American Sociological Association

style
guide
Seventh Edition
Copyright © 2022 by the American Sociological Association
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or
utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or
retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Cite as:
American Sociological Association. 2022. American Sociological
Association Style Guide. 7th ed. Washington, DC: American
Sociological Association.
For information:
American Sociological Association
1430 K Street NW, Suite 600
Washington, DC 20005
(202) 383-9005
[Link]
Email: publications@[Link]
ISBN: 978-0-912764-58-0
Library of Congress Control Number: 2021952593
About the ASA

T
he American Sociological Association (ASA), founded in 1905,
is a nonprofit membership association dedicated to serving
sociologists in their work, advancing sociology as a scientific
discipline and profession, and promoting the contributions and use
of sociology to society. As the national organization for more than
10,000 sociologists, the ASA is well positioned to provide a unique
set of benefits to its members and to promote the vitality, viability,
and diversity of the discipline. Working at the national and
international levels, the Association aims to articulate policy and
implement programs likely to have the broadest possible impact for
sociology now and in the future.

Publications
ASA publications are key to the Association’s commitment to
scholarly exchange and wide dissemination of sociological
knowledge. ASA publications include 13 ASA journals (including four
special-interest section journals) and Contexts magazine (described
below); substantive, academic, teaching, and career publications;
and the annual Guide to Graduate Departments of Sociology.
The ASA Publications Committee provides advice and guidance to
the ASA Council on the publications program of the Association.
The official journal of the ASA is the American Sociological Review
(ASR), published bimonthly. ASR publishes original works of
exceptional quality from all areas of sociology. Contemporary
Sociology (CS), also bimonthly, publishes reviews and critical
discussions of recent works of sociology and related disciplines that
merit the attention of sociologists.
The Association also publishes five quarterly journals. Social
Psychology Quarterly (SPQ, formerly Sociometry) publishes
theoretical and empirical papers on the link between the individual
and society. The Journal of Health and Social Behavior (JHSB)
publishes sociological analyses of problems of human health and
welfare. Sociology of Education (SOE) is devoted to studies of
education as a social institution. Teaching Sociology (TS) publishes
research on the teaching of sociology and presents innovative
teaching ideas and strategies. Sociological Theory (ST) reports on
recent developments in all areas of sociological theory.
Sociological Methodology (SM), published twice a year, contains
articles of interest to a wide variety of researchers.
Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World is the ASA’s first
open-access journal open to all areas within the discipline. The
journal aims to make new research quickly available by providing an
online forum for the rapid dissemination of high-quality, peer-
reviewed research, produced in time to be relevant to ongoing
research and policy debates.
Contexts magazine, published quarterly, aims to share sociological
research with a broad public audience.
Currently, four ASA sections (the Community and Urban Sociology
Section, the Political Economy of the World-System Section, the
Sociology of Mental Health Section, and the Racial and Ethnic
Minorities Section) also publish journals—City & Community, the
online Journal of World-Systems Research, Society and Mental
Health, and Sociology of Race and Ethnicity, respectively.
The Rose Series in Sociology, published in partnership with the
Russell Sage Foundation, publishes high-visibility, accessible books
that integrate ideas and raise controversies across a broad set of
sociological fields.
Joining these publications is Footnotes, ASA’s online member
magazine, which showcases sociologists’ perspectives on relevant
and topical themes, and includes information related to ASA and the
discipline of sociology.
Table of Contents

Preface
A Word about the Seventh Edition of the ASA Style Guide
The Chicago Manual of Style
New in the Seventh Edition

1
ASA Editorial Style
1.1 ASA Style
1.1.1 Some Basics
1.1.2 Plagiarism
1.1.3 Clarity
1.1.4 Bias
1.1.5 Verbs
1.1.6 Wordy Phrases
1.1.7 Common Misusages

2
Some Mechanics of Style
2.1 Punctuation
2.1.1 Commas
2.1.2 Semicolons and Colons
2.1.3 Hyphens and Dashes
2.1.4 Em Dashes
2.1.5 En Dashes
 2.1.6 Apostrophes
2.1.7 Quotation Marks
2.1.8 Quoted Material
2.1.9 Parentheses and Brackets
2.1.10 Ellipses
2.2 Spelling
2.3 Capitalization
2.4 Italics
2.5 Numbers
2.6 Dates
2.7 Abbreviations and Acronyms
2.8 Academic Degrees
2.9 Non-English-Language Usage

3
ASA-Specific Usages and Conventions
3.1 Hyphenation
3.2 Capitalization
3.3 Italics
3.4 Preferred Word Usages
3.5 Some ASA Style Guidelines

4
Guidelines for Organizing and Presenting Content
4.1 Order and Form of Required Pages
4.1.1 Title Page
4.1.2 Abstract
4.1.3 Key Words
4.1.4 Text
 4.2 Subheadings
4.3 Text Citations, References, and Bibliographies
4.3.1 Text Citations
4.3.2 Reference Lists
[Link] Books, Book Chapters, and Journal
Articles
[Link] Other Types of Reference Material
4.4 Legal Citations and Government Documents
4.4.1 Legal Citations
4.4.2 Public Documents in General
4.5 Footnotes and Endnotes
4.6 Appendixes
4.7 Mathematical Symbols and Equations
4.7.1 Statistics
4.8 Tables, Figures, and Graphic Materials
4.8.1 Tables
4.8.2 Figures, Illustrations, and Photographs
4.9 General Manuscript Formats and Style (Non-ASA
Journals)

5
Guidelines for Using Electronic Resources
5.1 General Guidelines for Consulting and Citing Online
Sources
5.2 Forms of Electronic References
5.2.1 E-books
5.2.2 Periodicals available in online form
5.2.3 Websites
5.2.4 Blog entries or comments
 5.2.5 Email, text messages
5.2.6 Social media sources
5.2.7 Online databases
5.2.8 Data supporting materials: Machine-Readable
Data Files (MRDF)
5.2.9 CD-ROM or DVD-ROM
5.2.10 Podcast
5.2.11 Videos
5.2.12 Other Audiovisual Materials
5.3 Some Key Terms and Definitions for Electronic Resources

6
Preparing and Submitting a Manuscript to an ASA
Journal
6.1 Ethical Guidelines
6.2 Copyright
6.2.1 Contributors’ Rights
6.3 Contributors’ Responsibilities
6.4 Manuscript Specifications
6.4.1 Manuscript Format
6.4.2 Title Page
6.5 Submitting a Manuscript
6.5.1 Electronic Submission Requirements
6.6 Formatting a Manuscript for Submission
6.7 Checklist for Preparing and Submitting a Manuscript to
an ASA Journal
6.7.1 Manuscript Specifications
6.7.2 Manuscript Content
6.7.3 Submitting the Manuscript
7
Interpreting Copy Editors’ Notations
Changes to Text
Type Specifications
Punctuation

8
References and Other Sources
8.1 References
8.2 Other Sources

Appendix
Reference List Formats: Some Examples
1. Books
2. Chapters from Books
3. Periodicals: Journal Articles
4. Periodicals: Magazine and Newspaper Articles
5. Archival Sources/Manuscript Collections
6. Government Documents
7. Dissertations and Theses
8. Unpublished Papers
9. Working and Discussion Papers
10. Paper Presentations, Poster Sessions, PowerPoint Slides
11. Machine-Readable Data Files
12. Electronic Resources

Index
Preface

T
his edition of the ASA Style Guide is the seventh in a series
that was launched more than 25 years ago. As with the
previous editions, which were based on versions of The
Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS), this Guide reflects the most recent
edition of CMOS. It is important to note, however, that while the ASA
Style Guide is based on CMOS, the guidelines contain elements
unique to ASA style. The structure and overall content is consistent
with prior editions, but the seventh edition also updates ASA
guidelines on gender and ethnicity and includes new examples
addressing information sharing in a digital age.
Issues concerning ASA style and format have been under
consideration at ASA since at least the early 1980s. In 1981, an ASA
subcommittee produced internal guidelines and style sheets for
citing sources and preparing mathematical material, tables, and
figures for publication. The 1981 Publications Manual was produced
in collaboration with editors from the American Psychological
Association and the American Statistical Association and cites the
12th edition of CMOS (1969) for additional information and
guidance. In October 1991, ASA managing editors agreed that they
should provide concrete guidance to authors and editors, specifying
the writing style and manuscript organization that ASA journals
expect, and the first American Sociological Association Style Guide
was ultimately published in 1996.
Scientific publishing has vastly changed since 1996 when that first
edition was produced. Subsequent editions of the Style Guide (the
second in 1997, the third in 2007, the fourth in 2010, the fifth in
2014, and the sixth in 2019) addressed changes largely shaped by
emerging technologies and the growth of online resources. They also
provided guidance to researchers and editors on how to navigate
some of these challenges in preparing and submitting manuscripts to
ASA journals. The seventh edition follows this approach by focusing
on recent trends in conducting research and publishing such as
providing examples for citing virtual presentations.
The ASA Style Guide is intended primarily as a reference for authors
who are submitting articles to ASA [Link], it has been
adapted for a range of other purposes, including as a teaching tool.
Sociology departments have widely adopted it as a guide for the
preparation of theses, dissertations, and other types of research
papers. It is also used by professional writers and publishers of
scholarly materials on sociological or social science issues more
generally. The material in this guide can be applied easily across
multiple contexts.
This edition of the ASA Style Guide incorporated feedback from
editors, managing editors, copy editors, authors, and other scholars
regarding what they observed to be challenges in manuscripts they
have received or submitted to ASA publications. We greatly
appreciate their contributions to this edition.

A Word about the Seventh Edition of the ASA Style Guide

The ASA Style Guide highlights and features guidelines for the most
common situations experienced by authors and editors in the ASA
journal publication process. It is designed to serve as the
authoritative reference for writing, submitting, editing, and
copyediting manuscripts for ASA journals. In practice, however, the
ASA Style Guide also serves a wider community of researchers,
writers, and publishers who use it to prepare and present scholarly
papers in other sociological and social science venues.

The Chicago Manual of Style

Although the seventh edition of the ASA Style Guide occasionally
refers to other style guides and dictionaries, the 17th edition of The
Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS) is the primary reference on which it
is based. In addition to the published volume, The Chicago Manual
of Style offers the following useful resources and tools for writers on
its website ([Link]
• “Chicago-Style Citation Quick Guide”
([Link]/tools_citationguide.html)
• Various other tools ([Link]/help-
[Link])
• See also: “Manuscript Preparation Guidelines”
([Link]
Note that the ASA Style Guide includes some guidelines that have
been adapted specifically for ASA and therefore depart from CMOS
specifications.

New in the Seventh Edition

The basic structure of the ASA Style Guide is consistent with past
editions, but some changes have been made to the content. All links
and reference sources have been verified for accuracy and
functionality.

Chapter 1
1. Use of the singular “they” as a generic pronoun to refer to a
person of unspecified gender (1.2.4): ASA follows the American
Psychological Association’s guidance on the use of the singular
they, which states:
The singular they is a generic third-person singular pronoun in
English. Use of the singular they is endorsed as part of ASA
style because it is inclusive of all people and helps writers
avoid making assumptions about gender. Although usage of
 the singular they was once discouraged in academic writing,
many advocacy groups and publishers have accepted and
endorsed it, including Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary.

Always use a person’s self-identified pronoun, including when

a person uses the singular they as their pronoun. Also use
they as a generic third-person singular pronoun to refer to a
person whose gender is unknown or irrelevant to the context
of the usage. Do not use “he” or “she” alone as generic third-
person singular pronouns. Use combination forms such as “he
or she” and “she or he” only if you know that these pronouns
match the people being described. Do not use combination
forms such as “(s)he” and “s/he.” If you do not know the
pronouns of the person being described, reword the sentence
to avoid a pronoun or use the pronoun they.
In some cases, there may be rationale for approaching language
in a paper or manuscript differently. If an author chooses not to
follow the guidelines here, a footnote should be added that
explains the rationale; that footnote will be included with the
paper or manuscript if published in an ASA publication.
2. Changes related to race/ethnicity (1.2.4): The classification and
terminology of race and ethnicity are complex social
constructions and have changed over time. “Race” is a socially
constructed phenomenon. Scholars should challenge popular
notions of “race” as a fixed trait (that is often perceived as
biologically and/or genetically based). Do not use race
interchangeably with biological populations; racial categories (or
terms) are not a proxy for genetic variation. Researchers should
explicitly define and operationalize race and ethnicity. Do not use
race, ethnicity, culture, and nationality interchangeably without
justifying why. Do not stereotype racial and ethnic groups.
We recommend that authors use the following:
• African American (no hyphen) (CMOS 2017:451, 476)
 • Afro-Latinx, Afro-Latina, Afro-Latino, Black Latinx, Brown
Latinx, etc.
• American Indian, Native American (no hyphen) or
Indigenous
• Asian or Asian American (no hyphen)
• Black
• Chicana, Chicano, Chicanx, Hispanic, Latina, Latino, Latinx
(Note that Chicanx and Latinx disrupt the gender binary
and are more inclusive of transgender, nonbinary, and
gender-nonconforming individuals.)
• White
While we recommend capitalizing terms for racial and ethnic
categories, we acknowledge that some scholars prefer not to
capitalize the word “white” in order to challenge white
supremacy.
We recommend that authors not use the following terms, unless
historically or culturally relevant or appearing in a direct
quotation:
• Afro-American
• Negro (this refers to the English word, not negro/negra in
Spanish)
• Oriental

We encourage authors to think reflexively about uses of

language in a paper or manuscript. In some cases, there may
be rationale for approaching language in a paper or manuscript
differently. If an author chooses not to follow the guidelines
here, beyond the exceptions noted, a footnote should be added
that explains the rationale; that footnote will be included with
the paper or manuscript if published in an ASA publication.
1 ASA Editorial Style

The ASA Style Guide aims to achieve several goals:

• To establish uniformity and consistency in style among ASA
publications with respect to elements such as formats for text
citations, references, and other structural features. The
guidelines established here assist editors and copy editors to
implement uniform standards across all ASA journals in their
final published forms.
• To provide an authoritative reference guide on style issues for
authors who are writing manuscripts for ASA journals. The ASA
Style Guide is primarily based on The Chicago Manual of Style
(CMOS) but departs from CMOS on certain points. The
guidelines presented here provide acceptable stylistic forms
(e.g., how to cite book chapters in a reference list) for ASA
journals.
• To summarize basic issues on effective writing for authors in
general. Elements of effective, polished writing (e.g., rules of
good syntax and grammar, conventional usage and spelling of
words, correct use of punctuation) are summarized in a
portable format for reference by writers in a wide variety of
settings. The ASA Style Guide is structured so it can be easily
adapted for other purposes (e.g., as a teaching tool).

