CHAPTER – 6

LIFE PROCESSES
All living things perform certain life processes like growth, excretion, respiration,
circulation etc.
All the processes like respiration, digestion, which together keep the living organisms
alive and perform the job of body maintenance are called life processes.
Examples :

Kinds of nutrition in which in organic Kinds of nutrition in which in organisms do

materials like CO2, water etc are utilized to not possess the ability to synthesize their
prepare organic food by the process of own food. They depend on autotrophs for
photosyntheses their food supply directly or indirectly.
Eg. Green Plants eg. Animals, Fungi

50 X – Science
Autotrophic Nutrition :
The organisms which carry out autotrophic nutrition are called autotrophs (green
plants)

Autotrophic nutrition is fulfilled by the process by which autotrophs take in CO2 and
H2O and convert these into carlohydrates in the presence of chlorophyll, sunlight is
called PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Equation :

Raw Materials for Photosynthesis :

q Sunlight
q Chlorophyl → Sunlight absorbed by chlorophyll
q CO2 → enters through Stomata, and Oxygen (O2) is released as by product
through stomata on leaf.
q Water → water + dissolved minerals like Nitrogen phosphorous etc are taken
up by the roots from the soil.
Site of Photosynthesis :
Chloroplast in the leaf. Chloroplast contain chlorophyll. (green pigment)
Main Events of Photosynthesis :
q Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll
q Conversion of light energy into chemical energy + splitting (breaking) of water
into hydrogen and oxygen.
q Reduction of CO2 to carbohydrates.
STOMATA : Tiny pores present on the surface of the leaves
FUNCTIONS :
(i) Exchange of gases O2/CO2
(ii) Loses large amount of water [water vapour] during transpiration.

51 X – Science
How do organisms obtain their food
Unicellular / single celled organism : food is taken up through entire surface.
Example : (i) Amoeba. (ii) Paramaecium

52 X – Science
 NUTRITION IN HUMAN BEINGS
The human digestive system comprises of alimentary canal and associated disgestive
glands.
Mouth → Intake of whole food
↓
Teeth → Chewing/grinding of food.
↓
Tongue → Rolling of food
↓ +
Tasting of food
+
Swallowing / pushing down of the food
Salivary Glands → Secrete Saliva + Mucus.
Salivary 
   

↓ Starch amylase Sugar
[Saliva]
Oesophagus → Taking food from mouth to stomach by
↓ Peristaltic movements
[contraction and expansion of muscles of the oesophagus]
Stomach → Gastric glands secrete Gastric juice

53 X – Science
Small Intestinal →

Small Intestine → Villi  helps in absorption of food into the blood.
[finger like projections]

small intestine → Receives

secretion from

Emulsification : The process of breakdown of large fat

globules into smaller fat globules by bile juice.

Large intestine → Absorb excess of water.

→ The rest of the material is removed from the body via the
anus. (Egestion)

54 X – Science
 Respiration
Respiration involves
(i) Gaseous exchange : Intake of oxygen from the atmosphere and release of
CO2  Breathing
(ii) Breakdown of simple food in order to release energy inside the cell  Cellular
Respiration
Breakdown of Glucose by various pathways

* Takes place in the presence of * Takes place in the absence of

oxygen oxygen
* Occurs in mitochondria * Occurs in cytoplasm
* End products are CO2 and H2O * End products are alcohol or lactic
* More amount of energy is released acid.
* Less amount of energy is released.
55 X – Science
 Human Respiratory System
Passage of air through the respiratory system.
Nostril
↓
Nasal Passage
↓
Nasal Cavity
↓
Pharynx
↓
Larynx
↓
Trachea
↓
Bronchi
↓
Lungs
↓
Bronchioles
↓
Alveolar  Blood capillaries

* During inhalation the thoracic * Thoracic cavity contracts

cavity (chest cavity) expands * Ribs move downwards
* Ribs lift up Diaphragm becomes dome shaped
* Diaphragm become flat in shape * Volume of lungs decreases and air
* Volume of lungs increases and air exits from the lungs.
enters the lungs

56 X – Science
Exchange of Gases between alveolus, blood and tissues.

Terrestial Organism – use atmospheric oxygen for respiration

Aquatic Organisms – used dissolved oxygen for respiration
Respiration in Plants :
Respiration in plants is simpler than the respiration in animals. Gaseous exchange
occur through
1. Stomata in leaves
2. Lenticels in stems
3. General surface of the roots.

