relative nature of the liquid columns jn the two tubes ? .

(A) (B)

(C) (D)

FLUID MECHANICS [209]

 EXERCISE-II

Q.1 Two communicating vessels contain mercury. The

diameter of one vessel is n times larger than the
diameter of the other. A column of water of height
Water
h is poured into the left vessel. The mercury level h
will rise in the right-hand vessel (s = relative density
of mercury and  = density of water) by Mercury
2
n h h
(A) (B) 2
(n  1)2 s
2
(n  1)s
h h
(C) (D)
(n  1) 2 s n 2s
Q.2 In a U-tube the radii of two columns are respectively r 1 and r2 and r1 r2
if a liquid of density d filled in it has level difference of h then the
(r2>r1)
surface tension of the liquid is -
hdg ( r2  r1 ) hdg h
(A) T = r  r (B) T =
2 1 2
( r1  r2 ) hdg hdg ( r1r2 )
(C) T = (D) T =
2 2 r2  r1
Q.3 A bucket contains water filled upto a height = 15 cm. The bucket is tied to a rope which is passed over
a frictionless light pulley and the other end of the rope is tied to a weight of mass which is half of that of
the (bucket + water). The water pressure above atmosphere pressure at the bottom is
(A) 0.5 kPa (B) 1 kPa (C) 5 kPa (D) None of these
Q.4 A cone of radius R and height H, is hanging inside a liquid of density  by means of a string as shown in
the figure. The force, due to the liquid acting on the slant
surface of the cone is (Neglect atmosphere pressure)
(A) gHR2 (B) HR2
4 2
(C) gHR2 (D) gHR2
3 3
Q.5 Some liquid is filled in a cylindrical vessel of radius R. Let F1 be the force applied by the liquid on the
bottom of the cylinder. Now the same liquid is poured into a vessel of uniform square crss-section of side
R. Let F2 be the force applied by the liquid on the bottom of this new vessel.(Neglect atmosphere
pressure) Then:
F
(A) F1 = F2 (B) F1 = 2 (C) F1 =  F2 (D) F1 = F2

Q.6 A slender homogeneous rod of length 2L floats partly immersed in
water, being supported by a string fastened to one of its ends, as
shown. The specific gravity of the rod is 0.75. The length of rod
that extends out of water is :
1 1
(A) L (B) L (C) L (D) 3 L
2 4
Q.7 A body having volume V and density  is attached to the bottom of a
container as shown. Density of the liquid is d(>). Container has a
constant upward acceleration a. Tension in the string is
(A) V[Dg – (g+a)] (B) V(g+a) (d – ) (C) V (d – ) g (D) none

FLUID MECHANICS [210]

Q.8 A cubical box of wine has a small spout located in one of
the bottom corners. When the box is full and placed on a
level surface, opening the spout results in a flow of wine
with a initial speed of v 0 (see figure). When the box is half
empty, someone tilts it at 45° so that the spout is at the
lowest point (see figure). When the spout is opened
the wine will flow out with a speed of
(A) v0 (B) v0 2 (C) v0 2 (D) v0 4 2
Q.9 W hich of the following is the incorrect graph for a sphere falling in a viscous liquid?
(Given at t = 0, velocity v = 0 and displacement x = 0.)
x

(A) (B) (C) (D)

t
Q.10 If two soap bubbles of different radii are connected by a tube,
(A) air flows from the bigger bubble to the smaller bubble till the sizes become equal
(B) air flows from bigger bubble to the smaller bubble till the sizes are interchanged
(C) air flows from the smaller bubble to the bigger
(D) there is no flow of air.
Q.11 A liquid is filled in a spherical container of radius R till a height h. At this
positions the liquid surface at the edges is also horizontal. The contact
angle is
Rh
(A) 0 (B) cos–1  
 R 
hR  Rh
(C) cos–1   (D) sin–1  
 R   R 
Q.12 A long capillary tyube of radius ‘r’ is initially just vertically completely imerged inside a liquid of angle of
contact 00. If the tube is slowly raised then relation between radius of curvature of of miniscus inside the
capillary tube and displacement (h) of tube can be represented by

(A) (B) (C) (D)

Q.13 A small spherical solid ball is dropped in a viscous liquid. Its journey in the liquid is best described
in the figure by –

(A) Curve A (B) Curve B (C) Curve C (D) Curve D

FLUID MECHANICS [211]

Q.14 Statement-1: Air flows from a small bubble to a large bubble when they are connected to each other
by a capillary tube.
Statement-2: The excess pressure inside a bubble due to surface tension is inversely proportional to
the radius of the bubble.
(A) Statement-1 is false, Statement-2 is true.
(B) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is true; Statement-2 is a correct explanation for Statement-1.
(C) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is true; Statement-2 is not is a correct explanation for Statement-1.
(D) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is false. 1.
Q.15 Statement-1: A needle placed carefully on the surface of water may float whereas a ball of the same
material will always sink.
Statement-2: The upthrust on an object depends both on the material and shape of the object.
(A) Statement-1 is false, Statement-2 is true.
(B) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is true; Statement-2 is a correct explanation for Statement-1.
(C) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is true; Statement-2 is not is a correct explanation for Statement-1.
(D) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is false. 1.