1.1 ASA Style

1.1.1 Some Basics
The Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary (2018) defines style as
“a distinctive manner of expression … a particular manner or
technique by which something is done, created, or performed.” Style
also encompasses organizational constraints, professional
requirements, and writers’ inclinations and preferences.
In addition to guidelines for presentation formats (e.g., headings,
tables, figures, citations, and references), the ASA Style Guide
provides some basic information on the mechanics of writing (e.g.,
correct syntax, grammar, punctuation, spelling, word usage).
Attention to these issues will enhance writing style, but it is
important to note that effective communication of research begins
with a well-executed research design, including sound
conceptualization and planning, rigorous analysis, and a logical and
coherent presentation of findings.
Guidelines for reporting on empirical social science, such as the
“Standards for Reporting on Empirical Social Science Research in
AERA Publications,” highlight some basic issues pertaining to the
design and analyses phases of a writing effort (AERA 2006). A
volume by Gastel and Day (2016) titled How to Write and Publish a
Scientific Paper provides valuable insights and guidance on the basic
elements of organizing, writing, and publishing scientific papers.
Other scholars have addressed issues such as effective presentation
of quantitative information (Miller 2015) and communication of
research to broad audiences (Stein and Daniels 2017). The
references in this edition, as well as the bibliography in CMOS,
provide other useful sources and information for guidance in writing
and editing manuscripts.
The ASA Style Guide emphasizes formal, objective, orderly, and
grammatically sound expression. For example, writers should
generally avoid injecting opinion, overstating claims, and
overwriting. Authors should use the active voice, maintain
consistency in grammatical constructions, be concrete and specific,
aim for creative but smooth composition, and follow standard usages
and conventions. Scholarly writing should reflect intellectual and
stylistic rigor.
1.1.2 Plagiarism
The ASA has a firm commitment to full and proper attribution and
authorship credit, as set forth in the ASA Code of Ethics, in section
13 on plagiarism:
Sociologists do not present others’ work as their own, whether
it is published, unpublished, or electronically available.

a) In, presentations, teaching, practice, and service,

sociologists explicitly identify, credit, and reference the
publications author(s) when they take data or material
verbatim from their own or another person’s written work,
whether it is published, unpublished, or electronically
available.

b) In their publications, presentations, teaching, practice, and

service, sociologists provide acknowledgment of and reference
to the use of their own and others’ work, even if the work is
paraphrased and not quoted verbatim.

c) Sociologists utilize and build on the concepts, theories, and

paradigms of others, but they may not claim credit for creating
such ideas and must cite the creator of such ideas where
appropriate. Citation is not necessary in the case of
established concepts such as social class, role, etc.

d) In collaborative research projects, especially those with

students and junior colleagues, the work of all collaborators
must be identified and acknowledged appropriately.

e) Sociologists may have occasion to use portions of their own

earlier published works. If so, they should clearly acknowledge
those portions, avoiding the appearance that they are new.
This includes works translated into another language.
 Other sections of the ASA Code of Ethics define authors’
ethical responsibilities in other areas, such as authorship
credit, the publication process, and responsibilities of
reviewers. (See the ASA Code of Ethics, available at
[Link]
leadership/ethics.)

1.1.3 Clarity
The essential element of good style and effective writing is clarity of
expression, with respect to both ideas and structure. Several
publications by Joseph M. Williams, including his recent volume
Style: Lessons in Clarity and Grace (2017), coauthored with Joseph
Bizup, emphasize the importance of clarity, coherence, and concision
in effective prose and elegant, polished writing. Clarity in writing
means using direct and straightforward language; expressing ideas
accurately in jargon-free, uncluttered phrases; and adhering to a
well-designed outline. Writing clearly also involves a focus on “nuts-
and-bolts” issues that are key to effective presentation (e.g.,
consistency of verb tenses, accuracy in spelling, correct word usage,
and correct punctuation).

1.1.4 Bias
Gender
In keeping with ASA’s firm commitment to promote inclusivity and
diversity in all areas, the ASA Style Guide strongly urges the
avoidance of language reflecting bias or stereotyping on the basis of
gender, race, ethnicity, disabilities, sexual orientation, family status,
religion, or other personal characteristics. For more ideas on how to
approach gender-neutral and bias-free expression, refer to CMOS
(2017:358–62), the sixth edition of the Publication Manual of the
American Psychological Association (APA) (2010:70–77), and APA’s
online supplemental material
([Link]
Unless gendered terms are specific to analysis of data or
demographics, use nongendered terms such as person, people,
individual, or humankind rather than man, men, or mankind. There
are a number of common techniques for maintaining a gender-
neutral approach:
• Rephrase the sentence (change a boy or girl lives in that house
to a child lives in that house).
• Use a plural noun or pronoun (people, they).
• Replace the gendered pronoun with an article (change his to
the).
• Delete the gendered pronoun (change avoid his bias to avoid
bias).
In general, avoid slashed gendered terms (he/she, him/her,
his/hers), repetition of the conjunction or (he or she, her or him, his
or hers), and switching gender order (using he or she and then
using she or he).
Singular “They”
ASA follows the American Psychological Association’s guidance on
the use of the singular they, which states:
The singular they is a generic third-person singular pronoun in
English. Use of the singular they is endorsed as part of ASA
style because it is inclusive of all people and helps writers
avoid making assumptions about gender. Although usage of
the singular they was once discouraged in academic writing,
many advocacy groups and publishers have accepted and
endorsed it, including Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary.

Always use a person’s self-identified pronoun, including when

a person uses the singular they as their pronoun. Also use
 they as a generic third-person singular pronoun to refer to a
person whose gender is unknown or irrelevant to the context
of the usage. Do not use “he” or “she” alone as generic third-
person singular pronouns. Use combination forms such as “he
or she” and “she or he” only if you know that these pronouns
match the people being described. Do not use combination
forms such as “(s)he” and “s/he.” If you do not know the
pronouns of the person being described, reword the sentence
to avoid a pronoun or use the pronoun they.
In some cases, there may be rationale for approaching language in a
paper or manuscript differently. If an author chooses not to follow
the guidelines here, a footnote should be added that explains the
rationale; that footnote will be included with the paper or manuscript
if published in an ASA publication.
Race and Ethnicity
The classification and terminology of race and ethnicity are complex
social constructions and have changed over time. “Race” is a socially
constructed phenomenon. Scholars should challenge popular notions
of “race” as a fixed trait (that is often perceived as biologically
and/or genetically based). Do not use race interchangeably with
biological populations; racial categories (or terms) are not a proxy
for genetic variation. Researchers should explicitly define and
operationalize race and ethnicity. Do not use race, ethnicity, culture,
and nationality interchangeably without justifying why. Do not
stereotype racial and ethnic groups.
We recommend that authors use the following:
• African American (no hyphen) (CMOS 2017:451, 476)
• Afro-Latinx, Afro-Latina, Afro-Latino, Black Latinx, Brown
Latinx, etc.
• American Indian, Native American (no hyphen) or Indigenous
• Asian or Asian American (no hyphen)
 • Black
• Chicana, Chicano, Chicanx, Hispanic, Latina, Latino, Latinx
(Note that Chicanx and Latinx disrupt the gender binary and
are more inclusive of transgender, nonbinary, and gender-
nonconforming individuals.)
• White
While we recommend capitalizing terms for racial and ethnic
categories, we acknowledge that some scholars prefer not to
capitalize the word “white” in order to challenge white supremacy.
We recommend that authors not use the following terms, unless
historically or culturally relevant or appearing in a direct quotation:
• Afro-American
• Negro (this refers to the English word, not negro/negra in
Spanish)
• Oriental
We encourage authors to think reflexively about uses of language in
a paper or manuscript. In some cases, there may be rationale for
approaching language in a paper or manuscript differently. If an
author chooses not to follow the guidelines here, beyond the
exceptions noted, a footnote should be added that explains the
rationale; that footnote will be included with the paper or manuscript
if published in an ASA publication.

1.1.5 Verbs
The ASA Style Guide focuses on some basic rules of grammar
relating to verbs. Information about rules governing other parts of
speech (nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, and
interjections) is covered in Chapter 5 of CMOS (2017:223–362).
Active Voice
Voice indicates whether the subject acts (active voice) or is acted on
(passive voice) (CMOS 2017:264). ASA style recommends use of the
active voice over the passive. For example:

Passive voice: Three hundred and fifty college graduates

between the ages of 25 and 35 were queried.

Active voice: A team of 14 trained interviewers queried 350

college graduates between the ages of 25 and 35.
Avoid the passive voice by saying The authors found … rather than
It was found …, or by using the first person (I or we) in text.
Passive voice: All 350 interview transcripts were analyzed.
Active voice: The analysis included all 350 interview
transcripts.
Tense: Past or Present?
Most problems with verb tense result from inconsistency. Different
sections of a paper can use different verb tenses but, within each
section, the tense should be the same.
For literature reviews: In general, use the past tense. In discussing
past research, use the tense that communicates that the research
has been completed:

In their study on education and income, Smith and Jones

(1994) found that the college graduates in their sample
earned more over the life course than did high school
graduates.
However, mixing past and present tense within a sentence
sometimes better communicates a finding from past research:

Jones (1969) concluded that students are more likely to

cohabit than they are to marry.
In this case, Jones’s conclusion is understood to be timeless—as
correct today as it was when she completed her study.
In the methods section use the past tense to describe the methods
used to conduct a study:

We completed our interviews in spring 1992.

In the results section use either past or present tense:

The results support our hypothesis.

The results supported our hypothesis.

See Gastel and Day (2016:200–201) for use of tense in scientific
writing.
Subject–Verb Agreement
The subject of a sentence must agree in number with the predicate
verb, regardless of the words or phrases that come between them.
Certain subject–verb constructions, however, often present
problems:
• The word data is plural and takes a plural verb:

The data, as reported in the appendix, are correct.

• Collective nouns (committee, faculty) may take either a plural
(if referring to individuals) or a singular (if referring to a group)
verb. Context determines the appropriate use:

The faculty is meeting this afternoon.

The faculty are voting on the issue later today.

• Words such as none, some, any, most, part, and number take
either a plural or singular verb, depending on the context.
CMOS (2017:343) suggests that if the word is followed by a
singular noun, treat it as singular; if followed by a plural noun,
treat it as plural:
 None of the report was printed.

None of the students were in attendance.

1.1.6 Wordy Phrases

Simplify and enhance writing by using “plain” language. The
following list, adapted from Appendix 2 of Gastel and Day
(2016:285–92), presents common wordy phrases and suggests
alternative expressions.