57 X – Science
 Life Process (II)
Transporation and Excretion

– Human beings like other multicellular organism need regular supply of food,
oxygen etc., This function is performed by circulatory system or Transport
system.
– The circulatory system in human beings consists of :
The circulatory system in human beings consists of :

A Pumping Organ Blood vessels A circulatory medium

Heart - Arteries & Veins Blood & Lymph

Deoxygenate Vena Right Right Right

Blood Cava Atrium Atrium Ventricle
(from body) (Relaxed) (contracts) (relaxed)

Body Parts Right

Blood Circulation ventricle
in Human Heart contracts
via AoRTA
Lungs
Left Left Left Left Oxygenated
Ventricle Ventricle Atrium Atrium blood
(contracts) (relaxed) (contracts) (relaxed)
AORTA

58 X-Science
 Blood
(A fluid Connective Tissue)

Solid Component Liquid Component

Blood Corpuscles PLASMA

R.B.C.s Blood W.B.C. A yellow colour fluid

Platelets contain 90% water &
Provide Body
- carries respect helps in defence by 10% Organic substances
gas (O2, CO2) Blood engulfing the like
- contain Hb Clotting germ cells & - Plasma Proteins viz.
impart red colour producing albumin, globulin
to me blood antibodies inorganic-mineral ions

- Lymph - a yellowish fluids escapes from the blood capillaries into the
intercellular spaces contain less proteins than blood. Lymph flows from the
tissues to the heart assisting in transportation and destroying germs.
Blood Vessels

Arteries Veins
1. Carry Oxygenated blood from 1. Carry deoxygenated blood
heart to body part except from body parts to heart
pulmonary Artery except pulmonary vein.
2. Also called distributing Vessel 2. Also called collecting Vessel.
3. Thick and elastic 3. Thin and Less elastic.

Transportation in Plants
- There are two main conducting Pathways in a Plant

Xylem Phloem
1. Carries water & minerals 1. Carries product of
from the roots to other part photosynthesis from leaves
of the plant to the other part of the plant.
2. No energy is used. 2. Energy is used from ATP

59 X-Science
– Transpiration is the process of loss of water as vapour from aerial parts of the
plant.
Function :
1. Absorption and upward movement of water and minerals by creating
PULL.
2. helps in temperature regulation in Plant.
– Transport of food from leaves (food factory) to different part of the plant is
called Translocation.
EXCRETION
– The process of the removal of the harmful metabolic wastes from the body.
– Excretory system of human beings includes :
1) A pair of kidneys
ii) A Urinary Bladder
iii) A pair of Ureter
iv) A Urethera

– Urine produced in the kidneys passes through the ureters into the urinary
bladder where it is stored until it is released through the urethera.
– The purpose of making urine is to filter out waste product from the blood ie,
urea which is produced in the liver.
– Each kidney has large numbers of filtration units called nephrons.
– The Urine formation involves three steps
1. Glomerular Filtration : Nitrogenous wastes, glucose water, amino acid
filter from the blood into Bowman Capsule of the nephron.
2. Tubular reabsorption : Now, useful substances from the filtrate are
reabsorbed back by capillaries surrounding the nephron.
3. Secretion Extra, water, salts are secreted into the tubule which open up
into the collecting duct & then into the ureter.

60 X-Science
– Haemodialysis : The process of purifying blood by an artificial kidney. it is
meant for Kidney failure patient.
Excretion in Plants

Through stomata
– Oxygen, CO2 & H2O (Transpiration)

– Other wastes may be stored in leaves, bark etc. which fall off from the plant.
– Plants excrete some waste into the soil around them.
– Gums, Resin In old Xylem
– Some metabolic wastes in the form of crystals of Calcium oxalates in the
leaves of colocasia and stem of Zamikand.