EXERCISE-III

Q.1 A cylinder of height 20 m is completely filled with water. The velocity of efflux of water (in ms–1) through a
small hole on the side wall of the cylinder near its bottom is – [AIEEE-2002]
(A) 10 m/s (B) 20 m/s (C) 25.5 m/s (D) 5 m/s
Q.2 Which one of the following represents the correct dimensions of the coefficient of viscosity ?
[AIEEE-2004]
(A) ML T –1 –1 (B) MLT –1 (C) ML T –1 –2 (D) ML–2T–2
Q.3 Spherical balls of radius ‘R’ are falling in a viscous fluid of viscosity ‘’ with a velocity ‘v’. The retarding
viscous force acting on the spherical ball is – [AIEEE-2004]
(A) inversely proportional to both radius ‘R’ and velocity ‘v’
(B) directly proportional to both radius ‘R’ and velocity ‘v’
(C) directly proportional to ‘R’ but inversely proportional to ‘v’
(D) inversely proportional to ‘R’ but directly proportional to velocity ‘v’
Q.4 If two soap bubbles of different radii are connected by a tube – [AIEEE-2004]
(A) air flows from the smaller bubble to the bigger
(B) air flows from bigger bubble to the smaller bubble till the sizes are interchanged
(C) air flows from the bigger bubble to the smaller bubble till the sizes become equal
(D) there is no flow of air
Q.5 A 20 cm long capillary tube is dipped in water. The water rises upto 8 cm. If the entire arrangement is
put in a freely falling elevator the length of water column in the capillary tube will be
[AIEEE-2005]
(A) 8 cm (B) 10 cm (C) 4 cm (D) 20 cm
Q.6 3
If the terminal speed of a sphere of gold (density = 19.5 kg/m ) is 0.2 m/s in a viscous liquid
(density = 1.5 kg/m3), find the terminal speed of a sphere of silver (density = 10.5 kg/m3) of the same size
in the same liquid– [AIEEE-2006]
(A) 0.1 m/s (B) 0.2 m/s (C) 0.4 m/s (D) 0.133 m/s

FLUID MECHANICS [212]

Q.7 A jar is filled with two non-mixing liquids 1 and 2 having densities 1 and
2, respectively. A solid ball, made of a material of density 3, is dropped
Liquid 1 
in the jar. It comes to equilibrium in the position shown in the [Link]
of the following is true for 1, 2 and 3 ? [AIEEE-2008]

(A) 1 > 3 > 2
Liquid 2 
(B) 1 < 
(C) 1 < 
(D) 3 < 2
Q.8 A capillary tube (A) is dipped in water. Another identical tube (B) is dipped in a soap-water solution.
Which of the following shows the relative nature of the liquid columns in the two tubes ?
[AIEEE-2008]
A B A B

(A) (B)

A B A B

(C) (D)

Q.9 A spherical solid ball of volume V is made of a material of density 1. It is falling through a liquid of
density 2 (2 < 1). Assume that the liquid applies a viscous force on the ball that is proportional to the
square of its speed , i.e., Fviscous = – k2 (k > 0). The terminal speed of the ball is [AIEEE-2008]
Vg1 Vg1 Vg (1   2 ) Vg (1   2 )
(A) (B) (C) (D)
k k k k
Q.10 A ball is made of a material of density  where oil <  < water with oil and water representing the
densities of oil and water, respectively. The oil and water are immiscible. If the above ball is in equilibrium
in a mixture of this oil and water, which of the following pictures represents its equilibrium position ?
[AIEEE-2010]

Water Oil Water Oil

(A) (B) (C) (D)

Water Oil Water
Oil

Q.11 Work done in increasing the size of a soap bubble from a radius of 3 cm to 5 cm is nearly (surface tension
of soap solution = 0.03 Nm–1) : [AIEEE-2011]
(A) 4 mJ (B) 0.2 mJ (C) 2 mJ (D) 0.4 mJ
Q.12 Water is flowing continuously from a tap having an internal diameter 8 × 10–3 m. The water velocity as
it leaves the tap is 0.4 ms–1. The diameter of the water stream at a distance 2 × 10–1 m below the tap is
close to : [AIEEE-2011]
(A) 5.0 × 10–3 m (B) 7.5 × 10–3 m (C) 9.6 × 10–3 m (D) 3.6 × 10–3 m