Jargon Preferred Usage

a considerable amount of much
a considerable number of many
a great deal of much
a majority of most
a number of many, some
absolutely essential essential
accounted for by the fact because
adjacent to near, next to
along the lines of like
an example of this is the fact that for example
an order of magnitude faster 10 times as fast
are of the same opinion agree
as a consequence of because
as a matter of fact in fact [or leave out]
as a result of because
as in the case as happens
as of this date today
as to about [or leave out]
at a rapid rate rapidly, fast
at an earlier date previously
at some future time later, sometime
at the conclusion of after
at the present time now
at this point in time now
Jargon Preferred Usage
based on the fact that because
because of the fact that because
by means of by, with
causal factor cause
completely full full
consensus of opinion consensus
considerable amount of much
definitely proved proved
despite the fact that although
due to the fact that because
during the course of during, while
during the time that while
enclosed herewith enclosed
end result result
endeavor (v) try
entirely eliminate eliminate
fatal outcome death
fewer in number fewer
finalize end
first of all first
following after
for the purpose of for
for the reason that because
from the point of view of for
future plans plans
give an account of describe
give rise to cause
has been engaged in a study of has studied
has the capability of can
have the appearance of look like, resemble
important essentials essentials
in a number of cases sometimes
in a position to able to
in a satisfactory manner satisfactorily
in a very real sense in a sense [or leave out]
Jargon Preferred Usage
in almost all instances nearly always
in case if
in close proximity to close, near
in connection with about, concerning
in light of the fact that because
in many cases often
in most cases usually
in order to to
in relation to toward, to
in respect to about
in some cases sometimes
in terms of about
in the absence of without
in the event that if
in the not-too-distant future soon
in the possession of has, have
in view of the fact that because
inasmuch as for, as
initiate begin, start
is defined as is
it has been reported by Smith Smith reported
it is apparent that apparently, clearly
it is believed that I think [or say who thinks]
it is clear that clearly
it is generally believed many think
it is often the case that often
it should be noted that note that [or leave out]
majority of most
many different types many types
more often than not usually
on account of because
on the grounds that because
on those occasions in which when
owing to the fact that because
place a major emphasis on stress, emphasize
Jargon Preferred Usage
previous to before
regardless of the fact that even though
prior to before
relative to about
resultant effect result
smaller in size smaller
so as to to
subsequent to after
take into consideration consider
the fact of the matter is that [leave out]
the great majority of most, almost all
the question as to whether whether
the reason is because because
the vast majority of most, almost all
there is reason to believe I think
through the use of by, with
to the fullest possible extent fully
until such time until
utilization use
we have insufficient knowledge we do not know
we wish to thank we thank
whether or not to whether to
with reference to about [or leave out]
with regard to concerning, about [or leave out]
with respect to about
with the exception of except
with the result that so that
within the realm of possibility possible

1.1.7 Common Misusages

Under the section titled “Glossary of Problematic Words and
Phrases,” The Chicago Manual of Style (2017:306–58) lists hundreds
of words that are commonly misused. The following is an abridged
list of examples:
About; approximately
Use about instead of approximately when idiomatically possible; in
the sciences approximately is preferred.
Accept; except
To accept something is to receive it; to except something is to
exclude it or leave it out.
Adequate; sufficient; enough
Adequate refers to the suitability of something in a particular
circumstance (an adequate explanation); sufficient refers to an
amount that is enough to meet a particular need (sufficient cause);
enough means “as much or as many as are needed or wanted.”
Adverse; averse
Adverse means “strongly opposed” or “unfavorable” and typically
refers to things (not people). Averse means “feeling negatively
about” or “having a strong dislike or unwillingness” and refers to
people.
Affect; effect
Affect in the verb form means “to influence or do something that
produces a change; to have an effect on.” Effect, usually a noun,
means “an outcome, result”; it may also be a verb meaning to “to
make happen, produce.”
Afterward; afterword
Afterward means “later”; afterword means an epilogue.
Alternate; alternative
Alternate implies (1) a substitute for another or (2) every other or
every second (adj.). Alternative implies availability as another or
usually sounder choice or possibility (adj.). The noun uses are
analogous: the awards committee named her as alternate; we have
no alternative.
Altogether; all together
Altogether means “wholly” or “entirely”; all together refers to the
unity of time or place.
Amount; number
Amount is used with mass nouns (a small amount of water); number
is used with count nouns (a growing number of dissidents).

And/or
Avoid this usage. It can often be replaced by and or or with no loss
in meaning. Where it seems needed, think of other possibilities (e.g.,
take a sleeping pill and/or a warm drink; try: take a sleeping pill or a
warm drink, or both).

Anyone; any one

Anyone (one word) is a singular indefinite pronoun used in reference
to no one in particular. Any one (two words) is a more emphatic
form of any, referring to a single person or thing in a group.
Anyway; anyways
Anyway is standard; anyways is considered dialectical and
nonstandard.
Assure; ensure; insure
To assure is to state confidently; to ensure is to make sure or certain
that something will (or won’t) happen; to insure is to protect against
financial loss. We ensure occurrences and assure people.
Awhile; a while
Awhile (one word) is adverbial; it means “for a short time.” A while
(two words) is a noun phrase that follows the preposition for or in.
Basis
Basis most properly means “foundation; the facts, things or ideas
from which something can be developed.” It often appears in the
phrase on a … basis or some similar construction. When possible,
substitute adverbs (personally, not on a personal basis) or simply
state the time (daily, not on a daily basis).
Beside; besides
Beside is a preposition of position, whether literal (beside the road)
or figurative (beside the point). Besides may be a preposition
meaning “other than” or an adverb meaning “also” or “anyway.”
Between; among
As a general guideline, between indicates a one-on-one relationship
(between you and me), whereas among indicates undefined or
collective relationships (honor among thieves). Between can also be
used for more than two objects of multiple one-to-one relationships
(trade between the United States, Mexico, and Canada). Avoid
amongst in American English.
Between you and me
This is the correct phrasing—not between you and I. Both pronouns
are objects of the preposition between.
Biannual; semiannual; biennial
Biannual and semiannual both mean occurring twice a year; biennial
means taking place once every two years. To avoid confusion, write
semiannual instead of biannual, and consider writing once every two
years instead of biennial.
Billion; trillion
The meanings can vary in different countries. In the United States, a
billion is 1,000,000,000. In Great Britain, Canada, and Germany, a
billion is traditionally a thousand times more than that (or what
Americans call a trillion). American definitions are gaining
acceptance; writers should be aware of the historical distinctions
(see CMOS 2017:547).
Can; may
Can refers to physical or mental ability; may indicates possibility or
permission.
Censor; censure
To censor is to review books, films, letters, and the like to remove
objectionable material; to censure is to criticize strongly or
disapprove.
Climactic; climatic
Climactic is the adjective corresponding to climax; climatic
corresponds to climate.
Compliment; complement
A compliment is a flattering or praising remark; a complement is
something that completes or brings to perfection.
Comprise; compose
Comprise is “to consist of, to include” (the whole comprises its
parts); compose is to “make up, to form the substance of
something” (the parts compose the whole).
Congruous; congruent
Both terms mean “in harmony, in agreement.” Congruous is seen
most often in its negative form, meaning “strange, unexpected, or
unsuitable in a particular situation.” Congruent is used in math to
describe triangles that are identical in their angles as well as in the
length of their sides.
Connote; denote
With reference to language, to connote is to convey a meaning
beyond the basic one; to denote is to specify the literal meaning of
something.
Continual; continuous
What is continual may go on for a long time, but always there are
brief interruptions; what is continuous never stops—it remains
constant or uninterrupted.
Corollary; correlation
A corollary is either (1) a subsidiary proposition that follows from a
proven mathematical proposition or (2) a natural or incidental result
of some action or occurrence. A correlation is a positive connection
between things or phenomena.
Data
In formal writing (and always in the sciences), use data as plural. It
is now commonly treated as a mass noun coupled with a singular
verb.
Decimate
Decimate has come to mean “to inflict heavy damage or destroy a
large part of something.”
Defamation; libel; slander
Defamation is the communication of a falsehood that damages
someone’s reputation. If it is recorded, especially in writing, it is
libel; otherwise, it is slander.
Dependant; dependent
In American English, dependent is the usual form of both the noun
and the adjective. In British English, dependant is the noun form;
dependent is the adjective.
Disk; disc
Disk is the usual spelling (disk drive), but disc is preferred in a few
specialized applications (compact disc), particularly when the object
in question is circular and flat.
Due to; because of
Due to is interchangeable with attributable to or owed to (CMOS
2017:327); because of means by reason of, on account of (Merriam
Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary 2005:108).
e.g; i.e
E.g. is the abbreviation for exempli gratia (“for example”). I.e. is the
abbreviation for id est (“that is”). The English equivalents are
preferable in formal prose, though sometimes the compactness of
these two-character abbreviations makes them desirable.
Elicit; illicit
To elicit (verb) information or a reaction is to get it from someone,
especially in challenging circumstances (to elicit responses);
something illicit is disallowed by law or rule, and usually also
condemned generally by society.
Emigrate; immigrate
To emigrate is to leave one’s country to live in another one; to
immigrate is to enter a country to live permanently, leaving a past
home.
Emoji; emoticon
An emoji (from the Japanese) is a pictorial representation or an
ideogram that consists of a face, a hand gesture, or an object or
symbol intended to express or suggest an emotion or attitude—or
any number of ideas or things. An emoticon is a representation of a
smiley face or other expressive gesture rendered as a combination of
common keyboard characters—e.g., ;-).
Enumerable; innumerable
What is enumerable is countable and listable; what is innumerable
cannot be practically counted (innumerable stars).
Et al.
This is the abbreviated form of et alii (and others)—others being
people not things. (Note that a period is required after al.)
Etc.
This is the abbreviated form of et cetera (and other things). It
should never be used in reference to people.
Farther; further
The traditional distinction is to use farther for physical distance and
further for figurative distance.
Foreword; preface
A book’s foreword is an introductory essay written by someone other
than the book’s author. An introductory essay written by the book’s
author is called a preface.
Fulsome
This word does not mean “very full” but “too much, excessive to the
point of being repulsive.”
If; whether
If is conditional; whether introduces an alternative, often in the
context of an indirect question. Use whether in two circumstances:
(1) to introduce a noun clause and (2) when using if introduces
ambiguity.
Impact; impactful
Resist using impact as a verb. Try affect or influence instead. Avoid
impactful, which is jargon.
Include; comprise
Include implies nonexclusively; comprise implies exclusivity (e.g., the
collection comprises 126 silver spoons [suggesting that nothing else
is part of the collection]).
Its; it’s
Its is the possessive form of it (belonging to it); it’s is the contraction
for it is.
Last; lastly
As with first, second, etc., do not use the -ly form (i.e., use first,
second, last; not firstly, secondly, lastly). Use last when introducing a
final point of discussion—or (of course) finally.
Lay; lie
Lay means to set down (it is a transitive verb requiring a direct
object): Lay the clothes on the bed. Lie means to assume a position
of rest: Lie down for a nap. It is an intransitive verb (it never takes a
direct object).
Less; fewer
Less refers to singular mass nouns or amounts (less salt); fewer is
used to compare numbers or countable nouns (fewer people, fewer
suggestions).
Literally
Literally means “actually; without exaggeration” and should not be
used in a figurative sense (as in they were literally glued to their
seats [unless glue had in fact been applied]).
Lose; loose
To lose something is to be deprived of it; to loose something is to
release it from fastening or restraint.
Memoranda; memorandums
Both plural forms are correct, but memoranda has predominated
since the early nineteenth century.
Onto; on to; on
Onto implies movement. When on is part of the verb phrase, it is an
adverb, and to is the preposition (the gymnast held on to the bars).
Alone, on does not imply movement. CMOS suggests one trick is to
mentally say “up” before on: if the sentence still makes sense, then
onto is probably the right choice (she leaped onto the capstone).
On; upon
Prefer on to upon unless introducing an event or condition.
Parameters
Avoid using this word in nontechnical contexts (use boundaries,
limits, or some other word).
Precede; proceed
To precede is to happen before or to go before in some sequence; to
proceed is to go on, whether beginning, continuing, or resuming.
Quote; quotation Traditionally a verb, quote is often used as an
equivalent of quotation in speech and informal writing.
That; which
Use that in restrictive (defining) clauses—clauses that define or
restrict the meaning of the subject or the main clause (The data that
came from the university were crucial to our study). Restrictive
clauses are not set off by commas. In general, if either that or which
can be used, that is preferable.
Use which for nonrestrictive (nondefining) clauses—clauses that do
not change the meaning of the subject or main clause but add
information about something already identified. Nonrestrictive
clauses always use which and must be set off by commas or
parentheses, because such clauses are indeed parenthetical (The
data, which came from several different sources, are available on
request from the authors).
Toward; towards
The preferred form in American English (since about 1900) is
toward. This is true of other directional words: upward, downward,
forward, backward, and afterward. In British English towards
predominates.
While; although; whereas
While may substitute for although or whereas, especially in a
conversational tone. While can denote either time or contrast and
therefore may be ambiguous. When real ambiguity exists, although
or whereas is the better choice.
Who; whom
Who is used as a subject of the verb or a predicate nominative (Fido,
who barks constantly, annoys the neighbors); whom is used as the
object of a verb or a preposition (To whom should these papers be
sent?).
2 Some Mechanics of Style

Effective writing requires attention to conventions and rules for punctuation,

spelling, syntax, and grammar. Summaries of basic issues are included in
grammar and style guides, including The Chicago Manual of Style (2017:
Chapters 5, 6, and 7), Strunk and White (2000), and Williams and Bizup
(2017). Writers should:
• Check that pronouns agree with antecedents.
• Pay attention to grammar (e.g., between you and me is correct).
• Avoid ending sentences with prepositions.
• Check that verbs agree with subjects (e.g., The data are included in the
report).
• Use consistent verb tenses.
• Avoid
– Double negatives
– Split infinitives
– Sentence fragments
– Dangling phrases or misplaced modifiers
• Check for consistency in sentence structure.