61 X-Science
 Life Processes

IN CHAPTER QUESTIONS

PART - 1

Q1. Why is diffusion insufficient to meet the oxygen requirements of multi-cellular

organisms likehumans?
Ans. Every living cell requires oxygen for performing cellular respiration. In unicellular organisms
(e.g., Amoeba), the single cell is in direct contact with environment. Oxygen passes into it
through diffusion. In simple multicellular organisms (e.g. Hydra), every cell may also take
oxygen through diffusion from environment. This is not possible in complex multicellular
organisms like humans. The body is covered by dead cells. The living cells are not in contact
with external environment. Air containing intercellular spaces are absent. Therefore, quick
diffusion cannot occur. Cell to cell diffusion is a very slow process. Passage of oxygen from
lungs to toes through cell to cell diffusion will take about three years. Therefore, diffusion
cannot meet the oxygen requirement of multicellular organisms like humans.

Q2. What criteria do we use to decide whether something is alive ?

Ans. The major criterion which is used to decide whether something is alive is movements.
Movements may be that of locomotion (e.g. running of dog), movement of a part (e.g.
chewing cud by cow), breathing movements, growth movements (in plants) and movement
of molecules in metabolic reactions, maintenance and repair of cellular structures.
Besides movements, other criteria found in living beings that distinguish them from the
non-living are presence of protoplasm, self-built organization, self-repair, reproduction and
various life processes like metabolism, nutrition, respiration, growth, exchange of materials,
transportation, excretion and irritability. All living beings have a definite life span and life
cycle.

Q3. What are outside raw materials used by an organism ?

Ans. Food by heterotrophic organisms ; carbon dioxide, minerals and water by autotrophic
organisms ; oxygen by all aerobic organisms.

Q4. What processes would you consider essential for maintaining life ?
Ans. Life processes nutrition, metabolism, respiration, exchange of materials, transportation,
excretion and awareness.

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 Life Processes

PART - 2

Q1. What are the difference between autotrophic nutrition and heterotrophic nutrition ?
Ans. Autotrophic nutrition : The process through which organisms are able to build up their own
organic food from raw materials which are obtained from outside, in the form of carbon
dioxide and water in the presence of chlorophyll and sunlight. The organisms having
autotrophic mode of nutrition or can make their own food are called autotrophs or autotrophic
organisms.
e.g. Green plants and some bacteria.
Heterotrophic nutrition : Mode of nutrition in which the organisms derive their nutrition by
taking readymade food from other dead or living plants and animals. The survival of
heterotrophs depends directly or indirectly on autotrophs.
e.g. Animals, fungi and most of bacteria.

Q2. Where does the plants get each of the raw materials for photosynthesis ?
Ans. (i) Carbon Dioxide - Air through stomata.
(ii) Water - Soil through roots.
(iii) Minerals - Soil through roots.

Q3. What is the role of acid in our stomach ?

Ans. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is component of gastric juice. It has five functions,
(i) Softening of food, (ii) Conversion of pepsinogen and prorennin into active forms of pepsin
and rennin (iii) Acidify the food for proper action of pepsin. (iv) Killing of microoganisms
present in food. (v) Stoppage of action of salivary amylase.

Q4. What is the function of digestive enzymes ?

Ans. Digestive enzymes are hydrolytic enzymes which bring about hydrolytic splitting of
complex organic substances into simple, soluble and absorbable substances, e.g.,
Protein --------- Peptides --------------Amino acids.

Q5. How is small intestine designed to absorb digested food ?

Ans. Small intestine is lined by epithelium which is specialised to absorb. It has mechanism to
increase its absorbing surface area several times. (i) Villi are transverse folds of intestine
wall that not only increase surface area but also reach deep into the lumen of intestine for
absorption of digested food. Villi possess blood capillaries and lacteals (lymph vessels) for
quick transport of absorbed food. (ii) Microvilli are the columnar cells of the intestinal
epithelium have fine microscopic outgrowths called microvilli. Microvilli increase the
surface area of epithelial cells.

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 Life Processes

PART - 3

Q1. What advantage over an aquatic organism does a terrestrial organism have with regard
toobtaining oxygen for respiration?
Ans. Air contains about 21% of oxygen while water has less than 1% oxygen in dissolved state.
A terrestrial organism is able to get several times more oxygen than an aquatic organism.