FLUID MECHANICS [213]

 ANSWER KEY

1. KINEMATICS
EXERCISE-I
Q.1 A Q.2 C Q.3 B Q.4 D Q.5 D
Q.6 B Q.7 D Q.8 C Q.9 A Q.10 A
Q.11 B Q.12 B Q.13 C Q.14 B Q.15 B
Q.16 B
EXERCISE-II
Q.1 B Q.2 B Q.3 B Q.4 A,B,D Q.5 B
Q.6 A Q.7 C Q.8 C Q.9 A Q.10 B
Q.11 A Q.12 D Q.13 A Q.14 A Q.15 B
EXERCISE-III
Q.1 C Q.2 C Q.3 C Q.4 A Q.5 C

2. NEWTON'S LAW OF MOTION

EXERCISE-I

Q.1 C Q.2 C Q.3 B Q.4 B Q.5 A

Q.6 B Q.7 B Q.8 B Q.9 B Q.10 B
Q.11 A Q.12 B Q.13 B Q.14 A Q.15 D
EXERCISE-II
Q.1 D Q.2 D Q.3 C Q.4 B Q.5 A
Q.6 A Q.7 A Q.8 B Q.9 A Q.10 D
Q.11 C Q.12 D Q.13 C Q.14 D Q.15 A
EXERCISE-III
Q.1 A Q.2 A Q.3 B Q.4 C Q.5 D
Q.6 C Q.7 C Q.8 D Q.9 C Q.10 D
Q.11 A Q.12 C Q.13 D Q.14 D Q.15 D
Q.16 D Q.17 A

3. CIRCULAR MOTION
EXERCISE-I

Q.1 C Q.2 C Q.3 C Q.4 C Q.5 C

Q.6 A Q.7 B Q.8 B Q.9 C Q.10 B
Q.11 D Q.12 A Q.13 B Q.14 A Q.15 B
EXERCISE-II
Q.1 B Q.2 B Q.3 C Q.4 C Q.5 B
Q.6 B Q.7 D Q.8 C Q.9 A Q.10 C
Q.11 B Q.12 A,B,C Q.13 C Q.14 D Q.15 B

Volume-I Answer-Key [214]

 EXERCISE-III
Q.1 A Q.2 B Q.3 C
4. WORK POWER ENERGY
EXERCISE-I
Q.1 D Q.2 B Q.3 C Q.4 B Q.5 B
Q.6 C Q.7 D Q.8 C Q.9 A Q.10 B
Q.11 A Q.12 D Q.13 A Q.14 C Q.15 A
EXERCISE-II
Q.1 A Q.2 C Q.3 A Q.4 A Q.5 C
Q.6 A Q.7 C Q.8 C Q.9 B Q.10 B
Q.11 A Q.12 B Q.13 A Q.14 D Q.15 A
EXERCISE-III
Q.1 B Q.2 A Q.3 B Q.4 B Q.5 A
Q.6 B Q.7 D Q.8 B Q.9 C Q.10 B
Q.11 C

5. CENTRE OF MASS, MOMENTUM & COLLISION

EXERCISE-I
Q.1 A Q.2 C Q.3 D Q.4 A Q.5 A
Q.6 A Q.7 C Q.8 A Q.9 D Q.10 D
Q.11 C Q.12 A Q.13 D Q.14 D
EXERCISE-II
Q.1 A Q.2 C Q.3 A Q.4 A Q.5 A
Q.6 C Q.7 B Q.8 D Q.9 D Q.10 A
Q.11 C Q.12 A Q.13 A Q.14 C Q.15 D
EXERCISE-III
Q.1 C Q.2 C Q.3 B Q.4 A Q.5 C
Q.6 A Q.7 B Q.8 D Q.9 C Q.10 A
Q.11 B

6. ROTATIONAL MOTION
EXERCISE-I
Q.1 C Q.2 D Q.3 A Q.4 D Q.5 B
Q.6 A Q.7 C Q.8 B Q.9 B Q.10 C
Q.11 C Q.12 B Q.13 D Q.14 C Q.15 C
EXERCISE - II

Q.1 C Q.2 A Q.3 B Q.4 D Q.5 B

Q.6 D Q.7 C Q.8 D Q.9 C Q.10 C
Q.11 A,B Q.12 D Q.13 B Q.14 D Q.15 C

Volume-I Answer-Key [215]

