ENGINEERING MECHANICS

II SEMESTER
ES 114

Department of Applied Science, BVCOE New Delhi

Kinematics of Particles

Department of Applied Science, BVCOE New Delhi

 Kinematics of Particles
Kinematic relationships are used to
help us determine the trajectory of a
golf ball, the orbital speed of a
satellite, and the accelerations during
acrobatic flying.

Department of Applied Science, BVCOE New Delhi

 Introduction
• Dynamics includes:
Kinematics: study of the geometry of motion. Relates displacement, velocity,
acceleration, and time without reference to the cause of motion.

Fthrust

Fdrag

Flift

Kinetics: study of the relations existing between the forces acting on a body,
the mass of the body, and the motion of the body. Kinetics is used to predict
the motion caused by given forces or to determine the forces required to
produce a given motion.
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 Introduction
• Particle kinematics includes:

• Rectilinear motion: position, velocity, and acceleration of a

particle as it moves along a straight line.

• Curvilinear motion: position, velocity, and acceleration of a

particle as it moves along a curved line in two or three
dimensions.
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Rectilinear Motion: Position,
Velocity & Acceleration
• Rectilinear motion: particle moving
along a straight line
• Position coordinate: defined by
positive or negative distance from a
fixed origin on the line.

• The motion of a particle is known if

the position coordinate for particle is
known for every value of time t.
• May be expressed in the form of a
function, e.g., 2 3
x  6t  t
or in the form of a graph x vs. t.
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Rectilinear Motion: Position,
Velocity & Acceleration
• Consider particle which occupies position P at
time t and P’ at t+Dt,
Dx
Average velocity 
Dt
Dx
Instantaneous velocity  v  lim
Dt 0 Dt
• Instantaneous velocity may be positive or
negative. Magnitude of velocity is referred to
as particle speed.

• From the definition of a derivative,

Dx dx
v  lim 
Dt 0 Dt dt
e.g., x  6t 2  t 3
dx
v  12t  3t 2
dt
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Rectilinear Motion: Position,
Velocity &• Acceleration
Consider particle with velocity v at time t and v’
at t+Dt,

Instantaneous acceleration  a  lim Dv

Dt 0 Dt
• Instantaneous acceleration may be:
- positive: increasing positive velocity
or decreasing negative velocity
- negative: decreasing positive velocity
or increasing negative velocity.

• From the definition of a derivative,

Dv dv d 2 x
a  lim   2
Dt 0 Dt dt dt
e.g. v  12t  3t 2
dv
a  12  6t
dt
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Rectilinear Motion: Position,
Velocity & Acceleration
• From our example,

x  6t 2  t 3
dx
v  12t  3t 2
dt
dv d 2 x
a   12  6t
dt dt 2
• What are x, v, and a at t = 2 s ?
- at t = 2 s, x = 16 m, v = vmax = 12 m/s, a = 0

• Note that vmax occurs when a=0, and that the slope
of the velocity curve is zero at this point.
• What are x, v, and a at t = 4 s ?

- at t = 4 s, x = xmax = 32 m, v = 0, a = -12 m/s2

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 Determination of the Motion of
a Particle
• We often determine accelerations from the forces applied
(kinetics will be covered later)
• Generally have three classes of motion
- acceleration given as a function of time, a = f(t)
- acceleration given as a function of position, a = f(x)
- acceleration given as a function of velocity, a = f(v)

• Can you think of a physical example of when force is a

function of position? When force is a function of velocity?

a spring drag
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 Acceleration as a function of
time, position, or velocity
If…. Kinematic relationship Integrate
v t
dv
a  a t 
dt
 a (t )  dv   a  t  dt
v0 0

dx dv
dt  and a  v x
v dt
a  a  x  v dv   a  x  dx
v0 x0
v dv  a  x  dx

v t
dv dv
dt
 a (v ) v a  v   0 dt
a  a v
0

x v
dv v dv
v  a v  dx  
dx x0 v0
a v
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 Problem
SOLUTION:
• Integrate twice to find v(t) and y(t).