Q2. What are the different ways in which glucose is oxidised to provide energy in
various organisms?
Ans. The different ways in which glucose is oxidized to provide energy in various organisms
1. Aerobic respiration
Glucose Pyruvate or Pyruvic acid + Energy [2 ATP]
(1 molecules) (2 molecules)

6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy [38 ATP]

[Link] respiration
Fermentation [Alcohol fermentation] :

+ +

Anaerobic respiration in muscle cells [Lactic acid fermentation]:

Q3. How is oxygen and carbon dioxide transported in human beings?

Ans. Oxygen : (i) 97% in combined state with haemoglobin called oxyhaemoglobin.
(ii) 3% dissolved in plasma.
Carbon dioxide : (i) 5–7% as dissolved in plasma. (ii) 70% as sodium bicarbonate in
plasma. (iii) 23% in combined state with haemoglobin called carbaminohaemoglobin.

Q4. How are the lungs designed in human beings to maximize the area for exchange of
gases ?
Ans. Each lung has a highly branched respiratory tract called respiratory tree. A primary bronchus
divides into secondary bronchi, secondary into segmental bronchi, segmental bronchus into
bronchioles which divide into terminal bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles, alveolar sacs and
alveoli. Alveoli are small rounded pouches which are extremely thin walled and possess a
network of capillaries over their surface. They function as respiratory surfaces. The total area
of all the alveoli is more than 80 m2. It is several times more than the surface area of the
whole human body.

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 Life Processes

PART - 4

Q1. What are the components of the transport system in human beings ? What are the
functionsof these components ?
Ans. Human transport system has two components, blood vascular system and lymphatic system.
Blood Vascular System. It consists of blood, blood vessels (tube) and heart.

(1) Heart-It is pumping organ of blood vascular system.

(2) Blood- It is made up of plasma and three types of cells – red blood corpuscles, white
blood corpuscles and blood platelets.

(a) Blood Plasma-

(i) Transport of nutrients, excretory materials, hormones etc.

(ii) Antibodies in the form of immunoglobins.

(iii) Prothrombin and fibrinogen proteins for blood clotting.

(b) Red Blood Corpuscles-Transport of oxygen as oxyhaemoglobin.

Transport of about 23% carbon dioxide as carbaminohaemoglobin.

(c) White Blood Corpuscles-Phagocytosis of germ cells,

production of antibodies and histamine.

(d) Blood Platelets-Formation of thromboplastin for blood clotting.

(3) Blood Vessels- They are of Three Type

(i) Arteries. Taking away blood from heart to different body parts.

(ii) Veins. Transporting blood towards heart from various body parts.

(iii) Capillaries. Exchange of materials between blood and living cells through tissue fluid.

Lymphatic System. It consists of lymph, lymph vessels and lymph nodes.

Lymph. (i) Collection of extra tissue fluid and passing it back into blood.

(ii) Picking up tissue secretions and passing into blood.

(iii) Attracting and carrying germs to lymph nodes.

Lymph Vessels. Collection of lymph and passing the same into veins.

Lymph Nodes. (i) Lymph organs specialized to filter germs. (ii) Maturation of lymphocytes.

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 Life Processes

Q2. Why it is necessary to separate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in mammals

and birds ?

Ans. Mammals and birds are warm blooded animals. They constantly use energy to maintain
their body temperature. They have a higher energy needs and require more oxygenated
blood for their cells. It is important that their oxygenated blood does not mix up with
deoxygenated blood.

Q3. What are the components of the transport system in highly organised plants ?
Ans. Transport system of highly organised plants consists of xylem and phloem.
(i) Xylem. It is used in transport of water and minerals. Xylem is made of tracheids,
vessels, xylem fibers and xylem parenchyma. Tracheids and vessels constitute the
tracheary elements or channels for transport of water and minerals.
(ii) Phloem. It is used for transport or translocation of organic solutes or food. Phloem
consists of sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem fibers and phloem parenchyma. Sieve
tubes constitute the channels for the transport of food materials.

Q4. How are water and minerals transported in plants ?

Ans. In xylem tissue, vessels and tracheids of the roots, stems and leaves are
interconnected to form a continuous system of water-conducting
channels reaching all parts of the plant. At the roots, cells in contact
with the soil actively take up ions. This creates a difference in the
concentration of these ions between the root and the soil. Water, therefore,
moves into the root from the soil to eliminate this difference. This means
that there is steady movement of water into root xylem, creating a column
of water that is steadily pushed upwards. evaporation of water molecules
fromthe cells of a leaf creates a suction which pulls water
from the xylem cells of roots(transpiration).