2.1 Punctuation
Punctuation is used to clarify expression in writing and to make reading easier.
Follow these general punctuation guidelines:
• Use only one space after all punctuation (including between sentences).
Periods and colons should not be followed by two spaces (CMOS
2017:66).
• All punctuation marks should be in the same font (roman or italic) as the
preceding text, and not in that of the matter they enclose (e.g., The
conductor announced, “All aboard!”) (see CMOS 2017:364–66).
2.1.1 Commas
Commas indicate a slight pause in a sentence. Use commas:
• To separate items in a series. When listing three or more words, phrases,
or clauses in a series, use a comma before the conjunction joining the
last two. See CMOS (2017:371) on the serial or Oxford comma.
He gathered data on their cultural, educational, and socioeconomic
backgrounds.
• After an adverbial or participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence:
Importantly, low-income women benefited from the program.
According to several studies, the employment rate grew modestly in the
last quarter.
Grabbing a book off the shelf, she slipped out the door.
• After introductory phrases when needed for clarity: Both of the following
examples are understandable and correct:
In 1991, the GNP dropped once again.
In 1991 the GNP dropped once again.
• Before a conjunction that joins two independent clauses:
The interviewers introduced themselves, and then they answered the
subjects’ questions.

Note: Do not use a comma before a conjunction joining two parts of a

complex predicate:
The interviewers introduced themselves and answered the subjects’
questions.
• For nonrestrictive appositives. Appositives are nouns or noun phrases that
immediately follow a second noun or noun phrase (CMOS 2017:232,
377).
Use a comma with nonrestrictive appositives:
His first book, A Realist Theory of Science, is where he describes his
approach as “transcendental realism.”
 The sentence expresses the same meaning when the title of the book is
eliminated.
However, when the information is essential to the sentence, commas
should not be used. This is a restrictive appositive:
This point was addressed with data from UNICEF (United Nations
Children’s Fund) in the report Uprooted: The Growing Crises for
Refugee and Migrant Children (2016).
• After certain abbreviations (i.e., e.g.,):
She attended several Africa-themed sessions (i.e., those highlighting the
work of sociologists studying issues related to Africa).
The presentation explored the range of women’s work in different areas
(e.g., science, technology, service work).
To set off elements in dates:
April 14, 2018
April 14, 2018, was the correct date.
But:

We collected data during April 2018.

2.1.2 Semicolons and Colons

Semicolons are used to separate major coordinating elements of a sentence,
such as independent clauses in a compound sentence. A colon marks a major
division in a sentence or is used to indicate an elaboration of what precedes it.
Use a semicolon to:
• Separate two independent clauses not joined by a conjunction.
Semicolons connect two related clauses more powerfully than do
conjunctions:
The results are unequivocal; the contemporary attitude toward the
future is pessimistic.
• Separate elements in a sentence already separated by commas:
Of these, 80 percent were employed in institutions of higher education;
14 percent worked in federal, state, or local governments; and 3
 percent owned businesses that employed others.
Use a colon to indicate that what follows is an amplification of what precedes
it:
• Separate elements to amplify what preceded the colon:
The soldier was faced with the following problems: how to get rid of his
parachute and how to contact an ally.
• Begin the sentence after the colon with a capital letter when the colon
follows a complete clause and introduces a complete sentence:
The results were as follows: The men interrupted the women in 25
percent of the professional exchanges, but the women seldom
interrupted the men.
But:
The codebook included four key variables: race/ ethnicity, gender, age,
and education.
• Lists of important points are often numbered in the text. Such lists
typically are introduced by an independent clause followed by a colon and
then by a series of numbered statements. Use commas to separate
numbered lists consisting of simple phrases; use semicolons to separate
numbered lists of complex phrases or clauses:
Three firm-level attributes distinguish one firm from another: (1) the
size of the firm, (2) the age of the firm, and (3) whether the firm is
connected to the financial or industrial sector.

Three firm-level attributes distinguish one firm from another: (1) the
size of the firm, measured by number of employees in 1992; (2) the
age of the firm, measured in 1992 by the number of years since
incorporation; and (3) whether the firm is connected to the financial,
industrial, or service sector.
• Use a colon to separate year and page information or volume (and issue)
and page numbers in text citations and references:
Text: (England 2016:4–6)
Reference:
 England, Paula. 2016. “Sometimes the Social Becomes Personal:
Gender, Class, and Sexualities.” American Sociological Review
81(1):4–28.

2.1.3 Hyphens and Dashes

A hyphen is indicated by a -, without spaces before or after, as in cross-
national. A dash is indicated by two hyphens (--) or an em dash (—) without
spaces before, after, or in-between text: He belonged to many organizations—
ASA and APA among them.
Use hyphens in:
• Compound adjectives (never-married men, family-based finances, middle-
class families).
• Compound nouns and numbers (great-granddaughter, thirty-eight),
unless they are more readable and understandable as a single word
(policymaker).
• Electronic resources following the abbreviation e for electronic (e-
commerce). Note: Email is not hyphenated. This is a departure from
previous editions of the Style Guide (CMOS 2017:452).
• To separate a campus name from an institution:
University of Wisconsin-Madison
University of Illinois-Chicago
When the campus location is hyphenated, use the following form:
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Do not hyphenate:

• Words beginning with non, pre, and other such prefixes (nonfarm,
precontrol) unless the prefix precedes a proper noun (non-Hispanic).
• Compound proper names designating ethnicity: African American, French
Canadians (CMOS 2017:451, 476).
• Adverbs that end in -ly with an adjective: fully formed idea (CMOS
2017:444, 449).
See CMOS (2017:443–57) for additional examples and more information on
using hyphens in compound words and with prefixes.
See 2.3 on how to capitalize hyphenated words in a title.

2.1.4 Em Dashes
An em dash is roughly equivalent to the width of the letter m. Indicate an em
dash by typing two consecutive hyphens or by entering the symbol from the
character set in word processing software. Use an em dash to signify a break in
thought that causes an abrupt change in a sentence, to add an explanatory
clause or phrase, or to set off parenthetical elements (see CMOS 2017:399–
402).
Each of the three variables—education, income, and family size—is
considered separately.

2.1.5 En Dashes
An en dash is roughly equivalent to the width of the letter n (and is
approximately half the width of an em dash). (Check your word processing
software documentation for instructions on how to key an en dash.)
Use en dashes in:
• Citations and references to indicate ranges of pages in a book or journal:
See Johnson (1994:122–35) for additional information.
• Text or tables as a minus or negative sign:
During the past two years, we have experienced an average annual
temperature change of –2 degrees.
• Tables, to indicate ranges of dates or variables:
Income 1952–1960
In text, however, use to or through to express ranges of years, values
for variables, and so on:
We used income data from 1952 to [or through] 1960.

2.1.6 Apostrophes
 • Form the possessive for proper names and singular nouns by adding an
apostrophe and s, as in student’s, Congress’s, Cox’s, and Parsons’s
(exceptions include Jesus’ and Moses’). See CMOS (2017:422–27) for
additional examples.
• Form the possessive of a plural noun that ends in s by adding an
apostrophe only, as in witches’ recipes and students’ transcripts.
• Use apostrophes to form contractions (e.g., can’t, isn’t). Do not use
contractions in formal writing unless they are part of quotations.
• Form the plural of single lowercase letters by adding an apostrophe
before the s. The s is roman, even when the letter being pluralized is
italic. Capital letters normally do not require an apostrophe in the plural
(CMOS 2017:421).
How many x’s are there in Exxon?
How many As did the student receive?

2.1.7 Quotation Marks

Use quotation marks to:
• Reproduce direct, verbatim text or other quoted material:
“There are lots of challenges,” Major Murray said.
The president indicated that “the economy has improved in the last
quarter.”
Note: No comma is needed after that, whether, or similar conjunctions.
• Set off the title of an article or book chapter in a reference list:
Martinez, Ramiro F., Jr. 1996. “Latinos and Lethal Violence: The Impact
of Poverty and Inequality.” Social Problems 43(2):131–46.
• Emphasize sarcasm, irony, or humor:
The “furnished apartment” was one room with a bare light bulb over a
mattress on the floor.

Note: Avoid overuse of this technique; if the irony or humor is obvious,

there is usually no need to highlight it with quotation marks.
• Denote invented terminology:
 The company restricted certain employees from “IMing” customers or
suppliers.
See Chapters 6 and 13 of The Chicago Manual of Style (2017:409–11,708–38)
for other aspects of quotation mark use and how to cite quoted material.
Note: Generally, punctuation appears inside quotation marks, such as “this,”
“that,” and, “the other.” Colons and semicolons go outside the quotation mark
(e.g., “… this”;).

2.1.8 Quoted Material

• Quotations in text begin and end with quotation marks; the author, date,
and page numbers either introduce the quote or follow the end-quote
and precede the period:
Wright and Jacobs (1994:531) found that “the variation in men’s
earnings relative to their peers in the labor force was not a reliable
predictor of men’s … flight from feminizing occupations.”
Or
One study found that “the variation in men’s earnings relative to their
peers in the labor force was not a reliable predictor of men’s … flight
from feminizing occupations” (Wright and Jacobs 1994:531).
• Block quotations are set off in a separate, indented paragraph and should
be used for longer quotations (generally, 50 words or more). Block
quotations should not be enclosed in quotation marks.
As Wright and Jacobs (1994:531) note:
The variation in men’s earnings relative to their peers in the labor force
was not a reliable predictor of men’s attrition. This finding is
inconsistent with the prediction that declines in earnings are
responsible for male flight from feminizing occupations.
Or
As a previous study found:
The variation in men’s earnings relative to their peers in the labor force
was not a reliable predictor of men’s attrition. This finding is
inconsistent with the prediction that declines in earnings are
 responsible for male flight from feminizing occupations. (Wright and
Jacobs 1994:531)
Note: If the author, date, and/or page number follow the block quotation, they
come after the period. If the page number alone follows the block quotation,
the “P” for “page” is capitalized.

2.1.9 Parentheses and Brackets

Parentheses set off information that is interjected or less closely related to the
rest of the sentence; brackets enclose words added by a writer to distinguish
those from the original author being quoted.
Use parentheses to:
• Set off less important information:
The proportion of children living in one-parent (mother-only) families
increased.
• Enclose acronyms or citations in text:
The Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) (Bursik and Grasmick
1993)
Use brackets to:
• Enclose material included within parentheses:
(See also the discussion in Bowers [1985] and Bureau of Justice
Statistics data [1999].)
• Enclose material inserted by someone other than the original author:
“Higher rates of MS [multiple sclerosis] were found in cold climates.”
“[N]ationally representative social surveys … indicate that
institutionalization is common.”
• Enclose an earlier published source:
Veblen ([1899] 1979) stated that …

2.1.10 Ellipses
ASA style uses a method of placing ellipses in which one period signifies a true
period, and ellipses signify missing text in a quote. Use ellipses, not brackets,
to signify missing text. Use brackets to signify any change (other than missing
text) to the original quote (see 2.1.9). Observe the following conventions in
placing ellipses:
• Insert a space after every period. (Do not use the ellipses character
automatically set by word processing software.)
• Locate all periods on the same line if ellipses fall at the end of a line.
• Place brackets around any change in punctuation.
• Denote missing information with a space followed by a period. In the
following example, in the shortened text, the period after “at this parting”
is the true period; it is followed by ellipses to denote the missing text.
The sentence following the first set of ellipses begins with a capital letter,
as it did in the original (CMOS 2017:729).
Use ellipses to:
• Represent missing information, including whole sentences.
The full text of the “Farewell Address” by Abraham Lincoln to his friends
and neighbors in Springfield, Illinois, on February 11, 1861, is as follows:
My friends, no one, not in my situation, can appreciate my feeling of
sadness at this parting. To this place, and the kindness of these people,
I owe everything. Here I have lived a quarter of a century, and have
passed from a young to an old man. Here my children have been born,
and one is buried. I now leave, not knowing when, or whether ever, I
may return, with a task before me greater than that which rested upon
Washington. Without the assistance of the Divine Being who ever
attended him, I cannot succeed. With that assistance I cannot fail.
Trusting in Him who can go with me, and remain with you, and be
everywhere for good, let us confidently hope that all will yet be well. To
His care commending you, as I hope in your prayers you will commend
me, I bid you an affectionate farewell.
The following sentences are shortened from the preceding text as
follows:
My friends, no one, not in my situation, can appreciate my feeling of
sadness at this parting…. Here I have lived a quarter of a century [and]
[h]ere my children have been born, and one is buried….
 • Represent missing information at the beginning or end of quotations
(CMOS 2017:729–30). Use three ellipsis points for a quote that begins
with a capitalized word (such as a proper name) that was not at the
beginning of a sentence in the original:
… President Carter announced to his cabinet that he would find out
what went wrong; in the meantime, the Commission continued its
investigation.
If the final words of a quoted sentence are omitted, place four periods
(all spaced, including the first) after the quoted material:
These findings are part of a larger mosaic of knowledge about the
impact of immigration on children ….