 EXERICISE - III
Q.1 B Q.2 D Q.3 A Q.4 B Q.5 C
Q.6 D Q.7 B Q.8 C Q.9 D Q.10 D
Q.11 B Q.12 C Q.13 C Q.14 C Q.15 A
Q.16 C Q.17 C Q.18 C Q.19 C
7. ELASTICITY, CALORIMETRY, THERMAL EXPANSION
EXERCISE-I
Q.1 B Q.2 A Q.3 D Q.4 A Q.5 B
Q.6 A Q.7 C Q.8 B Q.9 A Q.10 D
Q.11 C Q.12 B Q.13 C Q.14 A Q.15 C

EXERCISE - II
Q.1 C Q.2 A Q.3 C Q.4 C Q.5 B
Q.6 D Q.7 A,C Q.8 A, B, C Q.9 B, C
Q.10 A, B, C, D Q.11 D Q.12 A, B, C,D Q.13 B
EXERCISE - III
Q.1 C Q.2 A Q.3 D Q.4 B Q.5 C
Q.6 D

8. (A) KTG, THERMODYNAMICS

EXERCISE-I
Q.1 C Q.2 C Q.3 A Q.4 C Q.5 C
Q.6 A Q.7 C Q.8 C Q.9 B Q.10 A
Q.11 A Q.12 C Q.13 C Q.14 B
EXERCISE-II
Q.1 C Q.2 B Q.3 C Q.4 C Q.5 C
Q.6 D Q.7 A Q.8 B Q.9 C Q.10 C
EXERCISE - III

Q.1 B Q.2 C Q.3 D Q.4 B Q.5 C

Q.6 D Q.7 B Q.8 A Q.9 A Q.10 A
Q.11 D Q.12 B Q.13 A Q.14 B

8.(B) HEAT TRANSFER

EXERCISE-I

Q.1 C Q.2 C Q.3 A Q.4 B Q.5 A

Q.6 A Q.7 B Q.8 C Q.9 A Q.10 C
Q.11 B Q.12 C Q.13 B Q.14 D Q.15 A

Volume-I Answer-Key [216]

 EXERCISE-II

Q.1 A Q.2 C Q.3 B Q.4 B Q.5 C

Q.6 B Q.7 A Q.8 A Q.9 B Q.10 B
Q.11 D

EXERCISE-III

Q.1 C Q.2 B Q.3 A Q.4 A Q.5 C

Q.6 D Q.7 A Q.8 D Q.9 D Q.10 C
Q.11 C Q.12 B Q.13 D

9. SHM
EXERCISE - I
Q.1 C Q.2 C Q.3 C Q.4 C Q.5 A
Q.6 D Q.7 A Q.8 D Q.9 A Q.10 A
Q.11 B Q.12 C Q.13 C Q.14 C
EXERCISE - II
Q.1 B Q.2 C Q.3 A Q.4 C Q.5 C
Q.6 D Q.7 A Q.8 A Q.9 B Q.10 A
Q.11 D Q.12 D Q.13 D Q.14 C Q.15 B

EXERCISE - III
Q.1 C Q.2 B Q.3 C Q.4 B Q.5 C
Q.6 B Q.7 B Q.8 D Q.9 C Q.10 B
Q.11 C Q.12 B Q.13 A Q.14 B Q.15 B
Q.16 A Q.17 C Q.18 C Q.19 D Q.20 A
Q.21 D Q.22 B Q.23 D Q.24 A Q.25 A
Q.26 D Q.27 B Q.28 C

10. MECHANICAL WAVES

EXERCISE-I
Q.1 D Q.2 A Q.3 B Q.4 D Q.5 A
Q.6 C Q.7 D Q.8 B Q.9 A Q.10 C
Q.11 D Q.12 D Q.13 C Q.14 D Q.15 B
EXERCISE - II
Q.1 D Q.2 A Q.3 A Q.4 D Q.5 C
Q.6 A Q.7 B Q.8 C Q.9 A Q.10 D
Q.11 B Q.12 A Q.13 A Q.14 A Q.15 A

Volume-I Answer-Key [217]

 EXERCISE-III
Q.1 B Q.2 B Q.3 A Q.4 A Q.5 A
Q.6 B Q.7 C Q.8 B Q.9 B Q.10 B

11. FLUID MECHANICS

EXERCISE-I
Q.1 C Q.2 C Q.3 B Q.4 A Q.5 D
Q.6 D Q.7 A Q.8 D Q.9 B Q.10 C
Q.11 B Q.12 A Q.13 A Q.14 C

EXERCISE-II
Q.1 D Q.2 D Q.3 B Q.4 D Q.5 D
Q.6 A Q.7 B Q.8 D Q.9 C Q.10 C
Q.11 B Q.12 B Q.13 C Q.14 B Q.15 B
EXERCISE-III

Q.1 B Q.2 C Q.3 B Q.4 A Q.5 D

Q.6 A Q.7 C Q.8 B Q.9 D Q.10 D
Q.11 D Q.12 D

Volume-I Answer-Key [218]