Q5. How is food transported in plants.

Ans. Food is transported in dissolved form through phloem. This process is called as translocation.

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 Life Processes

PART - 5

Q1. Describe the structure and functions of nephron.

Ans.

Nephron
The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney. A nephron consists of a twisted tubule closed
at one end, open at the other with a network of associated blood vessels. Each kidney of man
is formed of about one million nephrons.
Each nephron has a length of about 3 cm. It is differentiated into 4 regions having different
anatomical features and different physiological roles.
Nephron : The 4 regions are :
(a) Bowman's capsule
(b) Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
(c) Loop of Henle
(d) Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)

(a) Bowman's capsule

It is a large double walled cup. It lies in the renal cortex. It contains a tuft of capillaries
called glomerulus and the outer wall is continuous with the rest of the nephron. The space
between the two walls of the Bowman's capsule is continuous with the lumen of the next
part of the nephron. The bowman's capsule and the glomerulus together constitutes the
renal corpuscle or malpighian body.

(b) PCT
It starts from the back of the Bowman's capsule and it is highly convoluted. It lies in the
renal cortex. The wall consists of a single layer of cuboidal cells bearing a lot of microvilli
on the surface.

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 Life Processes

(c) Loop of Henle

It is a U shaped segment of the nephron located in the renal medulla. It consists of two
straight parallel limbs : a descending limb which is a continuation of the PCT and enters
into the renal medulla and an ascending limb which re-enters the renal cortex and joins the
DCT.

(d) DCT
It is greatly twisted like the PCT and lies in the renal cortex. The terminal relatively short
part of the DCT is called the collecting tubule. It opens into the collecting [Link]
collecting ducts receive the collecting tubules of several nephrons.

Q2. What are the methods used by plants to get rid of excretory products ?

Ans. The method used by plants to get rid of excretory products are
(i) The oxygen which is produced during the process of photo-synthesis gets removed through
stomata.
(ii) The carbon dioxide which is produced during the process of respiration also gets removed
through stomata.
(iii) The excess of water gets removed through transpiration.
(iv) Some other wastes get removed along with dead cells when plant lose some parts such as
leaves.
(v) Some waste products are stored in cellular vacuoles.
(vi) Some waste products are stored as resins and gums, especially in old xylem.
(vii) Plants also excrete some waste substances into the soil around them.
(viii) Some waste substances are also eliminated through petals, fruits and seeds.

Q3. How is the amount of urine produced regulated ?

Ans. Amount of urine is regulated by volume of blood and amount of antidiuretic hormone
(ADH).ADH is a hormone released by pituitary gland. Volume of blood is determined by
presence or absence of extra water in the body. More blood volume will increase pressure
in the glomerulus. It increases the amount of glomerular or nephric filtrate. ADH is not
secreted. Dilute urine is allowed to pass through the kidneys. The amount of urine is
higher than the normal.
In case the body has no extra water or is deficient of water, lesser glomerular filtrate will
be produced. ADH is secreted. It helps in withdrawing a good amount of water from urine.
Therefore, only concentrated urine is passed out. Amount of urine is smaller than the
normal.

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 Life Processes

EXERCISES
Q1. The kidneys in human beings are a part of the system for
(A) nutrition.
(B) respiration.
(C) excretion.
(D) transportation.
Ans. (C) Excretion.

Q2. The xylem in plants are responsible for

(A) transport of water.
(B) transport of food.
(C) transport of amino acids.
(D) transport of oxygen.
Ans. (A) transport of water.

Q3. The autotrophic mode of nutrition requires

(A) carbon dioxide and water.
(B) chlorophyll.
(C) sunlight.
(D) all of the above.
Ans. (D) all of the above.

Q4. The breakdown of pyruvate to give carbon dioxide, water and energy takes place in
(A) cytoplasm.
(B) mitochondria.
(C) chloroplast.
(D) nucleus.
Ans. (B) mitochondria.