2.2 Spelling
ASA uses the 11th edition of Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary (2005)
and Merriam-Webster Online (2018) to determine correct spelling and usage.
In general, writers are encouraged to use a standard dictionary when writing or
preparing papers or presentations.
If the dictionary lists two or more spellings for a word, use the first spelling
(e.g. benefited rather than benefitted, focused rather than focussed,
appendixes rather than appendices). The ASA Style Guide follows the
convention of the CMOS in preferring both appendixes and indexes as primary
plural variant spellings. Also, CMOS notes that although both plural forms for
memorandum (memorandums, memoranda) are correct, memoranda has
predominated since the early nineteenth century (CMOS 2017:342).
Spell out words such as percent, versus, and chi-square in running text.
See 2.9 for non-English word usages.
See Chapter 5 for preferred spelling for electronic resources.

2.3 Capitalization
Use the following guidelines for capitalization:
• In the titles of books and articles, capitalize the first word in the title or
subtitle and all words, regardless of length, except prepositions (of, onto,
between, through), articles (a, an, the), and coordinating conjunctions
(and, but, or).
 “Provisional Distribution of the Population of the United States into
Psychological Classes”
• Capitalize the names of racial and ethnic groups that represent
geographic locations or linguistic populations (Hispanic, Asian, African
American, Appalachian). (See CMOS [2017:476] for additional examples.)
• ASA recommends capitalizing terms for racial and ethnic categories (e.g.,
Black and White). However, ASA acknowledge that some scholars prefer
not to capitalize the word “white” in order to challenge white supremacy.
This is a change in the 7th edition of the ASA Style Guide. Capitalize
references to regions of the United States, such as the South, the North,
the Midwest, when referring to places. Capitalize Southerners and
Northerners only when referring to the Civil War; lowercase groups such
as northerners, southerners, and midwesterners. Do not capitalize north,
south, east, and west when referring to directions. The adjectival forms
of words (midwestern states, southern industry) are not capitalized.
• For hyphenated compound words in titles of works: The second element
of a compound word is capitalized unless it is an article, preposition, or
coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, or, nor); a modifier following
musical key symbols; or it follows a prefix (such as anti, pre-) that cannot
stand by itself (Anti-minority Attitudes in European Society, Face-to-Face
with Self-Serving Co-workers, Post-Vietnam War Reconstruction:
Challenges for South-East Asia, The Transition to Adulthood in the
Twenty-First Century) (CMOS 2017:527–28).
• Capitalize words associated with proper nouns:
The charge of the Task Force on Contingent Faculty, co-chaired by Dan
Clawson and Louis Edgar Esparza, is to explore the dynamics and
implications of the recent growth of contingent employment among
sociologists in the context of the broader structural transformations
now underway in U.S. universities and in comparison to other
disciplines. The Task Force is asked to examine …
• Do not capitalize the word the in running text for institutional titles such
as the University of Chicago, the University of Texas System, the
University of Wisconsin-Madison (CMOS 2017:492).

2.4 Italics
Use italics for emphasis (but use them sparingly) and to highlight terms in
specific contexts, to identify certain non-English-language words, and for titles
of books, periodicals, movies, radio and TV show names, and other formally
published material.

2.5 Numbers
Questions frequently arise regarding conventions for spelling out numbers
versus using numerals. The general rules for use of numbers in text are as
follows:
• Spell out numbers one through nine.
• Use numerals for numbers 10 or greater.
• Follow the same pattern for ordinal numbers. (Spell out numbers less
than 10: first, second, ninth; but 10th, 44th.)
• Always spell out numbers at the beginning of a sentence. (If possible,
however, do not begin a sentence with a number.)
• Use numerals for references to tables, figures, hypotheses, and so on
(Figure 1, Table 3).
• Spell out centuries: nineteenth century, twenty-first century.
• Spell out common fractions (two-thirds majority; reduced by one half).
Note: The forms 2nd and 3rd are now generally recommended in references
over 2d and 3d, except in legal citation (CMOS 2017:546, 806).
Examples:
One hundred and twenty-four suspects avoided capture by the 14
officers.
They completed nine interviews during the first morning.
Table 3 presents a summary of results.
the 95th percentile
In text citations and reference lists, indicate inclusive page numbers with an en
dash (see 2.1.5). Most page references should be elided using the following
rules (see CMOS 2017:928–29):
• For page ranges starting on pages numbered less than 100, use all digits
(e.g., 42–43).
 • For page ranges starting on pages numbered 100 or multiples of 100, use
all digits (e.g., 100–108, 1300–1325).
• For page ranges starting on pages numbered 101 through 109 (or 201
through 209, etc.) use the changed part only (e.g., 202–5, 209–10).
• For page ranges starting on pages numbered 110–199 (or 210–299, etc.),
use two digits unless more are needed to include all changed parts (e.g.,
421–28, 596–628, 1151–59, 1394–414).
Some exceptions to the number rule:
• Be consistent in presentation when numbers are part of a pair or series of
comparable quantities—either spell them all or write them all as
numerals. Usually, numerals are more understandable. For example:
There were 3 children in the car and 10 in the van.
8 of 50 responses
• Always use numerals with percent:
Of the 23,823 students registered for the first semester, only 3 percent
were Black.
Note: ASA style uses the word percent (rather than the sign) in text,
including in parentheses:
In addition, Black and Hispanic drivers were more likely to report being
subjected to a physical search of the driver or having their vehicles
searched (Black, 7.1 percent; Hispanic, 10.1 percent; and White, 2.9
percent).
• Express numbers less than 1 million in numerals; for numbers greater
than 1 million, write a numeral followed by the word million, billion, and
so on.
We counted 10,500 birds.
The population increased by 4.2 million in 1982.
• Express numbers that represent exact time, sample sizes, and sums of
money as numerals:
The program will run from 9:00 a.m. to 3:30 p.m.
a $5 bill
 N = 2,064
(Note: Expression of total number [N] is not italicized in text, although it
is italicized in tables, including table titles and notes; see 4.8.)

2.6 Dates
The following examples illustrate dates correctly presented in text:
nineteenth century
twentieth-century poets [include a hyphen when used as an adjective]
1930s; mid-1980s
January 19, 1968
On January 19, 1968, the council met for the first time.
April 1983 (no comma between month and year)
2001 to 2018 (in text, use to instead of an en dash between years)
Spell out month names in reference list entries and in text citations of
newspaper and magazine articles (January 19, 1968) (see CMOS 2017:555–
58).

2.7 Abbreviations and Acronyms

Do not use abbreviations such as etc., e.g., and i.e., in running text. Instead,
use phrases such as and so forth, for example, or in other words. However, use
the abbreviations in parenthetical statements.
In other words, some terms used in specific areas of sociology (e.g.,
cultural capital, Blau space) are not readily understood by the general
sociologist.
Use U.S. as an adjective, United States as a noun:
U.S. currency is the medium of exchange in the United States.
Acronyms are terms based on the initial letters of their various elements and
read as single words (NATO, AIDS) (CMOS 2017:572).
When using acronyms, spell out the complete term the first time it is used and
present the acronym in parentheses.
 First use: The Current Population Survey (CPS) includes …
Later: CPS data show that …
For examples of acronyms of terminology relating to electronic resources and
publishing, see 5.3.

2.8 Academic Degrees

Use the following abbreviations for academic degrees (and note the
capitalization of PhD and EdD):

AA Associate of Arts
BA (or AB) Bachelor of Arts
BS (or SB) Bachelor of Science
EdD Doctor of Education
JD Doctor of Law
LLB Bachelor of Laws
LLD Doctor of Laws
MA (or AM) Master of Arts
MBA Master of Business Administration
MD Doctor of Medicine
MS Master of Science
MSW Master of Social Welfare or Master of Social Work
PhD Doctor of Philosophy
DPhil Doctor of Philosophy (European form)
Plurals are formed by adding an s (MAs and PhDs). Do not use an apostrophe.
As a general rule, ASA recommends omitting all periods in abbreviations of
academic degrees, unless they are required for tradition or consistency. See
CMOS (2017:580–81) for a more extensive discussion and list of abbreviations
for academic degrees.
When referring to a general degree, use master’s, bachelor’s, or doctoral
degree.

2.9 Non-English-Language Usage

Chapter 11 of CMOS (2017:618–64) includes guidelines on usage of materials
in languages other than English. If manuscripts include non-English-language
references or word usages, authors should review these sections of the CMOS
carefully and follow the recommendations presented in various sections on
names, titles of articles, punctuation, use of special characters, translation,
transliteration, and other applicable guidelines for text and references in
languages being cited. The following points highlight some guidelines:
• In general, non-English words in text should be italicized. However,
commonly used non-English words or terms (per se, ad hoc, et al., a
priori) should appear in roman type (CMOS 2017:434–35, 618–21).
• References to quotations, text, citations, bibliographic materials, and so
forth in non-English languages in a manuscript should be modified only
with the guidance of persons with first-hand knowledge and expertise in
the original language and knowledge of the author/date system
presented in 4.3.2. In general, the ASA Style Guide recommends the
guidelines presented in Chapter 4 for in-text citations and references (i.e.,
headline style for titles of articles and books). However, for capitalization
of titles from non-English languages, CMOS recommends using the
sentence style—that is, capitalize only the words that would be
capitalized in normal prose: the first word of the title and subtitle and all
proper nouns or terms that would be capitalized under the conventions of
the original language (CMOS 2017:621).
• CMOS notes that in nonspecialized works it is customary to transliterate
(i.e., to convert to the Latin alphabet, or Romanize) words or phrases
from languages that do not use the Latin alphabet. CMOS (2017:647)
recommends the Library of Congress publication ALA-LC Romanization
Tables (bibliog.5) available online as a reference; it explicitly warns not to
attempt to transliterate from an unfamiliar language.
Example of references:
Chauí, Marilena. 1980. O que é ideologia. São Paulo, Brazil: Brasiliense.
Foucault, Michel. 2009. Le courage de la vérité. Paris: Gallimard.
If translations are used, place them within parentheses immediately following
the words to be translated or in brackets following a block quote (CMOS
2017:620–21, 800–801):
Gogolin, Ingrid, and Dieter Lenzen, eds. 2014. Qualität im Bildungs und
Wissenschaftssystem (Quality in the Education and Science
System) (ZfE Sonderheft 23). Wiesbaden, Germany: VS-Verlag.
Muñoz Labraña, Carlos, and Rosendo Martínez Rodríguez. 2015.
“Prácticas pedagógicas y competencias ciudadanas: El caso del
 docente de historia en Chile” (Pedagogical Practices and Citizens’
Competences: The Case of the History Teacher in Chile). Revista
Actualidades Investigativas en Educación 15(3):1–21.
[Link]
Note: Because many manuscripts are now being prepared with word
processing systems that contain software with special characters (including
diacritical marks and alphabetical characters that do not normally occur in
English), use these characters when keyboarding non-English words. Try to
maintain consistency throughout a manuscript: if special characters are used
for some words, they should be used for all words that conventionally would be
accented (Québec, Montréal, Palais des Congrès de Montréal, l’Hôtel-Dieu;
Congreso de Investigadores Negros, Comisión, México)
3 ASA-Specific Usages and Conventions

The ASA Council and the Executive Office, as well as its committees,
sections, and other entities, have adopted conventions and
guidelines for preferred word usages and style to be used for
Association records, documents, and publications. Increasingly, ASA
documents (e.g., the ASA Code of Ethics, Council minutes, task force
and other reports, communications and press releases, newsletters,
research reports, programmatic records) are being widely
disseminated, especially through the ASA website
([Link] The guidelines presented in this section
include some of the more common ASA-specific conventions that
have been adopted over the years.

3.1 Hyphenation
Hyphenate the following words when referring to officers of the ASA
and when used as a title:
• Secretary-Treasurer-Elect
• Vice President-Elect, but Vice President
• Immediate Past-President
• President-Elect

3.2 Capitalization
Capitalize the following:
• Sociology (or other academic disciplines) only if part of a
proper name or used in a special context (e.g., within a title
that is set in uppercase)
• Section when speaking of a specific ASA section. Do not
capitalize section when speaking of a section or sections in
general: Of the 53 ASA sections, the Section on Emotions …
• ASA Annual Meeting, but in the aggregate ASA annual
meetings
• Business Meeting
• ASA Bylaws, ASA Constitution (or references to these)
• Council (when referring to ASA Council)
• Titles of officers of the Association or official positions (e.g.,
the ASA Vice President, Council Liaison)
• Title of other organization designations such as membership
categories. For example, capitalize the Student Membership
category only when referring to it specifically in this form (as a
proper noun). Do not capitalize it in the following: Membership
in the student category increased slightly.
• Words designating a title such as chair, editor, editor designee,
and legal counsel are capitalized only when the title
immediately precedes a personal name and is used as part of
the name (e.g., Editor Rory McVeigh).
• Names of ASA offices and committees (e.g., Nominating
Committee, Chair of the Publications Committee)
• Names of subcommittees, committees, reports, and programs.
Note that later references to a named entity would also be
capitalized:

The charge of the Task Force on Contingent Faculty, co-

chaired by Dan Clawson and Louis Edgar Esparza, is to
explore the dynamics and implications of the recent growth
of contingent employment among sociologists in the context
of the broader structural transformations now underway in
 U.S. universities and in comparison, to other disciplines. The
Task Force is asked to examine …
Do not capitalize the following:
• publications program (and other general references to
procedures, policies, or programs)
• congressional, administration (CMOS 2017:487–89)
• annual meeting when referring to a non-ASA event
• section when referring to sections in general

3.3 Italics
Italicize titles as follows:
• Section Manual
• Guidelines for the Publications Portfolio
Do not italicize the following:
• Rose Series in Sociology
• Issue Series in Social Research and Social Policy

3.4 Preferred Word Usages

• Use Annual Meeting when referring to ASA’s major meeting
held every summer (conference and convention are not
acceptable).
• Use official names of committees (e.g., Publications Committee
is correct; Committee on Publications or any other variant of
the official name is not acceptable).
• Do not use LISTSERV when referring to just any electronic
mailing list. LISTSERV is a proprietary term and should be used
only when referring to the trademarked name (see 5.3).
3.5 Some ASA Style Guidelines
Titles: Do not abbreviate academic rank or title (the exception is
Dr.).

