Industrial Instrumentation

MS Industrial Technology

Moataz Sherif | CAMA® | CT | Advanced Assessor

Instrumentation Diploma

● Instrumentation Basics
● Pressure Measurements
● Level Measurements
● Flow Measurements
● Temperature Measurements
2

● Control Valves
Instrumentation
Basics

Moataz Sherif
I&C Department Manager
Instrumentation Basics

● Introduction
● Process Control Definition
● Basic Elements of Control Loop
● Open Loop and Closed Loop Control
● Sensors and Transducers
● Standard Instrument Signals
4
● Smart Transmitters
Introduction

5
Industrial Instrumentation

• Instrumentation is the science of automated measurement and control.

• The first step, naturally, is measurement.

• If we can’t measure something, it is really pointless to try to control it.

6
Industrial Instrumentation

Instrument
• Any device for measuring,
indicating, controlling, recording
and adjusting a physical or
chemical property e.g. flow,
pressure, acidity, weight, gas
7
concentration, etc.
Industrial Instrumentation

• Once we measure the quantity we are interested in, we transmit a signal

representing this quantity to an indicating or computing device where either

human or automated action then takes place.

• If the controlling action is automated, the computer sends a signal to a

final controlling device which then influences the quantity being measured. 8
Industrial Instrumentation

Instrumentation
• A complete set of instruments used to control a process, e.g. refining, oil/gas
production, LNG, LPG, Power Station, etc.
Industrial Instrumentation

Instrumentation Arrangements
• Instrumentation generally includes many arrangements of instruments used to:

➢ Measure

➢ Indicate

➢ Record

➢ Control
Industrial Instrumentation

Process Variables.
• Variable quantities that exist in a process are :
➢ Pressure

➢ Temperature

➢ Flow

➢ Level

➢ Speed

➢ Vibration

➢ Density
Industrial Instrumentation

Instrumentation System
• An instrumentation system may include:

➢ Transmitters ➢ Positioner
➢ Resistance ➢ Switches
Temperature ➢ Control valves.
➢ Detectors (RTD) ➢ Blow down valve
➢ Pressure gauges
➢ Transducers
Industrial Instrumentation

Methods of Measurements
• There are a two basic methods
Direct
➢ Used for local indication only without signal
transmission

➢ For example the Level in a sight Glass.

➢ Pressure Gauges

➢ Temperature Indicators
1
3
Industrial Instrumentation

Methods of Measurements
Indirect
➢ This method of measurement uses various
‘Physical Principles’ of the laws of physics

➢ For example in an RTD, it’s resistance

changes with temperature so by measuring
the resistance of the RTD we can Indirectly
measure the temperature of a process.
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Control System

• A system which responds to input

signals from the process and/or
from an operator and generates
output signals causing the process
to operate in the desired manner.
• The control system include
● Input devices
● Controller
● Final elements Definition from IEC 61511-1 15
Control System

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Programmable Logic Control (PLC)

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Distributed Control System (DCS)

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Safety Instrumented System (SIS)

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DCS vs. SIS

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Turbo machinery Control System

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Vibration Monitoring System

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Vibration Monitoring System

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Instrumentation Engineer Role

Instrumentation engineer can work in one of the following:

• Maintenance Engineer

• Sales / Sales Service / Technical Sales Engineer

• Project Engineer
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• Design Engineer
Instrument Maintenance Engineer Role

• Maintenance and Troubleshooting Techniques

• Technical Knowledge and Experience
• PO Release & Acceptance
• Spare Parts
• Management of Upgrades
26

• On-Job Training
Control System Engineering

• Control engineering or control systems engineering is an

engineering discipline that applies control theory to design systems
with desired behaviors in control environments.
• The discipline of controls overlaps and is usually taught along with
electrical engineering and mechanical engineering at many
institutions around the world. 27
Automation Engineering

• Automation engineers are experts who have the knowledge and

ability to design, create, develop and manage systems, for

example, factory automation, process automation.

• This requires good understanding of different control systems

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such as DCS, SIS, PLC and SCADA.

Process Control Definition

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Process Control Definition

• A process is broadly defined

as an operation that uses

resources to transform inputs
into outputs.
• It is the resource that provides

the energy into the process for 30

the transformation to occur.

Process Flow Diagram

● The Process Flow Diagram (PFD) defines the process schematically.