• Solve for t when velocity equals zero

(time for maximum elevation) and
evaluate corresponding altitude.

• Solve for t when altitude equals zero

Ball tossed with 10 m/s vertical velocity (time for ground impact) and evaluate
from window 20 m above ground. corresponding velocity.

Determine:
• velocity and elevation above ground at time
t,
• highest elevation reached by ball and
corresponding time, and
• time when ball will hit the ground and
corresponding velocity.

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 Problem
SOLUTION:
• Integrate twice to find v(t) and y(t).

dv
 a  9.81 m s 2
dt
v t  t
 dv    9.81 dt vt   v0  9.81t
v0 0

m  m
vt   10   9.81 2  t
s  s 
dy
 v  10  9.81t
dt
y t  t
 dy   10  9.81t dt y t   y0  10t  12 9.81t 2
y0 0

 m  m
y t   20 m  10 t   4.905 2 t 2
 s  s 
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 Problem
• Solve for t when velocity equals zero and evaluate
corresponding altitude.

m  m
vt   10   9.81 2  t  0
s  s 
t  1.019 s

• Solve for t when altitude equals zero and evaluate

corresponding velocity.

 m  m 2
 
y t  20 m  10 t   4.905 2 t
 s  s 
 m  m
y  20 m  10 1.019 s    4.905 2 1.019 s 2
 s  s 
y  25.1 m

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 Problem
• Solve for t when altitude equals zero and evaluate
corresponding velocity.

 m  m
y t   20 m  10 t   4.905 2 t 2  0
 s  s 
t  1.243 s meaningless 
t  3.28 s

m  m
vt   10   9.81 2  t
s  s 
m  m
v3.28 s   10   9.81 2  3.28 s 
s  s 

m
v  22.2
s

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 Problem
SOLUTION:
• Integrate a = dv/dt = -kv to find v(t).
a   kv
• Integrate v(t) = dx/dt to find x(t).

• Integrate a = v dv/dx = -kv to find v(x).

Brake mechanism used to reduce gun recoil
consists of piston attached to barrel moving in
fixed cylinder filled with oil. As barrel recoils
with initial velocity v0, piston moves and oil is
forced through orifices in piston, causing
piston and cylinder to decelerate at rate
proportional to their velocity.
Determine v(t), x(t), and v(x).

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 Problem
SOLUTION:
• Integrate a = dv/dt = -kv to find v(t).

dv
v
dv
t
v t 
a
dt
  kv v v  k 0 dt ln
v0
 kt
0

vt   v0 e  kt

• Integrate v(t) = dx/dt to find x(t).

dx
v t    v0e  kt
dt
x t t
 1 
 dx  v0  dt
e  kt
x  t   v0   e  kt 
0 0  k 0

xt  
v0
k

1  e  kt 
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 Problem
• Integrate a = v dv/dx = -kv to find v(x).
v x
dv
a  v   kv dv   k dx  dv  k  dx
dx v0 0
v  v0   kx
v  v0  kx

• Alternatively,

with xt  
v0
k

1  e  kt 
vt 
and vt   v0 e  kt or e  kt 
v0
v0  vt  
then xt   1  
k  v0 
v  v0  kx

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 Uniform Rectilinear Motion
During free-fall, a parachutist
For a particle in uniform
reaches terminal velocity when her
rectilinear motion, the
weight equals the drag force. If
acceleration is zero and the
motion is in a straight line, this is
velocity is constant.
uniform rectilinear motion.

dx
 v  constant
dt
x t
 dx  v  dt
x0 0
x  x0  vt
x  x0  vt

Careful – these only apply to

uniform rectilinear motion!
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 Uniformly Accelerated
Rectilinear Motion
If forces applied to a body
are constant (and in a
constant direction), then
you have uniformly
accelerated rectilinear
motion.

