Study Notes

Research
 The word "research" is derived from the French word "cerchier," meaning "to
seek or search."
 Research is a systematic, scientific process that involves gathering,
analyzing, classifying, organizing, presenting, and interpreting data.
 Its purpose is to solve problems, predict outcomes, discover truth, expand
knowledge, or verify existing knowledge, ultimately improving human life.
 Criminological Research specifically aims to study knowledge in the field of
criminology or criminal justice to understand the causes and facts of crime.
Characteristics of Research
 Systematic: Research follows a set of interconnected steps or procedures.
 Objective: It is not based on assumptions or guesses.
 Comprehensive: Research requires examining and analyzing all aspects of a
phenomenon before drawing conclusions.
 Critical: The methods used must withstand scrutiny by other researchers.
 Valid: Conclusions must be based on actual findings.
 Verifiable: Results must be reproducible by other researchers using the same
methods.
 Empirical: Generalizations are rooted in evidence gathered from real-life
experiences or observations.
Obtaining Knowledge
 Expert Opinion: Knowledge from professionals like lawyers or doctors.
 Sensory Experience: Information gathered through the five senses (sight,
hearing, taste, touch, smell).
 Agreement with Others: Information from friends, colleagues, and family.
 Reasoning: Applying general observations to specific cases.
 Common Sense: Practical judgment based on intuition and experience.
 Research: The most reliable source of knowledge due to its use of the
scientific method.
Importance of Research in Criminology
 Helps understand what works in law enforcement, prosecution, legal services,
courts, communities, and correctional institutions.
  Informs the development of criminal justice policies.
 Equips students with critical thinking, analytical skills, and the ability to
interpret data.
 Identifies more effective approaches to law enforcement and justice
administration.
 Enables students to critically evaluate research studies in criminology.
Types of Research
Based on Who Undertakes Research
 Academic Research: Conducted by individuals pursuing academic degrees
(e.g., theses, dissertations).
 Research Projects: Conducted by individuals or groups for professional work
or assignments.
Based on Final Use or Application
 Pure or Theoretical Research: Aims to formulate theories, principles, or laws,
with no immediate practical application in mind.
 Applied Research: Tests or evaluates a theory or knowledge to solve a
problem or achieve practical results.
Based on Method of Data Analysis
 Quantitative Research: Measures and quantifies criminological or criminal
justice realities.
 Qualitative Research: Seeks to understand experiences as participants
perceive them.
Based on Methodology or Research Design
 Descriptive Research: Aims to systematically and objectively describe a
situation, problem, or phenomenon.
 Correlational or Associational Research: Examines the relationship or
connection between two or more variables.
 Experimental Research: Manipulates variables to test cause-and-effect
relationships.
 Comparative Research: Compares different groups, situations, or phenomena.
 Historical Research: Examines past events to understand current trends or
predict future outcomes.
 Evaluation Research: Assesses the effectiveness of programs, policies, or
interventions.
  Action Research: Aims to solve practical problems in a specific setting.