Q5. How are fats digested in our bodies? Where does this process take place?
Ans. The small intestine is the site of the complete digestion of carbohydrates,proteins
and [Link] are present in the intestine in the form of large globules which makes it
difficult for enzymes to act on them. Bile salts from Liver break them down into smaller
globules increasing the efficiency of enzyme action. The pancreas secretes pancreatic
juice which contains enzymes lipase for breaking down emulsified fats. The walls of the
small intestine contain glands which secrete intestinal juice. The enzymes present in it
finally convert the fats into fatty acids and glycerol.

Q6. What is the role of saliva in the digestion of food?

Ans. Salivary glands secrete saliva which contains a digestive enzyme called ptyalin or salivary amylase
that breaks down starch.

Starch ------------ Maltose +Dextrin

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 Life Processes
Q7. What are the necessary conditions for autotrophic nutrition and what are its by-products?
Ans. Requirements for photosynthesis

(A) Sunlight (B) Photosynthetic pigment

(C) Carbon dioxide (D) Water

The sugar produced in photosynthesis is stored in the form of starch in plants and it is the
source of reserved internal energy.
6CO2 + 12 H2O ------------------- C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
(from air) (from soil) (Glucose)

Q8. What are the differences between aerobic and anaerobic

respiration?Name some organisms that use the anaerobic mode
of respiration.
Ans. Differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration

Yeast and most of bacteria use the anaerobic mode of respiration.

Q9. How are the alveoli designed to maximize the exchange of gases?
Ans. Alveoli are small pouches or sacs. Large numbers of alveoli occur inside each lung. The
whole surface of an alveolus functions as respiratory surface. Due to large number of
alveoli in each lung, a very large area of respiratory surface become available (about 80 m2)
for exchange of gases. The walls of alveoli are very thin and they are surrounded by blood
capillaries.

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 Life Processes
Q10. What would be the consequences of a deficiency of hemoglobin in our bodies?
Ans. Hemoglobin is the respiratory pigment that transports oxygen to the body cells for
cellular respiration. Deficiency of hemoglobin in blood lead to deficiency of oxygen in
the body cells which can lead to a disease called anemia.

Q11. Describe double circulation of blood in human beings. Why is it necessary?

Ans. Double circulation
In double circulation, the blood passes twice through the heart to supply once to the body.

(i) Systemic circulation

In this, blood completes its circulation from left ventricle to right auricle through the body
organs.(systemic organs)
Oxygenated blood from lungs heart Systemic arteries Body parts Systemicveins
heart

(ii) Pulmonary circulation

In this, blood completes its circulation from right ventricle to left auricle through the
lungs.
Deoxygenated blood from body heart Pulmonary arteries lungs parts
Pulmonary veins heart
The right portion of heart is known as pulmonary heart and it has deoxygenated blood.
The left portion of heart is known as systemic heart and it has oxygenated blood.
Such separation allows a highly efficient supply of oxygen to the body. This is useful in
animals that have high energy needs, such as birds and mammals, which constantly use
energy to maintain their body temperature.

Q12. What are the differences between the transport of materials in xylem and phloem?
Ans. Transport by xylem Transport by phloem

(1) Transport of water and minerals (1) Transport of food

(2) Upward movement to all other (2) upward and downward movement
plant parts from roots
(3) It occurs due to physical forces (3) Require energy in form of ATP
such as transpiration

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 Life Processes

Q13. Compare the functioning of alveoli in the lungs and nephrons in the kidneys with
respect totheir structure and functioning.

Ans. Alveoli Nephron

Alveoli are functional unit of lungs. Nephrons are tubular structures present inside
the kidneys.
Alveoli provide a wide surface for gaseous The surface area of a nephron is
exchange. not much more.
The walls of the alveoli are one cell thick Nephrons are made of glomerulus,
and it contains an extensive network of blood Bowman’s capsule, and a long renal
[Link].
The exchange of O2 and CO2 takes place The blood enters the kidney & filtrate collects
between the bloods of the capillaries that in collecting duct. the collecting duct collects
surround the alveoli and the gases present the urine from nephrons and passes it to
in the alveoli ureter.
Alveoli are the site of gaseous exchange. Nephrons are the basic filtration unit.