Another example is free-fall

when drag is negligible

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 Uniformly Accelerated
Rectilinear Motion
For a particle in uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion, the acceleration of the
particle is constant. You may recognize these constant acceleration equations
from your physics courses.

v t
dv
dt
 a  constant  dv  a  dt
v0 0
v  v0  at

x t
dx
dt
 v0  at  dx    v0  at  dt
x0 0
x  x0  v0t  12 at 2

v x
dv
v  a  constant  v dv  a  dx v 2  v02  2a  x  x0 
dx v0 x0

Careful – these only apply to uniformly

accelerated rectilinear motion!
 Motion of Several Particles
We may be interested in the motion of several different particles, whose motion
may be independent or linked together.

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Motion of Several Particles:
Relative• Motion
For particles moving along the same line, time
should be recorded from the same starting instant
and displacements should be measured from the
same origin in the same direction.

xB A  x B  x A  relative position of B with

respect to A
xB  x A  xB A

vB A  v B  v A  relative velocity of B with

respect to A
vB  v A  vB A

aB A  a B  a A  relative acceleration of B
with respect to A
aB  a A  aB A
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 Problem
SOLUTION:
• Substitute initial position and velocity and
constant acceleration of ball into general
equations for uniformly accelerated
rectilinear motion.

• Substitute initial position and constant

velocity of elevator into equation for
uniform rectilinear motion.
Ball thrown vertically from 12 m level in
elevator shaft with initial velocity of 18 m/s. • Write equation for relative position of ball
At same instant, open-platform elevator with respect to elevator and solve for zero
passes 5 m level moving upward at 2 m/s. relative position, i.e., impact.

Determine (a) when and where ball hits

• Substitute impact time into equation for
elevator and (b) relative velocity of ball and
position of elevator and relative velocity
elevator at contact.
of ball with respect to elevator.

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 Problem
SOLUTION:
• Substitute initial position and velocity and constant
acceleration of ball into general equations for uniformly
accelerated rectilinear motion.

m  m
v B  v0  at  18   9.81 2 t
s  s 
 m  m
y B  y0  v0t  12 at 2  12 m  18 t   4.905 2 t 2
 s  s 

• Substitute initial position and constant velocity of

elevator into equation for uniform rectilinear motion.

m
vE  2
s
 m
y E  y0  v E t  5 m   2 t
 s

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 Problem
• Write equation for relative position of ball with respect to
elevator and solve for zero relative position, i.e., impact.

 
y B E  12  18t  4.905t 2  5  2t   0
t  0.39 s meaningless 
t  3.65 s

• Substitute impact time into equations for position of elevator and

relative velocity of ball with respect to elevator.

y E  5  23.65
y E  12.3 m

vB E  18  9.81t   2
 16  9.813.65
m
v B E  19.81
s
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Motion of Several Particles:
Dependent Motion
• Position of a particle may depend on position of one or
more other particles.

• Position of block B depends on position of block A. Since rope

is of constant length, it follows that sum of lengths of
segments must be constant.

x A  2 x B  constant (one degree of freedom)

• Positions of three blocks are dependent.

2 x A  2 x B  xC  constant (two degrees of freedom)

• For linearly related positions, similar relations hold between

velocities and accelerations.

dx A dx dx
2  2 B  C  0 or 2v A  2v B  vC  0
dt dt dt
dv dv dv
2 A  2 B  C  0 or 2a A  2a B  aC  0
dt dt dt
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 Problem
SOLUTION:
• Define origin at upper horizontal surface with
positive displacement downward.

• Collar A has uniformly accelerated rectilinear

motion. Solve for acceleration and time t to
reach L.

• Pulley D has uniform rectilinear motion.

Pulley D is attached to a collar which is Calculate change of position at time t.
pulled down at 3 in./s. At t = 0, collar A
starts moving down from K with constant • Block B motion is dependent on motions of
acceleration and zero initial velocity. collar A and pulley D. Write motion
Knowing that velocity of collar A is 12 relationship and solve for change of block B
in./s as it passes L, determine the change position at time t.
in elevation, velocity, and acceleration of
block B when block A is at L. • Differentiate motion relation twice to develop
equations for velocity and acceleration of block
B.
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 Problem
SOLUTION:
• Define origin at upper horizontal surface with positive
displacement downward.