Right: Assistant Professor, Associate Professor, Professor,

Vice President, President-Elect

Wrong: Asst. Prof., Assoc Prof, Prof., VP, Pres. Elect

Do not refer to a person’s title in an article unless there is some
content-specific reason for doing so (e.g., a direct quotation). Use
only a person’s full name or, in later references, their last name only.
Institutions: Do not abbreviate names of institutions; spell out the
complete institutional name. When specifying a campus for a
university, use a hyphen (see 2.1.3).
Right: University of California-Los Angeles, Rand
Corporation, Louisiana State University, University of Illinois
at Urbana-Champaign
Wrong: UCLA*; University of California, Los Angeles; Rand
Corp.; LA St. U.
*An abbreviation can be used if specified after the first instance as a
subsequent abbreviation.
Addresses: For addresses in Washington, DC, there should be no
comma between street and quadrant (NW, SW, SE, NE) and no
periods in referencing quadrants or in DC.

Right: 1430 K Street NW, Washington, DC 20005

Wrong: 1430 K Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005
Telephone numbers: Separate a telephone number from an address
with a semicolon. Telephone numbers should always follow the style
shown below, with no slash or hyphen between area code and
number, but always with a space between the closing area code
parenthesis and the number.
Right: (202) 383-9005
Wrong: 202/383-9005 or 202-383-9005
State abbreviations: Abbreviate states to the U.S. Postal Service two-
letter abbreviations.
Right: Miami, FL; East Providence, RI; Denver, CO
Wrong: Miami, Fla.; East Providence, Rhode Isl.; Denver,
Colo.
Numbers: When numbering a series of items within a paragraph or
article, use the form (1), not 1. or 1).
4
Guidelines for Organizing and Presenting
Content

This section provides ASA style guidelines on key elements related to

organization and presentation of content in a manuscript. Authors preparing
manuscripts for publications not requiring ASA journal specifications should
also see 4.9.
Note: Authors who are submitting a manuscript to an ASA journal should see
Chapter 6 for required journal specification formats, in addition to specifications
set forth in this section.

4.1 Order and Form of Required Pages

4.1.1 Title Page
A title page is recommended for all articles. This page should include the full
title of the article, the name(s) and institution(s) of the author(s) (listed
vertically if more than one), a running head, the word count for the manuscript
(including footnotes and references), and a title footnote. An asterisk (*)
following the title refers to the title footnote at the bottom of the title page.
This footnote includes the name, address, and email of the corresponding
author; acknowledgments; credits; grant numbers; and keywords.
For an example of a title page, see 6.4.2.

4.1.2 Abstract
The abstract begins on a separate page following the title page, with the title
repeated as a heading. Omit author identification. The abstract should be a
brief (no more than 200 words) and descriptive summary of the most
important contributions of the paper. Restrict the abstract to one paragraph.

4.1.3 Key Words

Choose three to five key words for indexing purposes.
4.1.4 Text
Begin the text of a manuscript on a new page headed by the manuscript title.
Omit author identification throughout the text. Include footnotes, appendixes,
tables, and figures in separate sections following the text. Figure captions are
left-justified below the figure; table titles are left-justified above the table (see
6.4.2 and 6.6).

4.2 Subheadings
Subheadings should clearly indicate the organization of the content of the
manuscript. Generally, three heading levels are sufficient for a full-length
article. Some general guidelines follow:
THIS IS A FIRST-LEVEL HEAD
First-level heads are in all caps, left-justified. Some ASA journals do not indent
the paragraph immediately following a first-level head. The beginning of a
manuscript should not have a heading (i.e., do not begin with the heading
INTRODUCTION).
This Is a Second-Level Head
Second-level heads are in italics and left-justified. Capitalize all words except
prepositions (of, into, between, through, across), articles (a, an, the), and
coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or). Some ASA journals do not indent the
paragraph immediately following a second-level head.
This is a third-level head.
Third-level heads are run-in heads, in italics, indented at the beginning of the
paragraph, and followed by a period. The paragraph continues immediately
after the period.
Capitalize only the first letter and proper nouns in a third-level head.

4.3 Text Citations, References, and Bibliographies

The ASA Style Guide follows the author-date system of citation in The Chicago
Manual of Style (2017:891–921), which includes a brief text citation (enclosed
in parentheses) and a complete list of references cited (included at the end of
the article, before any appendixes).
Although ASA journals use only the text citations/reference system for cited
works in an article, under certain circumstances authors may need to prepare a
bibliography (e.g., when preparing a book-length manuscript). Bibliographies
are similar (but not identical) to reference lists. In general, in addition to works
cited, bibliographies may include other relevant sources (CMOS 2017:776–91).

4.3.1 Text Citations

Citations in the text include the last name of the author(s) and year of
publication. Include page numbers when quoting directly from a work or
referring to specific [Link] subsequent citations of the same source
in the same way as the first (i.e., do not use ibid). Examples follow:
• If the author’s name is in the text, follow it with the publication year in
parentheses:

… Giddens (1991) argues that….

• If the author’s name is not in the text, enclose the last name and
publication year in parentheses:
… for validity and authenticity (Davis 2005).
• Page numbers follow the year of publication after a colon, with no space
between the colon and the page number:
… Orol (2010:1).
Note: This is the preferred ASA style. Older forms of text citations are not
acceptable: (Orol 2010, p. 1).
• Give both last names for joint authors:
… (Danziger and Ratner 2010).
• If a work has three authors, cite all three last names in the first citation in
the text; thereafter, use et al. in the citation. If a work has more than
three authors, use et al. in the first citation and in all subsequent
citations.
First citation for a work with three authors: … young people themselves
(Shanahan, Porfeli, and Mortimer 2005).
Later: … (Shanahan et al. 2005)
For four authors or more, see Additional Guidelines in [Link].
 • Institutional authors. To facilitate shorter in-text citations, an abbreviation
followed by the full organization name is acceptable (CMOS 2017:909–
10).
Text: (ASA 2018)
Reference: ASA (American Sociological Association). 2018….
• If a work cited was reprinted from a version published earlier, list the
earliest publication date in brackets, followed by the publication date of
the recent version used:
… affected the aged (Omran [1971] 2005).
• Separate a series of references with semicolons. List the series in
alphabetical or date order, but be consistent throughout the manuscript.
… (Costa 2002; Finch and Crimmins 2004; Fogel 2004, 2005; Fogel and
Costa 1997; Manton et al. 1997).
• Archival Sources/Manuscript Collections.
The National Archives provides information for Citing Records in the
National Archives of the United States in General Information Leaflet 17
(revised in 2010), available from the National Archives and Records
Administration. Archived material should generally be considered similar
to personal papers and other historical manuscripts. Citations should
include as much information as is needed to easily locate those records
(title and date of the item, series title [if applicable], name of the
collection, and name of the depository). The cited material should be
placed in a note or reference list, and whatever sequence is adopted for
elements of the citation should be used consistently throughout the
manuscript (CMOS 2017:854–57).
Text: (Stone to Du Bois 1903)
Reference: Stone, Alfred Holt, 1870–1955. Letter from Alfred Holt
Stone to W. E. B. Du Bois, March 2, 1903. W. E. B. Du Bois Papers
(MS 312). Special Collections and University Archives, University of
Massachusetts-Amherst Libraries,
[Link]
For National Archives or other archival sources, use abbreviated citations in the
text:
 Text: … (NA, RG 381, Box 780, April 28, 1965; Meany Archives, LRF,
Box 6, March 18, 1970).
Reference: NA (National Archives). Record Group 381, Box 780. 1965.
George Meany Memorial Archives, Legislature Reference Files, Box
6. March 18, 1970. File: 20. Memo, Conference with Gloster
Current, Director of Organization, National Association for the
Advancement of Colored People.
• For articles published online before the official publication date, use the
posted publication date (CMOS 2017:831–32). However, when the official
publication date of record is available, use that date.
Text: (Braunstein, Fulton, and Wood 2014)
Reference: Braunstein, Ruth, Brad R. Fulton, and Richard L. Wood.
2014. “The Role of Bridging Cultural Practices in Racially and
Socioeconomically Diverse Civic Organizations.” American
Sociological Review, first published on June 12, 2014 as
doi:10.1177/0003122414538966.
• For machine-readable data files, cite author(s) and date:
Text: … (Ruggles et al. 2017).
Reference: Ruggles, Steven, Katie Genadek, Ronald Goeken, Josiah
Grover, and Matthew Sobek. 2017. Integrated Public Use Microdata
Series: Version 7.0 [dataset]. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota,
doi:10.18128/D010.V7.0.
• Text citations for e-resources generally follow the preceding guidelines;
for specific information, see 5.2.

4.3.2 Reference Lists

A reference list follows the text and footnotes in a separate section headed
References. All references cited in the text must be listed in the reference
section, and vice versa. It is the author’s responsibility to ensure that
publication information for each entry is complete and correct.
Like all other parts of a manuscript, the references should be double-spaced.
See the Appendix for additional examples of references.

[Link] Books, Book Chapters, and Journal Articles

Most sources cited in ASA journals and publications come from books and
periodicals, either in a printed format or an electronic version (or both). The
examples that follow demonstrate the most common usages.
Books

Author1 (last name inverted), Author2 (including full surname, last name is not
inverted), and Author3. Year of publication. Name of Publication
(italicized). Location of publisher, state, or province postal code (or name
of country if a foreign publisher): Publisher’s Name.
Note: For all types of references, when there are only two authors or editors,
include a comma after the name of the first author or editor.
Edin, Kathryn, and Maria Kefalas. 2005. Promises I Can Keep: Why
Poor Women Put Motherhood Before Marriage. Berkeley: University
of California Press.
Pescosolido, Bernice A., Jack K. Martin, Jane D. McLeod, and Anne
Rogers, eds. 2011. Handbook of the Sociology of Health, Illness,
and Healing: Blueprint for the 21st Century. New York: Springer.
Journal Articles

Author1 (last name inverted), Author2 (including full surname, last name is not
inverted), and Author3. Year of publication. “Title of Article.” Name of
Publication (italicized) Volume Number (Issue Number): page numbers of
article.
Chang, Virginia W., and Diane S. Lauderdale. 2009. “Fundamental
Cause Theory, Technological Innovation, and Health Disparities:
The Case of Cholesterol in the Era of Statins.” Journal of Health
and Social Behavior 50(3):245–60.
Chen, Feinian, Yang Yang, and Guangya Liu. 2010. “Social Change and
Socioeconomic Disparities in Health over the Life Course in China:
A Cohort Analysis.” American Sociological Review 75(1):126–50.
Colen, Cynthia G. 2011. “Addressing Racial Disparities in Health Using
Life Course Perspectives: Toward a Constructive Criticism.” Du Bois
Review 8(1):79–94.
Note: The preceding examples include the issue number after the volume
number. The ASA Style Guide considers inclusion of issue numbers a matter of
editorial discretion but recommends consistency throughout the journal.
However, issue numbers should be used if a cited journal is not continuously
paginated within each volume.
ASA allows editorial discretion in changing & to and in book and journal titles
but recommends retaining & if it is part of a trademarked title or company
name (CMOS 2017:529, 582).
For example: City & Community, not City and Community Online Supplemental
Materials to Journal Articles
Occasionally, supplemental information is published online in conjunction with a
journal article (CMOS 2017:836– 37). For ASA journals, these are not
documents of record. They should be cited as follows:
Text: (England 2016: online supplement)
Reference: England, Paula. 2016. “Sometimes the Social Becomes
Personal: Gender, Class, and Sexualities.” Online supplement to
American Sociological Review 81(1):4–28,
[Link]
.
Chapters in Books or Other Collected Works