● It shows what and how much of each product the plant will make;
quantities and types of raw materials necessary to make the products;
what by-products are produced.
● the critical process conditions — pressures, temperatures, and flows
necessary to make the product; and major piping and equipment
necessary.
Process Flow Diagram (PFD)

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Piping and Instrumentation Drawing

● The Piping and Instrumentation Drawing (P&ID) is the overall design

document for a process plant.
● It defines, using symbols and word descriptions, the equipment,
piping, and the instrumentation and control system.
● It is also the key to other documents.
● For tag number, labeled on P&ID, is the key to find additional
information about this device on many other documents.
Piping and Instrument Diagrams (P&ID)

● The principal document used to define a process – the

equipment, piping and all monitoring and control
components.
● Sets of symbols are used to show mechanical equipment,
piping, piping components, valves, equipment drivers and
instrumentation and controls.
Piping and Instrument Diagrams (P&ID)

● P&IDs are sometimes called “Flow Sheets”, a term often

preceded by the department that initiated or developed

them, like “Engineering”, or “Controls”, or other descriptors.

Typical Letter Combinations
Typical Letter Combinations
General Instrument or Function Symbols
Piping and Instrument Diagrams (P&ID)

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Piping and Instrument Diagrams (P&ID)

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Other Documentation

• Loop Wiring Diagram

• Installation Details (Hook-ups)
• Instrument Datasheet (Specifications)
• I/O List
• DCS/ESD Cabinets Layouts.
• Network Layout 41
Loop Numbering

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Instrument Lists

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Location Plans (Instrument Location Drawings)

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Installation Details

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Loop Diagrams

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Flanged Pipe Fittings

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Tapered Thread Pipe Fittings

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Tapered Thread Pipe Fittings

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Tapered Thread Pipe Fittings

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Tube and Tube Fittings

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Tube and Tube Fittings

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Tube Fitter

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Loop Wiring Diagram

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Connections and Wire Terminations

Terminal Strip
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Connections and Wire Terminations

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Connections and Wire Terminations

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DIN rail

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Process Control Definition

• Each process exhibits a particular dynamic (time varying) behavior that

governs the transformation.
• That is, how do changes in the resource or inputs over time affect the
transformation.
• This dynamic behavior is determined by the physical properties of the
inputs, the resource, and the process itself.
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Process Control Definition

60
Terminology:

• The manipulated variable (MV) is a measure of resource being fed

into the process, for instance how much thermal energy.
• A final control element (FCE) is the device that changes the value of
the manipulated variable.
• The controller output (CO) is the signal from the controller to the
final control element. 61
Terminology:

• The process variable (PV) is a measure of the process output that

changes in response to changes in the manipulated variable.

• The set point (SP) is the value at which we wish to maintain the

process variable at.

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Process Control Definition

• Process control is the act of controlling a final control element to change

the manipulated variable to maintain the process variable at a desired set

point.
• A corollary to our definition of process control is a controllable process

must behave in a predictable manner.

• For a given change in the manipulated variable, the process variable must
63
respond in a predictable and consistent manner.
Basic Elements of Control Loop

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Basic Elements of Process Control

Controlling a process requires knowledge of four basic elements:

• the process itself

• the sensor that measures the process value

• the final control element that changes the manipulated variable

• the controller. 65
Basic Elements of Process Control

• Input devices used to see what’s

going on in the process

• Control Systems make decisions

based on process inputs, operator

inputs, and control software
• Output devices control the

process
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Basic Elements of Process Control

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Open Loop and Closed Loop Control

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Open Loop Control

• The open-loop control is where output variable does not have any

influence on the input variable.

• In open loop control the controller output is not a function of the

process variable.
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Open Loop Control

70
Open Loop Control

• the controller output is fixed at a value until it is changed by an

operator.
• Many processes are stable in an open loop control mode and will
maintain the process variable at a value in the absence of a
disturbances.
• Disturbances are uncontrolled changes in the process inputs or 71

resources.
Example for Open Loop Control

72
Example for Open Loop Control

• A system consists of the "valve" with the output variable "volumetric

flow" and the input variable "control valve setting".
• This system can be controlled by adjusting the control valve. This
allows the desired volumetric flow to be set.
• if the applied pressure fluctuates, the volumetric flow will also
fluctuate. 73

• In this open system, adjustment must be made manually.