• Collar A has uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion.

Solve for acceleration and time t to reach L.

v 2A  v A 02  2a A x A   x A 0 
2
 in.  in.
12   2a A 8 in. aA  9
 s  s2

v A  v A 0  a At
in. in.
12 9 2t t  1.333 s
s s

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 Problem
• Pulley D has uniform rectilinear motion. Calculate
change of position at time t.

x D   x D 0  v D t
 in. 
x D   x D 0   3 1.333 s   4 in.
 s 
• Block B motion is dependent on motions of collar A and
pulley D. Write motion relationship and solve for change
of block B position at time t.

Total length of cable remains constant,

x A  2 x D  x B   x A 0  2 x D 0   x B 0

x A   x A 0   2x D   x D 0  x B  x B 0   0
8 in.  24 in.  x B   x B 0   0
x B   x B 0  16 in.
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 Problem
• Differentiate motion relation twice to develop equations
for velocity and acceleration of block B.

x A  2 x D  x B  constant

v A  2v D  v B  0

 in.   in.  in.

12   2 3   v B  0 v B  18
 s   s  s

a A  2a D  a B  0

 in.  in.
 9 2   vB  0 a B  9
 s  s2

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 Curvilinear Motion: Position,
Velocity & Acceleration
The softball and the car both undergo
curvilinear motion.

• A particle moving along a curve other than a

straight line is in curvilinear motion.
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 Curvilinear Motion: Position,
Velocity & Acceleration
• The position vector of a particle at time t is defined by a vector between origin O of
a fixed reference frame and the position occupied by particle.


• Consider a particle
 which occupies position P defined by r at time t and P’
defined by r  at t + Dt,

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 Curvilinear Motion: Position,
Velocity & Acceleration
Instantaneous velocity Instantaneous speed
(vector) (scalar)
 
 Dr dr Ds ds
v  lim  v  lim 
D t  0 Dt dt Dt  0 Dt dt

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 Curvilinear Motion: Position,
Velocity & Acceleration
 
• Consider velocity v of a particle at time t and velocity v  at t + Dt,
 
 Dv dv
a  lim   instantaneous acceleration (vector)
Dt  0 Dt dt

• In general, the acceleration vector is not tangent to

the particle path and velocity vector.

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Rectangular Components of
Velocity & Acceleration
• When position vector of particle P is given by its
rectangular components,
   
r  xi  y j  zk

• Velocity vector,
 dx  dy  dz    
v  i  j  k  xi  y j  zk
dt dt dt
  
 vx i  v y j  vz k

• Acceleration vector,
 d 2 x d 2 y  d 2 z    
a  2 i  2 j  2 k  xi  y j  zk
dt dt dt
  
 ax i  a y j  az k

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Rectangular Components of
Velocity & Acceleration
• Rectangular components particularly effective when
component accelerations can be integrated
independently, e.g., motion of a projectile,
a x  x  0 a y  y   g a z  z  0
with initial conditions,
x0  y 0  z 0  0 v x 0 , v y 0 , v z 0  0
Integrating twice yields

v x  v x 0  
v y  v y  gt
0
vz  0
x  v x 0 t  0
y  v y y  12 gt 2 z0

• Motion in horizontal direction is uniform.

• Motion in vertical direction is uniformly accelerated.

• Motion of projectile could be replaced by two

independent rectilinear motions.
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 Problem
SOLUTION:
• Consider the vertical and horizontal motion
separately (they are independent)

• Apply equations of motion in y-direction

• Apply equations of motion in x-direction

• Determine time t for projectile to hit the

A projectile is fired from the edge of a
ground, use this to find the horizontal distance
150-m cliff with an initial velocity of
180 m/s at an angle of 30°with the
horizontal. Neglecting air resistance,
find (a) the horizontal distance from • Maximum elevation occurs when vy=0
the gun to the point where the
projectile strikes the ground, (b) the
greatest elevation above the ground
reached by the projectile.