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Life Processes
AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION -
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Process of Photosynthesis

The following events occur during this process –

(i) Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
(ii) Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and
splitting of water molecules into hydrogen and
oxygen.
(iii) Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.

Equation of photosynthesis is as follows:-

NUTRITION IN ANIMALS
HOW DOES THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION TAKES
PLACE INSIDE THE HUMAN BODY

Mouth-
• The mouth is the beginning of the digestive tract. In fact, digestion starts
here as soon as you take the first bite of a meal. Chewing breaks the food
into pieces that are more easily digested, while saliva mixes with food to
begin the process of breaking it down into a form your body can absorb
and use.
Oesophagus-The oesophagus is a muscular tube extending from the pharynx to the
stomach. By means of a series of contractions, called peristalsis, the oesophagus delivers food
to the stomach. Just before the connection to the stomach there is a "zone of high pressure,"
called the lower oesophageal sphincter; this is a "valve" meant to keep food from passing
backwards into the oesophagus.

Stomach-The stomach is a sac-like organ with strong muscular walls. In addition to holding
the food, it's also a mixer and grinder. The stomach secretes acid and powerful enzymes that
continue the process of breaking down the food. When it leaves the stomach, food is the
consistency of a liquid or paste. From there the food moves to the small intestine.

Small intestine-Made up of three segments, the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum, the small
intestine is a long tube loosely coiled in the abdomen (spread out, it would be more than 20
feet long). The small intestine continues the process of breaking down food by using enzymes
released by the pancreas and bile from the liver.
Large intestine-The large intestine, also known as the large bowel, is the last part of the
gastrointestinal tract and of the digestive system in vertebrates. Water is absorbed here.

Rectum- It is the last part of large intestine. The remaining waste material is stored here as
faeces before being removed by defecation.

Anus-The anus is the last part of the digestive tract. It consists of the pelvic floor muscles
and the two anal sphincters (internal and external muscles). The lining of the upper anus is
specialized to detect rectal contents. It lets us know whether the contents are liquid, gas, or
solid. The pelvic floor muscle creates an angle between the rectum and the anus that stops
stool from coming out when it is not supposed to. The anal sphincters provide fine control
of stool. The internal sphincter keeps us from going to the bathroom when we are asleep, or
otherwise unaware of the presence of stool.
 RESPIRATION
The process of respiration is done in
2 steps in humans- Breathing and
cellular respiration.

In unicellular organisms only cellular

respiration takes place.
It involves taking in oxygen (of air)
into the cells, using it for releasing
energy by burning food, and then
eliminating the waste products
(carbon dioxide and water) from the
body.
 Types of Cellular Respiration
Aerobic
Respiration-
Takes place in
presence of
Oxygen.
Anaerobic
Respiration -
Takes place in
absence of
Oxygen.
Components of blood and lymphatic system
Transportation in Humans
Transportation In Plants
 WHAT IS EXCRETION ?
THE BIOLOGICAL PROCESS INVOLVED
IN THE REMOVAL OF HARMFUL WASTES
FROM THE BODY IS CALLED EXCRETION
 EXCRETION IN HUMAN BEINGS
• The excretory system of human beings includes a pair of kidneys,
a pair of ureters, a urinary bladder and a urethra.
• Urine produced in the kidneys passes through the ureters into
the urinary bladder where it is stored until it is released through
the urethra. Urine is made to filter out nitrogenous waste such
as urea or uric acid from the blood.
• Capillary cluster in the kidney is associated with the cup shaped
end of a tube that collects the filtered [Link] kidney has
large numbers of these filtration units called nephrons.
 EXCRETION IN HUMAN BEINGS contd…
• Some substances in the initial filtrate such as glucose, amino acids, salts
and a major amount of water are re-absorbed

• The Urine forming in each kidney eventually enters a long tube ,the
ureter, which connects the kidneys with the urinary bladder .Urine is
stored in the urinary bladder until the pressure of the expanded bladder
leads to the urge to pass it out through the urethra.
Structure of a Nephron
 EXCRETION IN PLANTS
• Plants get rid of excess water by transpiration .Many plant waste
products are stored in cellular vacuoles .

• Waste products may be stored in leaves that fall [Link] waste

products are stored as resins and gums in old xylem

• Plants also excrete some waste substances into the soil around them.