Author1 (last name inverted), Author2 (including full surname, last name is not
inverted), and Author3. Year of publication. “Title of article.” Pp. (with
page numbers elided) in Name of Publication (italicized), edited by Editor1,
Editor2, and Editor3 (editors’ initials only for first/middle names, names
not inverted). Location of publisher, state, or province postal code (or
name of country if a foreign publisher): Publisher’s Name.
Montez, Jennifer K., and Mark D. Hayward. 2011. “Early Life Conditions
and Later Life Mortality.” Pp. 187–206 in International Handbook of
Adult Mortality, edited by R. G. Rogers and E. Crimmins. New York:
Springer Publishers.
Shanahan, Michael J., Erik Porfeli, and Jeylan T. Mortimer. 2005.
“Subjective Age Identity and the Transition to Adulthood: When
Does One Become an Adult?” Pp. 225–55 in On the Frontier of
Adulthood: Theory, Research, and Public Policy, edited by R. A.
Settersten, F. F. Furstenberg, and R. G. Rumbaut. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
For multivolume works published over more than one year (CMOS 2017:912):
 Tillich, Paul. 1951–63. Systematic Theology. 3 vols. Chicago: University
of Chicago Press.
Articles from E-Resources
Articles and books obtained from the internet follow the same patterns as
those cited above, with the exception that page numbers are omitted and the
URL and date of access (if necessary) are included. (See 5.2.3.)
Schafer, Daniel W., and Fred L. Ramsey. 2003. “Teaching the Craft of
Data Analysis.” Journal of Statistics Education 11(1).
[Link]
Dietz, Bernadette E., and Lynn Harper, eds. 2008. Scaffolding for
Student Success in Learning. Washington, DC: American
Sociological Association. Retrieved October 1, 2018.
[Link]
Books/BKctl/ViewDetails/SKU/AS-AOE155S08E.
Online Journal Articles with Digital Object Identifier (DOI)
Persell, Caroline Hodges, Kathryn M. Pfeiffer, and Ali Syed. 2008. “How
Sociological Leaders Teach: Some Key Principles.” Teaching
Sociology 36(2):108–24. doi:10.1177/0092055X0803600202.
Bandelj, Nina, and Yader R. Lanuza. 2018. “Economic Expectations of
Young Adults.” Socius 4(1). doi:10.1177/2378023118795953.
Note: When a DOI is included, it should be copied and pasted from the article
directly to avoid entering the DOI incorrectly.
Chapter 5 contains more detailed information on the use of e-resources.
See the Appendix for examples of how to cite other types of documents (e.g.,
unpublished papers, presentations, magazines, newspapers, and archival
sources).

[Link] Other Types of Reference Material

This section includes guidelines for referencing other types of sources.
• Major reference books (major dictionaries and encyclopedias) can be
cited with a note in the text rather than in the reference list (CMOS
2017:858–59, 892). However, a reference citing an article in an
encyclopedia should be cited in the same form as a book chapter:
 Levine, Felice J. 2001. “Professionalization of Social and Behavioral
Scientists: United States.” Pp. 12146– 54 in The International
Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences, edited by N. J.
Smelser and P. B. Baltes. London, England: Elsevier Science Limited.
• Titles of dissertations and theses are placed in quotation marks (not
italics). Include the department, the university, and, if consulted online, a
URL. For dissertations obtained from a commercial database, include the
name of the database and the identification number supplied by the
database.
Dissertation or thesis in print (or microfilm) form:
King, Andrew J. 1976. “Law and Land Use in Chicago: A Pre-history of
Modern Zoning.” PhD dissertation, Department of Sociology,
University of Wisconsin-Madison.
Dissertation or thesis retrieved from database:
Bao, Luoman. 2016. “Intergenerational Support and Well-being of
Older Adults in Changing Family Contexts.” PhD dissertation,
Department of Sociology, University of Maryland-College Park.
ProQuest, 1840192880.
• For book reviews and other peer-reviewed material, use the following
forms (CMOS 2017:843–44):
Brown-Saracino, Japonica. 2013. Review of The Philadelphia Barrio:
The Arts, Branding, and Neighborhood Transformations by
Frederick F. Wherry. Contemporary Sociology 42(5):756–58.
Tough, Paul. 2006. “Supersize Them.” Review of Chutes and Ladders:
Navigating the Low-Wage Labor Market by Katherine S. Newman.
Cambridge, MA: Russell Sage Foundation Books at Harvard
University Press.
[Link]
• Abstracts are treated like journals, but the word abstract must be added
(CMOS 2017:836):
Rosenfeld, Michael J., and Rueben J. Thomas. 2012. “Searching for a
Mate: The Rise of the Internet as a Social Intermediary.” Abstract.
American Sociological Review 77(4):523–47.
• Conference presentations (e.g., lectures, papers, posters), unpublished or
informally published papers, and working and discussion papers use the
following form:
Name of author. Year. Title of Presentation. Type of presentation and
location where the article was presented or is available.
Lectures, papers, and posters should include (after the title) the type of
presentation (e.g., paper, slides, poster) and the sponsorship, location,
and date of the meeting (CMOS 2017:852):
Chenoweth, Erica, and Laura Dugan. 2011. “Exploring Counterterrorism
in the Middle East and North Africa: A New Data Set.” Paper
presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science
Association, Seattle, WA, September 2.
Pren, Karen A. 2018. “Mexican Migration Project.” Poster presented at
the 113th American Sociological Association Annual Meeting,
Philadelphia, PA, August 13.
[Link]
cmd=Online+Program+View+Paper&selected_paper_id=1389623
&PHPSESSID=sajqfhpi8jnl8ufoe1vib2q6h2.
Lectures, papers, and posters presented virtually follow a similar format,
replacing the date with “virtual.”
Ponce, Adriana. 2021. “Classed and Gendered Understandings of
Financial Support in Child Custody Arrangements: A Qualitative
Study.” Paper presented at the 116th American Sociological
Association Annual Meeting, virtual, August 7.
• Testimonies in public hearings
Levine, Felice J. 2001. Testimony before the Institute of Medicine (IOM)
of the National Academies, Committee Assessing the System for
Protecting Human Research Subjects. On behalf of the Consortium
of Social Science Associations and the American Sociological
Association, January 31.
• Scientific or state administrative databases
At a minimum, include the name of the database, a descriptive phrase or
record locator indicating the part of the database being cited or
explaining the nature of the reference, an access date, and a URL (CMOS
2017:867):
 NIH/Genetic Association Database. n.d. Text Format.
[Link]
United States Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2020.
“Occupational Employment and Wage Statistics, May 2020 State
Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates, Illinois, 15-0000
Computer and Mathematical Occupations.”
[Link]
• Personal communications
Personal communication, whether face-to-face conversation, email, text
messages, or messages shared through social media are usually run in
text or given in a note. They are rarely entered in a reference (or
bibliographic) list (CMOS 2017:850–51). In a parenthetical citation, the
term personal communication (or pers. comm., unpublished data) may be
used after the names of persons concerned, followed by a comma (CMOS
2017:918).
Personal documents (letters, diaries, memoirs) that have not been
published can be treated like other unpublished material (CMOS
2017:857).
• Other special references
– Working papers can be treated in the same way as a dissertation
(CMOS 2017:852–53).
– Radio interviews can usually be treated like an article or other item in
a periodical (CMOS 2017:850).
– Brochures, flyers, and pamphlets are treated as books (CMOS
2017:853).
– Information about maps and diagrams can usually be presented in the
text (CMOS 2017:860–61).
For references to audiovisual material, videos, websites, blogs, and social
media sources, see Chapter 5. The Appendix also includes examples of some of
these formats.
• Articles posted online ahead of publication:
If an article is posted by a journal electronically ahead of the official
publication date, use the posted publication date. However, when the
official publication date of record is available, use that date.
• Forthcoming articles:
CMOS draws a distinction between articles that have been accepted for
publication but have not yet appeared online and articles published
electronically ahead of the publication date. For articles that have been
accepted, but have not yet published, use forthcoming in place of the
date (CMOS 2017:831–32).
• Preprints are treated as unpublished material as they have not been
subject to peer review.

Additional Guidelines
• List all references in alphabetical order by first authors’ last names.
• Include first names and surnames for all authors. Use first-name initials
only if an author used initials in the original publication. In these cases,
add a space between the initials: R. B. Brown and M. L. B. Smith.
• Do not use an ampersand (&) for and in joining names.
• Institutional authors: To facilitate shorter in-text citations, an abbreviation
followed by the full organization name is acceptable (CMOS 2017:909–
10). For example, a text reference might be (ASA 2018) and the
reference entry would be ASA (American Sociological Association). 2018…
• For multiple authorship, invert only the first author’s name (Jones, Arthur
B., Colin D. Smith, and James Petersen). Place a comma between two or
more names.
• List all authors up to 10. For more than 10 authors, list the first seven,
followed by et al.
• For repeated authors or editors, give the author’s (or editor’s) full name in
all subsequent references. Arrange references for the same author from
the earliest to the latest. All single-author references precede references
with multiple authors, even though they may have been published earlier.
References with multiple authors are arranged in alphabetical order of
authors’ last names:
Alba, Richard. 1999. “Immigration and the American Realities of
Assimilation and Multiculturalism.” Sociological Forum 14(1):3–25.
Alba, Richard. 2006. “Mexican Americans and the American Dream.”
Perspectives on Politics 4(2):289–96.
 Alba, Richard, and Philip Kasinitz. 2006. “Sophisticated Television,
Sophisticated Stereotypes: The Sopranos (HBO) Created by David
Chase.” Contexts 5(4):74–77.

Alba, Richard, John R. Logan, and Brian J. Stults. 2000. “The Changing
Neighborhood Contexts of the Immigrant Metropolis.” Social Forces 79(2):587–
621.

Alba, Richard, and Victor Nee. 1997. “Rethinking Assimilation Theory

for a New Era of Immigration.” International Migration Review
31(4):826–74.
• Distinguish works by the same author(s) in the same year by adding
letters (2002a, 2002b, 2002c). List such works in alphabetical order by
title. Edited works by the same author are listed with original works.
Horwitz, Allan V. 2002a. Creating Mental Illness. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
Horwitz, Allan V. 2002b. ‘‘The Measurement of Mental Health
Outcomes: Where Have We Been and Where Are We Going?’’
Journal of Health and Social Behavior 43(2):143–51.
• If no date is available, use n.d. in place of the date. If the cited material
is unpublished but has been accepted for publication, use Forthcoming in
place of the date and give the name of the publisher or journal.
• Include the state abbreviation only if the city of publication is not clear.
For example, New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles do not need a state
abbreviation. However, Cambridge should be followed by an appropriate
state abbreviation or country name (CMOS 2017:813–14). When the
publisher name includes the location, the state abbreviation is not needed
(e.g., Berkeley: University of California Press). (For Canadian provinces
and territories, see CMOS 2017:584.)
• Cite volume numbers for collected works in the same style as citations for
book volumes generally.
Clausen, John A. 1972. “The Life Course of Individuals.” Pp. 457–514 in
Aging and Society. Vol. 3, A Sociology of Age Stratification, edited
by M.W. Riley, M. Johnson, and A. Foner. New York: Russell Sage.

4.4 Legal Citations and Government Documents

This section provides guidelines for citing the more common sources from
executive, legislative, and judicial proceedings. The rules are adapted from The
Chicago Manual of Style (2017) and The Bluebook: A Uniform System of
Citation, 19th ed. (2015). The Bluebook is published by the Harvard Law
Review Association and is the most widely used style guide for legal citations.
In general, ASA style recommends that (1) all references, including those from
legal periodicals, should be included in a reference list (rather than in
footnotes, as is the case in legal periodicals); and (2) consistency should be
maintained in citing legal references. Authors may need to use discretion in
determining how to create text citations and references for legal citations (e.g.,
use of abbreviations, when citations should appear in running text, when
references are appropriate). As with other cited source material, references to
legal sources should provide complete and accurate information so that a
reader can locate the information easily.
The following are some of the more commonly used abbreviations referring to
court, public law, and other legal citations (they are not italicized):

U.S.C. United States Code

U.S. U.S. Reports
F. Federal Reporter
F.2d Federal Reporter, 2nd Series
F. Supp. Federal Supplement
C.F.R. Code of Federal Regulations.
H.R. U.S. House of Representatives
S. U.S. Senate
Terms such as Congress, Session, Congressional Record, Federal Register, and
U.S. Statutes-at-Large are not abbreviated.
These guidelines cover only a small number of examples from the large array
of law-related sources. Many of the sources referred to below are now available
online (both current and historical) through the Library of Congress
([Link] or subscription databases such as LexisNexis.