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 Problem
SOLUTION:
Given: (v)o =180 m/s (y)o =150 m
(a)y = - 9.81 m/s2 (a)x = 0 m/s2

Vertical motion – uniformly accelerated:

Horizontal motion – uniformly accelerated:

Choose positive x to the right as shown

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 Problem
SOLUTION:
Horizontal distance
Projectile strikes the ground at:
Substitute into equation (1) above

Solving for t, we take the positive root

Substitute t into equation (4)

Maximum elevation occurs when vy=0

Maximum elevation above the ground =

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 Motion Relative to a Frame in
Translation
It is critical for a pilot to know
A soccer player must consider the the relative motion of his
relative motion of the ball and her aircraft with respect to the
teammates when making a pass. aircraft carrier to make a safe
landing.

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Motion Relative to a Frame in
Translation
• Designate one frame as the fixed frame of reference. All
other frames not rigidly attached to the fixed reference
frame are moving frames of reference.

• Position vectors for particles A and B with respect to the

 
fixed frame of reference Oxyz are rA and rB .

• Vector rB A joining A and B defines the position of B
with respect to the moving frame Ax’y’z’ and
  
rB  rA  rB A
• Differentiating twice,
   
vB  v A  vB A v B A  velocity of B relative to A.
   
a B  a A  aB A aB A  acceleration of B relative to
A.

• Absolute motion of B can be obtained by combining

motion of A with relative motion of B with respect to
moving reference frame attached to A.
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 Problem
SOLUTION:

• Define inertial axes for the system

• Determine the position, speed, and

acceleration of car A at t = 5 s

• Determine the position, speed, and

acceleration of car B at t = 5 s

Automobile A is traveling east at the • Using vectors or a graphical approach,

constant speed of 36 km/h. As determine the relative position, velocity, and
automobile A crosses the intersection acceleration
shown, automobile B starts from rest 35
m north of the intersection and moves
south with a constant acceleration of
1.2 m/s2. Determine the position,
velocity, and acceleration of B relative to
A 5 s after A crosses the intersection.

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 Problem
SOLUTION: • Define axes along the road

Given: vA=36 km/h, aA= 0, (xA)0 = 0

(vB)0= 0, aB= - 1.2 m/s2, (yA)0 = 35 m

Determine motion of Automobile A:

We have uniform motion for A so:

At t = 5 s

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 Problem
SOLUTION:

Determine motion of Automobile B:

We have uniform acceleration for B so:

At t = 5 s

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 Problem
SOLUTION:

We can solve the problems geometrically, and apply the arctangent relationship:

Or we can solve the problems using vectors to obtain equivalent results:

rB  rA  rB/ A v B  v A  v B/ A a B  a A  a B/ A
20 j  50i  rB/ A 6 j  10i  v B/ A 1.2 j  0i  aB/ A
rB/ A  20 j  50i (m) v B/ A  6 j  10i (m/s) a B/ A  1.2 j (m/s 2 )

Physically, a rider in car A would “see” car B travelling south and west.
Department of Applied Science, BVCOE New Delhi
 Tangential and Normal
Components
If we have an idea of the path of a vehicle, it is often convenient to
analyze the motion using tangential and normal components (sometimes
called path coordinates).

Department of Applied Science, BVCOE New Delhi

 Tangential and Normal
y
Components
r= the instantaneous
radius of curvature

v  v et
en v= vt et dv v2
et a  e t  en
dt r

x
• The tangential direction (et) is tangent to the path of the particle.
This velocity vector of a particle is in this direction

• The normal direction (en) is perpendicular to et and points towards

the inside of the curve.
• The acceleration can have components in both the en and et directions
Department of Applied Science, BVCOE New Delhi
Tangential and Normal
Components
• To derive the acceleration vector in tangential and
normal components, define the motion of a particle
as shown in the figure.

• et and et are tangential unit vectors for the particle
path at P and P’. When drawn with respect to the
same origin,   
Det  et  et and
D is the angle between them.