Example for Open Loop Control

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Closed Loop Control

• process where the controlled variable is continuously monitored and

compared with the reference variable.

• Depending on the result of this comparison, the input variable for the

system is influenced to adjust the output variable to the desired value

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despite any disturbing influences.
Closed Loop Control

• Closed loop control is also called feedback or regulatory control.

• The output of a closed loop controller is a function of the error.

• Error is the deviation of the process variable from the set point and is
defined as

E = SP - PV
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Example for Closed Loop Control

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Closed Loop Control

• The controller now passes a signal to the manipulating element dependent

on the deviation.
• If there is a large negative deviation, that is the measured value of the

volumetric flow is greater than the desired value the valve is closed further.
• If there is a large positive deviation, that is the measured value is smaller

than the desired value, the valve is opened further.

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Example for Closed Loop Control

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Closed Loop Control

• Setting of the output variable is normally not ideal:

➢ If the intervention is too fast and too great, influence at the input
end of the system is too large. This results in great fluctuations at
the output.
➢ If influence is slow and small, the output variable will only
approximate to the desired value. 80
Sensors and Transducers

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Sensors and Transducers

• A sensor is a device that has a characteristic that changes in a

predictable way when exposed to the stimulus it was designed to

detect.

• A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into

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another.
Sensors and Transducers

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Sensors and Transducers
Classification of Transducers

• Active and Passive Transducers.

• Primary and Secondary Transducers.

• Analog and Digital Transducers.

• Transducers and Inverse Transducers.

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Active and Passive Transducers

• Doesn’t need external Power Supply.

• Self-generation
• Ex. Solar cells and Thermocouples

• It needs external Power Supply.

• It depends on passive elements
(R,L,C).
• Position Transducer 86
Primary and Secondary Transducers

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Transducer and Inverse Transducer

Physical Electrical
Transducer
Quantity Output

Electrical Inverse Mechanical

Signal Transducer Output

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Sensors and Transducers

• Primary Sensing Element, or PSE: A device directly sensing the

process variable and translating that sensed quantity into an analog
representation (electrical voltage, current, resistance; mechanical
force, motion, etc.).
• Examples: thermocouple, thermistor, bourdon tube, microphone,
potentiometer, electrochemical cell, accelerometer. 89
Sensors and Transducers

• Transmitter: A device translating the signal produced by a primary

sensing element (PSE) into a standardized instrumentation signal

such as 3-15 PSI air pressure, 4-20 mA DC electric current, Fieldbus

digital signal packet, etc., which may then be conveyed to an

90
indicating device, a controlling device, or both.
Sensors and Transducers

• Industrial process control rely on the control of many process physical

quantities that are very important to measure accurately. The basic
quantities are:
 Temperature
 Pressure
 Level
 Flow

• There are many other important quantities like Vibration, speed and 91

analyzers.
Pneumatic Transmitter

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Analog Transmitter

• Fixed Range
• Adjusted using zero and span

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Smart Transmitter

• Supports Digital Communications

• Configured through field communicator

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Standard Instrument Signals

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Standard Instrument Signals

• Standard instrument signals for controllers to accept as inputs from

instrumentation and outputs to final control elements are:

• pneumatic

• current loop

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• 0 to 10 volt
Pneumatic Signals

3 to 15 psig

• Before 1960, pneumatic signals were used almost exclusively to transmit

measurement and control information.

• Today, it is still common to find 3 to 15 psig used as the final signal to a

modulating valve.

• Most often an I/P (I to P) transducer is used. 97

• This converts a 4-20 mA signal (I) into a pressure signal (P).

Current Loop

4-20 milliamp

• Current loops are the signal workhorses in our processes.

• A DC milliamp current is transmitted through a pair of wires from a sensor

to a controller or from a controller to its final control element.

• Current loops are used because of their immunity to noise and the

distances that the signal can be transmitted. 98

Current Loop

Output Scaling

• Scale outputs for a one-to-one correspondence.

• Controller output is configured for 0% to correspond to a 4mA signal and

100% to correspond to a 20mA signal.

• The final control element is calibrated so that 4mA corresponds to its 0%

position or speed and 20mA corresponds to its 100% position or speed. 99

Current Loop

Input Scaling

• Scale inputs for a one-to-one correspondence as well.

• Example:

• If we were using a pressure transducer with a required operating range of 0 psig to 100
psig we would calibrate the instrument such that 0 psig would correspond to 4mA
output and 100 psig would correspond to a 20mA output.