Criminological Research & Statistics

 Research combines "re" (again, anew) and "search" (examine closely).
 There are two research approaches: quantitative and qualitative.
Quantitative Research
 Quantitative research uses numerical data and statistical methods to identify
patterns and relationships.
 Structured tools like surveys and experiments are used.
 Results are presented numerically.
 Objective measurements and data are emphasized.
 Data is collected through closed-ended questions.
 Findings are often generalized to a larger population.
Qualitative Research
 Qualitative research focuses on descriptive, narrative data to gain insights
into experiences and beliefs.
 It uses open-ended questions from interviews, observations, or case studies.
 Data is presented in words, themes, or categories.
 Behaviors and motivations are explored.
 Findings are subjective and cannot be generalized to a larger population.
 Allows in-depth exploration of specific topics.
Goals and Reasons for Research
 There are two main goals of social (criminological) research: to develop
theory and to find solutions for practice.
 Pure research develops theory and expands knowledge.
 Applied research develops solutions for problems in criminological practice.
 There are three reasons for research: exploration, description, and
explanation.
 Exploration is done with little prior knowledge.
 Description adds information with some prior knowledge.
 Explanation explains facts with substantial prior knowledge.
  Research is a systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation
which solves problems.
Research Process and Qualities
 The research process starts with identifying the problem.
 A good research problem is specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, and
time-bound.
 Research involves original work, not just personal opinions.
 Qualities of a good researcher are to be research-oriented, efficient, scientific,
effective, active, resourceful, creative, honest, ethical, and religious.
Ethical Considerations
 Veracity is the obligation to accurately report and tell the truth.
 Privacy is the obligation to maintain limited access to a person.
 Anonymity and confidentiality protect discovered information.
 Fidelity is remaining faithful to commitments.
 Informed consent is seeking permission.
 Researchers must avoid inflicting harm.
 Participation must be voluntary and avoid deception by revealing the real
research purpose.
Methods of Criminological Research
 Descriptive Method describes a situation factually.
 Historical Method reconstructs the past accurately, often related to a
hypothesis.
 Case and Field Method studies the background and interactions of a social
unit.
 Correlation Method investigates how variations in one factor relate to
variations in others using correlation coefficients.
 Causal-Comparative Method investigates cause-and-effect by looking at
existing consequences and data.
 Experimental Method investigates cause-and-effect between treatment
conditions.
Types of Criminological Research
 Action Research develops new skills and solves problems in applied settings.
  Survey Research determines attitudes and opinions using questionnaires and
interviews. Closed-ended Questionnaires are pre-categorized by the
researcher. Open-ended Questionnaires use the respondent's words.
 Observational Research collects direct information about human behavior.
 Historical Research investigates past facts from documents.
 Evaluation Research studies processes for system improvement.
Research Types by Purpose
 Exploration develops an initial understanding through literature, interviews,
case studies, etc.
 Description measures and reports population/phenomenon characteristics
using census, surveys, qualitative studies.
 Explanation answers "why" with experimental methods.
Hypothesis and Sources of Information
 A hypothesis is a "wise guess."
 Null Hypothesis is one type.
 Alternative Hypothesis (Operational Hypothesis) is another type.
 Information sources include related literature (books, magazines), readings
(legal documents, memos), studies (journals, theses), key informants,
artifacts, and other material evidence.
Writing the Research Report
 APA Format uses parenthetical citations.
 Footnotes give references, explanations, positioned at the bottom of the page
with superscript numbers.
 Endnotes are notes placed at the end of the text.
 "Ibid" means "in the same place" and refers to the same source cited before.
 "Op. cit." means "in the work cited," referring to a previously cited work.
 "Loc. cit." means "in the place cited," referring to the same work and page
number.
Questionnaires
 The are two types of Questionnaires; Structured and Unstructured.
Questions
 There are two types of questions; close-ended and open-ended.
  Close-ended questions are easy to code, avoid irrelevant answers but may
guess answers and limit options.
 Open-ended questions allow detailed answers but are difficult to code
Open-Ended Questions
 Open-ended questions may lead to irrelevant information that requires higher
education to analyze.
Variables
 A variable is a symbol to which values are assigned.
 There are three types of variables; Dependent, Independent and Intervening
variable.
 There are two categories of variables; independent and dependent.
 Independent – presumed cause.
 Dependent – presumed effect.
 Intervening variables are useful, powerful, and indispensable to analyzing
behavior.
Sampling
 Sampling chooses subjects in a study.
 There are two approaches to sampling: probability (systematic, randomized)
and non-probability.
Probability Sampling
 There are 6 types of Probability Sampling; Random, Systematic Random,
Stratified, Simple Cluster, Strip, Multistage.
 Random Sampling selects individuals with equal chances.
 Systematic Random Sampling is selected through a random process at pre-
established intervals.
 Stratified Sampling divides samples into homogeneous groups called strata.
 Simple Cluster Sampling groups population by cluster elements.
 Strip Sampling divides areas into narrow strips and then selects strips
randomly.
 Multistage Sampling is used when there is no detailed listing of individuals.
Non-Probability Sampling
 There are three types of Non-Probability Sampling; Judgement, Quota and
Accidental Sampling
  Judgment Sampling selects samples based on subjective judgment.
 Quota Sampling fills a quota predetermined by population characteristics.
 Accidental Sampling includes whoever is there at data collection.
Sampling Techniques
 A sample reflects population characteristics.
 Randomness means sampling is non-purposive.
 Randomization ensures equal chance of inclusion.
Factors for Selecting Size and Population
 Homogeneity
 Size of the Population
 The Cost
 Precision
Levels of Measurement
 Measurement assigns numbers to phenomena.
 Nominal categorizes based on properties (e.g., gender).
 Ordinal ranks observations (e.g., age groups).
 Interval has equal intervals with an arbitrary zero (e.g., temperature).
 Ratio has an absolute zero (e.g., age, height).
Statistical Tools
 Slovin's and Parten's Formulas are for sample size.
 Split-half method, Spearman-Brown prophecy, and Cronbach's alpha are for
reliability.
 Standardized tools and expert panels are for validity.
Measurement Errors
 Measurement errors are caused by environmental, research, instrumentation,
and subject factors.
Mean, Mode and Median
 Mean is the average.
Median
 Is the middle value when the data is arranged in ascending or descending
order.
  If the number of data is odd, the middle value is the median.
 If the number of data is even, the median is the average of the two middle
values.
Mode
 Mode is the most frequent value.
Parts of the Research:
 Preliminaries: Title Page provides study information of the title, researchers,
degree and institution, and month and year.
 Approval Sheet is a certification of research approval.
 Acknowledgement thanks those who helped.
 Dedication expresses gratitude to individuals.
 The abstract summarizes the study, its objectives, methods, findings, and
conclusions.
 Table of Contents lists chapters and sections.
 List of Figures enumerates visual illustrations.
 List of Tables presents tabulated data.

Chapter I: Introduction The Background of the Study overviews the

research problem. Objectives state the general and specific goals.
 Significance highlights the research's importance and beneficiaries.
 The scope defines the research's extent.
 The limitations explain research restrictions.
 Theoretical Framework supports the research with theories.
 Conceptual Framework visually explains variable relationships.
 Paradigm illustrates the research process flow.
 Hypothesis is a testable assumption.
 Definition of Terms defines key terms.
Chapter II
 Review of Literature summarizes and evaluates existing studies.
Chapter III: Methodology Locale of the Study describes the research
location.
 Research Design is the overall strategy. Variables are measured elements.
 Respondents are study participants.
 Population refers to the total group of individuals or subjects that the study
aims to investigate.
 Sampling is the process of selecting a smaller group (sample) from the
population.
 Research Instrument refers to the tools or materials used to collect data.
 Scoring and Interpretation explains data scoring.
 Validation of Research Instrument ensures that the tools used in the study are
reliable, accurate, and appropriate for measuring the desired data.
 Data Gathering Procedures outlines data process that includes seeking
permission, distributing the forms, collection and retrieval
 Statistical Treatment of the Data explains the mathematical or statistical
techniques used to analyze the data
Chapter IV
 Presentation, analysis and interpretation of the data
Chapter IV. Presentation, analysis and interpretation of the data
 Summary, conclusion, implication and recommendations G. Back matters
 Literature Cited catalogues the sources used.
 Appendices include supplementary materials.
 Curriculum Vitae is a document that provides the personal background,
educational attainment, and achievements of the researchers.