Det  2 sin D 2 


Det sin D 2   
lim  lim en  en
D 0 D D 0 D 2

 det
en 
d

Department of Applied Science, BVCOE New Delhi

Tangential and Normal
Components

• With the velocity vector expressed as v  vet

the particle acceleration may be written as
  
 dv dv  de dv  de d ds
but a   et  v  et  v
 dt dt dt dt d ds dt
det  ds
 en r d  ds v
d dt
After substituting,
 dv  v 2  dv v2
a et  e at  an 
dt r n dt r
• The tangential component of acceleration reflects
change of speed and the normal component reflects
change of direction.

• The tangential component may be positive or

negative. Normal component always points toward
center of path curvature.

Department of Applied Science, BVCOE New Delhi

Tangential and Normal
Components
• Relations for tangential and normal acceleration also
apply for particle moving along a space curve.

 dv  v 2  dv v2
a  et  en at  an 
dt r dt r
• The plane containing tangential and normal unit
vectors is called the osculating plane.

• The normal to the osculating plane is found from

  
eb  et  en

en  principal normal

eb  binormal

• Acceleration has no component along the binormal.

Department of Applied Science, BVCOE New Delhi

 Problem
SOLUTION:

• Define your coordinate system

• Calculate the tangential velocity and tangential

acceleration

• Calculate the normal acceleration

A motorist is traveling on a curved • Determine overall acceleration magnitude

section of highway of radius 2500 ft at after the brakes have been applied
the speed of 60 mi/h. The motorist
suddenly applies the brakes, causing the
automobile to slow down at a constant
rate. Knowing that after 8 s the speed
has been reduced to 45 mi/h, determine
the acceleration of the automobile
immediately after the brakes have been
applied.
Department of Applied Science, BVCOE New Delhi
 Problem
SOLUTION: • Define your coordinate system
• Determine velocity and acceleration in the
tangential direction

et
en

• The deceleration constant, therefore

• Immediately after the brakes are applied,

the speed is still 88 ft/s

a  an2  at2  2.752  3.102

Department of Applied Science, BVCOE New Delhi

Kinetics of Particles
Kinetics of Particles: Work and
Energy

Department of Applied Science, BVCOE New Delhi

Kinetics of Particles: Work
and Energy

Department of Applied Science, BVCOE New Delhi

Kinetics of Particles: Work and
Energy

Department of Applied Science, BVCOE New Delhi

Kinetics of Particles :: Impulse
and Momentum

Department of Applied Science, BVCOE New Delhi

Kinetics of Particles

Department of Applied Science, BVCOE New Delhi

Kinetics of Particles

Department of Applied Science, BVCOE New Delhi

Kinetics of Particles

Department of Applied Science, BVCOE New Delhi

Kinetics of Particles: Linear
Impulse and Linear Momentum

Department of Applied Science, BVCOE New Delhi

Kinetics of Particles: Linear
Impulse and Linear Momentum

Department of Applied Science, BVCOE New Delhi

Kinetics of Particles: Linear
Impulse and Linear Momentum

Department of Applied Science, BVCOE New Delhi

Kinetics of Particles

Department of Applied Science, BVCOE New Delhi

Kinetics of Particles

Department of Applied Science, BVCOE New Delhi

Kinetics of Particles: Impact

Department of Applied Science, BVCOE New Delhi

Kinetics of Particles: Impact

Department of Applied Science, BVCOE New Delhi

Kinetics of Particles: Impact

Department of Applied Science, BVCOE New Delhi

Kinetics of Particles: Impact

Department of Applied Science, BVCOE New Delhi

Kinetics of Particles: Impact

Department of Applied Science, BVCOE New Delhi

Kinetics of Particles: Impact

Department of Applied Science, BVCOE New Delhi

Kinetics of Particles: Impact

Department of Applied Science, BVCOE New Delhi

Kinetics of Particles: Impact

Department of Applied Science, BVCOE New Delhi