• At the controller we would configure the input such that 4mA would correspond to an 100

internal value of 0 psig and 10mA would correspond to an internal value of 100 psig.
0 to 10 Volt

• 0 to 10 volt is not commonly used in control systems because this signal is

susceptible to induced noise and the distance of the instrument or final

control element is limited due to voltage drop.

• You may find 0-10 volt signals used in control systems providing the speed

reference to variable speed drives. 101

Basic Definitions

What Instrument Properties Affect a Process:

• The instrument’s range and span.

• The resolution of the measurement.

• The instrument’s accuracy and precision.

102

• The instrument’s dynamics

Basic Definitions

Range and Span

• The range of a sensor is the lowest and highest values it can measure within
its specification.
Upper Range Value (URV):
• the highest quantity that an instrument is adjusted to measure.
Lower Range Value (LRV):
103
• the lowest quantity that an instrument is adjusted to measure.
Basic Definitions

Zero and Span:

• The Span is the algebraic difference between the upper and lower values of
a range.
• It is an alternative descriptions to LRV and URV for the 0% and 100%
points of an instrument’s calibrated range.
• Zero” refers to the beginning-point of an instrument’s range (equivalent to
LRV), 104

• “span” refers to the width of its range (URV − LRV).

Basic Definitions

Upper Range Limit (URL):

• The maximum acceptable value that a device can be adjusted to measure.
Lower Range Limit (LRL):
• The minimum acceptable value that a device can be adjusted to measure.
• For example, if a temperature transmitter is calibrated to measure a range of
temperature starting at 300OCelsius and ending at 500OCelsius, its LRV
would be 300OC and its URV would be 500OC.
Basic Definitions
Basic Definitions

Overrange

• an input to a measuring instrument that exceeds in magnitude the

capability of a given range.

• In practical terms, overrange is any excess value of the input signal

above an instrument’s URV or below its LRV.
Basic Definitions

• Resolution is the smallest amount of input signal change that the

instrument can detect reliably.
• Accuracy of a measurement describes how close the measurement
approaches the true value of the process variable.
• Precision is the reproducibility with which repeated measurements
can be made under identical conditions. 108

• This may be referred to as drift.

Accuracy Vs. Precision

Accuracy:
• the amount of error that may occur when measurements are taken.
• sometimes referred to as the maximum uncertainty or limit of uncertainty.
• can be expressed as any of the following:
➢ error in units of the measured value
➢ percent of span
➢ percent of upper range value
➢ percent of actual output value
Accuracy Vs. Precision

Precision
• often confused with accuracy.
• It is the reproducibility with which repeated measurements of the
same measured variable can be made under identical conditions.
• In the process measurement, precision is often more important than
accuracy.
Accuracy Vs. Precision

111
Linearity

• Linearity is how close a curve to a

straight line.
• In practice, sensors generally do
not exhibit this type of exact
straight line.
• Linearity is expressed as a
percentage of full scale.
Hysteresis

• This is where the accuracy of

the device is dependent on the
previous value.
• Hysteresis represents the
maximum difference between
readings for the same input
when approached from opposite
directions
Rangeability and Turndown

Rangeability:
• The ability to measure very wide ranges and calculated as:
The ratio of the maximum measurable value to the minimum
measurable value.
Turndown:
• Describes the ratio between the highest and lowest possible
span of measurement output.
Turndown Ratio = max allowable span/min allowable span
Turndown Ratio

• Suppose a pressure transmitter has a maximum calibration range

of 0 to 300 PSI, and a turndown of 20:1. Can we calculate the
available range of operation??
 Now 300/20 = 15 PSI

 This means that a technician may adjust the span anywhere between
300 PSI (e.g. range = 0 to 300 PSI) and 15 PSI (e.g. range = 0 to 15 PSI)
Turndown Ratio

Example:
 Suppose you were working at a facility where the operations
personnel requested a pressure transmitter installed on a process
vessel with a measurement range of 50 PSI to 90 PSI. You go to the
warehouse where all the new instruments are stocked, find a
pressure transmitter with a (maximum) range of zero to 1000 PSI,
and a turndown ratio of 20:1.
• Can you use this transmitter??
Turndown Ratio

• A 10:1 turndown ratio on a 1 bar gauge pressure transmitter would allow

the following:

 Highest range setting: 0 to 1 bar = 4 to 20mA

 Lowest range setting: 0 to 100 mbar = 4 to 20mA

 This means Min Span is 100 mbar

• But what is the problem of using the transmitter lower than its available
range??
Turndown vs. Accuracy

• If we use a transmitter in smaller range above its turndown

ratio, the accuracy will be worse.
• For example, for certain transmitter, the accuracy is ±0.05%
at turndown ration up to 20:1
 This accuracy will be ±0.25% at turndown 100:1
 And ±1.25% at turndown 500:1
• The problem here is not in the transmitter, but in the
calibrated range.
Turndown Ratio

• Modern “smart” electronic pressure transmitters typically

boast turndown ratios exceeding 100:1, with some having
turndown ratios of 200:1 or more!
• Large turndown ratios are good because they allow users of
instrumentation to maintain a smaller quantity of new
transmitters in stock, since transmitters with large turndown
ratios are more versatile (i.e. applicable to a wider variety of
spans) than transmitters with small turndown ratios.
Transmitter Calibration

• The calibration procedure involves the following adjustments:

 Zero Adjustment – ensure that at 0% measurement input, the output
is 0%.
 Span Adjustment – ensure that at 100% measurement input, the
output is 100%.
Transmitter Calibration

• Example:
 Plot the curve that represents a pressure transmitter with an input
range of 0 to 100 PSI and an electronic output signal range of 4 to
20 mA electric current.
Live Vs. Dead Zero

• Although the graph is still linear,

zero pressure does not equate to
zero current. This is called a live
zero.

• Some instruments require

calibration from 0 to 20mA. This
is called dead zero.
Ambient Temperature and Pressure

• Both ambient temperature and pressure affect on instrument’s

operating performance:

❖ zero shift with temperature

❖ span shift with temperature

❖ zero shift with static pressure

❖ span shift with static pressure.

Error Types
Dynamic Conditions Affects Measurement

• The instrument engineer must consider the following dynamic conditions that
affect process measurement:
• Temperature Effects
• Static Pressure Effects
• Interference
• Instrument Response
• Noise
• Damping and Digital Filtering
• These dynamic conditions cause the presence of uncertainty in measuring
systems
Temperature Effect

• Higher or lower temperature than designed will have a big

impact on the measurement value.

• Temperature induce a change in the dimensions of the

measuring element, modification of a resistance of a circuit,
or a temperature-induced change in the flux density of a
magnetic element.
Pressure Effects

• The differential pressure transmitter that is reading 250 mbar

differential at 0 bar will not have the same accuracy
specification when it is reading 250 mbar under a static pressure
of 10 bar

• Pressure not only can drift the output reading, but it can
damage the sensor itself.
Electrical Interference

• Interference, in process measurement terms, refers to either

external power or electrical potential that can interfere with
the reception of a desired signal or the disturbance of a
process measurement signal.
• Interference types are
 Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)

 Radio Frequency Interference (RFI)

Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)

• The cause of EMI could be natural electromagnetic sources or

man-made sources.
• Some examples of man-made EMI sources include motor
starters, welding devices
• For example, when a motor is starting up, a magnetic field is
created. If this magnetic field cuts across a conductor such as a
thermocouple extension circuit, the voltage drops across each
wire will be slightly different
• We can use devices with EMC protection to reduce the effect of
EMI.
Radio Frequency Interference (RFI)

• The radio frequency signals generated can enter an

instrument through power supply leads, or a small crack in
the instrument enclosure.

• Instruments should be properly shielded to avoid RFI effects.

Instrument Response

• The dynamic response of the instrument refers to how

quickly a measuring instrument reacts or responds to a
measured variable.
• An ideal, perfect instrument would have an instantaneous
response, which in effect, is called zero lag.
• Fast speed of response is an attribute of high-quality
instrumentation
Noise

• Noise, which can originate internally within the process

measuring system or externally from the process condition,
makes up part of the total signal from which the desired signal
must be read.
• For example, the vibration effects on a pressure gauge are
considered noise when that pressure gauge indicator moves as a
result of vibration pickup.
Damping and Digital Filtering

• Noise in most cases represents

the high frequency component
in the output signal.
• But using a low pass filter
which we call “damping” we
can produce a stable process
reading.
Conventional vs. μprocessor-based Instruments
Basic Definitions

• The sensitivity of a sensor is the ratio of the output signal to the

change in process variable.

• The dead time of an instrument is the time it takes for an instrument

to start reacting to process change.

141
Basic Definitions

Instrumentation Dynamics: Time Constant

• As for processes, one time constant for an instrument is the time it

takes to provide a signal that represents 63.2% of the value of variable
it is measuring after a step change in the variable.

• Instrument manufacturers may sometimes specify the rise time

instead of the time constant. 142
Basic Definitions

Instrumentation Dynamics: Rise Time

• Rise time is the time it takes for an instrument to provide a signal that
represents 100% of the value of the variable it is measuring after a
step change in the variable.

• The rise time of an instrument is equal to 5 time constants.

143
Smart Transmitters

144
Smart Transmitters

145
Field Communicator

146
Field Communicator

147
Field Communicator

148
Field Communicator

149
Field Communicator

150
Field Communicator

151
Field Communicator

152
Field Communicator

153
Field Communicator

154
What is PACTware?

• PACTware is a manufacturer and

fieldbus-independent software for
operating field instruments.
• PACTware enables open,
comprehensive adjustment of
different field instruments via any
bus system.
155
USB HART Interface

• HART compliant for

communication with any HART
field device

• Integrated connector cable

terminates in 2 test clips and 1
USB connector cable 156
USB HART Interface

157
Smart Transmitters

• A smart transmitter is a digital device that converts the analog information from a
sensor into digital information, allowing the device to simultaneously send and receive
information and transmit more than a single value.
• Smart transmitters, in general, have the following common features:
 Digital Communications
 Configuration
 Re-Ranging
158
 Signal Conditioning
 Self-Diagnosis
Smart Transmitter

159
Smart Transmitters

• Smart transmitters are capable of digital communications with both a

configuration device and a process controller.
• Digital communications have the advantage of being free of bit errors, the ability
to multiple process values and diagnostic information, and the ability to receive
commands.
• Some smart transmitters use a shared channel for analog and digital data (HART
or Modbus over 4-20mA). Others use a dedicated communication bus (Profibus, 160

Foundation Fieldbus, DeviceNet, Ethernet).

Smart Transmitters

Digital communication with Smart Transmitters

• The most common digital communication protocols is HART protocol,

which stands for Highway Addressable Remote Transducer.

• A HART transmitter contains both a conventional analogue mA signal and

a digital signal superimposed on top of the analogue signal. Since it also has
the analogue signal, it is compatible with conventional installations. Field 161

bus and Profibus contain only a digital output, with no analogue signal.
HART FSK signals communicate auxiliary information such as
in-system calibration data, reliability information, diagnostics,
and additional sensor data

4-20mA DC signal
communicates primary
variable, sensor data
Smart Transmitters

• Most smart instruments wired to multi-channel input cards require

isolated inputs for the digital communications to work.

Configuration

• Smart transmitters can be configured with a handheld terminal and

store the configuration settings in non-volatile memory.
163
Smart Transmitters

Signal Conditioning

• Smart transmitters can perform noise filtering and can provide

different signal characterizations.

Self-Diagnosis

• Smart transmitters aalso have self-diagnostic capability and can

164

report malfunctions that may indicate erroneous process values.

Smart Transmitters

Calibration versus re-ranging

• To calibrate an instrument means to check and adjust (if necessary) its
response so the output accurately corresponds to its input throughout a
specified range. The instrument has to be exposed to an actual input
stimulus of precisely known quantity.

• For a pressure gauge, indicator, or transmitter, this would mean subjecting

the pressure instrument to known fluid pressures and comparing the 165

instrument response against those known pressure quantities.

Smart Transmitters

Calibration versus re-ranging

• To range an instrument means to set the lower and upper range
values so it responds with the desired sensitivity to changes in input.

• For example, a pressure transmitter set to a range of 0 to 200 PSI (0

PSI = 4 mA output ; 200 PSI = 20 mA output) could be re-ranged to
respond on a scale of 0 to 150 PSI (0 PSI = 4 mA ; 150 PSI = 20 mA).
166
Smart Transmitters

Calibration versus re-ranging

• In analog instruments, re-ranging could only be accomplished by re-

calibration, since the same adjustments were used to achieve both
purposes.

• In digital instruments, calibration and ranging are typically separate

adjustments (i.e. it is possible to re-range a digital transmitter without 167

having to perform a complete recalibration)