4.4.1 Legal Citations

In nonlegal works, legal citations are generally entered in running text with
additional information (if necessary) in footnotes or endnotes. References to
constitutions, executive orders, or amicus briefs, for example, would not
require a reference:
 The American Sociological Association filed an amicus brief in
Hollingsworth v. Perry (570 U.S. [2013]) …
Executive Order 11246 established the Office for Federal Contract
Compliance …
Legal citations may be included in text citations and reference lists, especially
for court decisions, statutes, and certain types of legislative materials. (Note
that recent U.S. Supreme Court cases may not have assigned page numbers; in
those instances, three blank underlines [_] will suffice.)
• Reference to constitutions, laws, and ordinances:
U.S. Constitution: U.S. Constitution, Article 1, Section 4.
State constitutions: Arkansas Constitution, Article 7, Section 5.
Public law: Telecommunications Act of 1996, Public Law 104–104, 110
U.S. Statutes at Large 56 (1996).
U.S. code: Declaratory Judgment Act, 28 U.S.C. 2201 (1952).
State law: Ohio Revised Code Annotated, Section 3566 (West 2000).
• Reference to court decisions: If cases are retrieved from an online
database (e.g., LexisNexis or HeinOnline), access information should be
included. Case names (including “v.”) are italicized:
U.S. Supreme Court: Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483
(1954).
Lower federal courts: Black Firefighters Association of Dallas v. City of
Dallas, 19 F.3d 992 (1994).
Lower federal courts: Quirin v. City of Pittsburgh 1992, 801 F. Supp.
1486 (1992).
State courts: Williams v. Davis, 27 Cal. 2d 746 (1946).
State courts: Ohio v. Vincer (Ohio App. Lexis 4356 [1999]).
• Reference to legal periodicals and treatises: In general, follow the rules
for citing books and periodicals specified in 4.3:
Text: (Butler 1997)
 Reference: Butler, Paul. 1997. “Affirmative Action and the Criminal Law.”
University of Colorado Law Review 68(4):841–89.
Italicize case names in titles, even when they are not italicized in the
published article:
Text: (Baldus et al. 1998)
Reference: Baldus, David C., George Woodworth, David Zuckerman,
Neil Alan Weiner, and Barbara Broffitt. 1998. “Racial Discrimination
and the Death Penalty in the Post-Furman Era: An Empirical and
Legal Overview, with Recent Findings from Philadelphia.” Cornell
Law Review 83(6):1638–770.

4.4.2 Public Documents in General

This section provides guidelines for commonly cited documents and materials
issued by government institutions and agencies in the United States.
For text citations: For institutional or government authorship, supply minimum
identification from the beginning of the complete citation.
… (United States Census Bureau 1963:117).
For references:
• If names of authors, editors, or compilers are provided, use the following
method:
Bonczar, Thomas P., and Allen J. Beck. 1997. Lifetime Likelihood of
Going to State or Federal Prison. Bureau of Justice Statistics
Special Report. NCJ 160092. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Justice.
• If names of authors, editors, or compilers are not provided, include some
or all of the following information:
– Country, state, city, or other government agency that issued the
document (e.g., legislative body, executive department, court bureau,
committee)
– Divisions, regional offices, etc.
– Date
– Title of the document
– Name of series or collection
 – Report number
– Publisher
– Page numbers
• Examples of references from executive department agencies:
U.S. Department of Justice. Bureau of Justice Statistics. 1984. Criminal
Victimization in the U.S., 1983. Washington, DC: U.S. Government
Printing Office.
U.S. Census Bureau. 1960. Characteristics of Population. Vol. 1.
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2011. Labor Force Characteristics by
Race and Ethnicity, 2010. Report 1032.
[Link]
• Examples of references from congressional sources:
Some information (e.g., bills, resolutions, committee activity, the
Congressional Record) is available online through [Link]
Debates:
U.S. Congress. House of Representatives. 1995. Violent Criminal
Incarceration Act of 1995. H.R. 667, 104th Congress, 1st Session.
Congressional Record 141 (February 9, 1995):H147
[Link]
record/1995/02/08/house-section/article/H1434-3.
Bills:
U.S. Congress. House of Representatives. 2007. Fair Minimum Wage
Act of 2007. H.R. 2. 110th Congress, 1st Session.
[Link]
Hearings:
U.S. Congress. Senate. 1992. Hate Crimes Statistics Act: Hearing
before the Subcommittee on the Constitution of the Committee on
the Judiciary. 102nd Congress, 2nd Session, August 5.
[Link]
[Link].
Report:
 U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Energy and Natural Resources.
2017. Frank and Jeanne Moore Wild Steelhead Special
Management Area Designation Act. Committee Report. 115th
Congress, 1st Session.
[Link]
See sections 6 and 12 in the Appendix for additional examples.

4.5 Footnotes and Endnotes

Footnotes should be indicated in the text by consecutive superscript Arabic
numerals. To refer to a footnote later in the text, use a parenthetical note: (see
note 3).
Footnotes or endnotes can (1) explain or amplify text, (2) cite materials of
limited availability, or (3) be added to a table to present additional information.
Use footnotes and endnotes only when necessary. Notes, particularly long
ones, can be distracting to the reader. As an alternative, consider incorporating
information from footnotes into the text, or stating in the text that the
information is available from the author. An appendix may also be added for
this information. Length of footnotes and endnotes are often at the discretion
of the journal or book editor.
Type footnotes in numerical order, double-spaced at the bottom of the
manuscript page or in a separate section titled Notes or Endnotes. Begin each
footnote with the superscript Arabic numeral to which it is keyed in the text.
9
After 1981 there was …

4.6 Appendixes
If only one appendix is included, refer to it as Appendix. For example, the title
might read:
Appendix. Variable Names and Definitions
If more than one appendix is included, each should be lettered (to distinguish
them from numbered figures and tables in the text). For example, the title
might read:
Appendix A. Variable Names and Definitions
Appendix B. Questions Included in the Survey
4.7 Mathematical Symbols and Equations
CMOS (2017:670–706) provides guidelines on mathematical expressions and
recommends clarity, accuracy, and consistency in style and usage. This section
includes instructions to authors and editors in some key areas of presentation
of mathematical notations and functions in manuscripts.
Authors should identify equations discussed in the text by consecutive Arabic
numbers in parentheses at the right-hand margin. Authors should clarify all
unusual characters or symbols with notes in the margins and use italics for
variables and bold italics for vectors and matrices.

4.7.1 Statistics
If a research paper includes statistical analyses, complete information must be
presented on key elements such as sample sizes, standard deviations, and
standard errors, as well as estimates of effect size and confidence intervals
beyond what are presented in the paper. Statistics presented in tables or
figures do not need to be repeated in the body of the paper; authors may
summarize data from a table to emphasize major findings.
For additional information on presenting statistics, see the Publication Manual
of the American Psychological Association (2010:116–23) and The Chicago
Manual of Style (2017:696–98).

4.8 Tables, Figures, and Graphic Materials

4.8.1 Tables
The following conventions and examples provide general guidelines on
presentation of tables:
• Number tables consecutively throughout the text. Include each table on a
separate sheet at the end of the manuscript.
• Include a descriptive title for each table. Specify what the table presents
(means, coefficients, percentages) and include information about the
dataset and time frame. Include who/what, when, and where in table
(and figure) titles to provide an accurate and comprehensive description
(particularly important if the table is viewed independent of the
accompanying article).
• Include headings for all columns and rows. Avoid abbreviations in column
and row headings. Use either % or percent in table headings as
 appropriate (i.e., so headings align with other table headings). Use
subheadings to separate different sections of the tables or to clarify
categories of variables. (This is a modification in the 6th edition.)
• Take measurement techniques into consideration when determining the
best way to present data (i.e., how many decimal places make sense). In
general, carry out decimal fractions to the thousandths place and omit
leading zeros (i.e., .372 instead of 0.372). CMOS (2017:160, 551–52)
says that “for quantities less than 1.0, zeros do not need to be added
before the decimal in a table unless prescribed by a journal or series style
(though they would usually be required in running text).”
Standard errors, t-statistics, and so forth may appear in parentheses under the
coefficients with an explanatory note identifying these statistics for the reader.
Alternatively, they may be presented in a separate column.
Enter general notes to a table as Notes or Sources beneath the table. Use a, b,
c, and so on to add explanatory footnotes to a table. List full citations of data
sources in the references.
Use asterisks *, **, and *** to indicate statistical significance at the .05, .01,
and .001 levels, respectively. Include the chi-square statistic, if and where
appropriate, in the table’s notes. Specify one-tailed or two-tailed tests. Tables
that present variables with different metrics are problematic because values
may require different numerical formats and interpretations. The following
table provides illustration.
(O’Brien, Daniel Tumminelli, Robert J. Sampson, and Christopher Winship.
2015. “Ecometrics in the Age of Big Data: Measuring and Assessing “Broken
Windows” Using Large-Scale Administrative Records.” Sociological Methodology
(45):111.)
In table notes and titles, N, p (probability notes), and other statistical notations
are italicized. An italic capital N stands for the total number of a group from
which data are drawn; a lowercase italics n might be used when specifying, for
example, the number of males in a group (CMOS 2017:155, 166–67). In
running text, N and n are not italicized when referring to population/sample
numbers.

4.8.2 Figures, Illustrations, and Photographs

Visual art—figures, illustrations, and photographs—are published in ASA
journals only when they add substantially to the research being presented. In
general, before including figures in a manuscript, consider objectively the
importance of the visual presentations to be included. The figure shown below
provides an illustration:

Shor, Eran, Arnout van de Rijt, Alex Miltsov, Vivek Kulkarni, and Steven Skiena.
2015. “A Paper Ceiling: Explaining the Persistent Underrepresentation of
Women in Printed News.” American Sociological Review 80(5):963.)
Number figures, illustrations, and photographs consecutively throughout the
manuscript. Each item should include a title. Submit high-resolution (at least
300 dpi) figures, illustrations, and photographs electronically. See 6.6 for text
and graphic file formats accepted by some ASA journals.
Important: All artwork and type must be legible when reduced to fit one or two
column widths, 2.75 inches wide and 5.5 inches wide, respectively.
Author(s) must secure permission to publish any copyrighted figure,
illustration, or photograph before publication in any ASA journal.

4.9 General Manuscript Formats and Style (Non-ASA Journals)

The ASA Style Guide is primarily intended to guide authors who are submitting
manuscripts to ASA journals. However, ASA style is used in many other venues
(e.g., preparation of sociological theses, dissertations, oral presentations, and
in publishing on topics in other social science fields).
Users of the ASA Style Guide are advised to consult with their departments,
agencies, organizations, or publishers on specific requirements for issues such
as the following:
• Page format requirements, including keyboarding instructions (e.g.,
margins, preferred font, indentation of paragraphs, spacing).
• The nature, format, content, and order of required pages (e.g., title
pages, acknowledgments, abstracts, references, appendixes, tables,
figures).
• Mechanics of style (e.g., special rules on punctuation and capitalization).
• Style requirements relating to headings, text citations and references,
mathematical expressions, tables and figures, and other supporting
materials.
• Requirements and procedures for transmission of manuscripts to
departments or publishers, including transmission in electronic formats.
Although the three checklists presented in 6.7 relate specifically to
requirements of ASA journals, they offer some ideas for standards of
mechanics and style that might apply to manuscripts more generally.
5
Guidelines for Using Electronic
Resources

This section of the Style Guide includes a brief discussion of

guidelines for citing online sources, examples of citations drawn from
electronic and digital sources commonly used in the social sciences,
and a glossary of select terms in the digital and technology
environment in research and publishing. Research-related resources
(publications, data, instruments, and so forth) are available in many
different formats (PDF, e-book, html, apps), which may vary based
on what each format supports, and in how publishers support them
(CMOS 2017:53–58).
The guidelines provided here are based on The Chicago Manual of
Style (2017). An online version of CMOS
([Link]
provides a useful quick guide to citations, including examples of the
most common types of electronic references. Note that the ASA Style
Guide has modified the guidelines on some of these issues; see 5.2
and 5.3 for acceptable ASA citations.
The 8th edition of the MLA Handbook (2016), the 5th and 6th
editions of the Publications Manual of the American Psychological
Association (published in 2008 and 2009, respectively), and the 6th
edition of the APA Style Guide to Electronic References (2012)
provided valuable insights in defining issues and setting some
ground rules for the ASA Style Guide.
Information is included for five types of resources:
• Books, journal articles, periodicals, and reports: some of these
sources exist only in online form, but many are available in
 print as well.
• Research-related resources: instruments, datasets, coding
keys, and program scripts available in machine-readable form.
• Other sources available on the internet: websites, blogs,
electronic mailing lists.
• Social media sources: Facebook, Twitter, and other types of
personal communications (text messages, email, or other
direct or private messages shared in social media).
• Other documents, data, and communications in various fixed-
media and multi-media format: CD-ROM, DVD, podcasts,
videos, and recordings in other audiovisual formats.

5.1 General Guidelines for Consulting and Citing Online

Sources
Online resources are generally accessed by users through the
internet. The following basic rules apply when citing online sources:
• Basic rule: References (whether from print or online sources)
should provide all basic elements of information about a source
(name of author or institution, year of publication, name of
article, title of publication, and name and location of publisher)
so the reader can readily access the material being cited. Most
sources consulted online can be cited by adding a URL (or in
some cases the bibliographic database) after the full facts of
publication (CMOS 2017:892–93).
• Digital Object Identifier (DOI) and Handle System; stable
(persistent) URLs: Internet sources that have stable or
persistent URLs are recommended. Authors should use a DOI
or Handle-based system whenever possible (CMOS 2017:746,
897–98). DOIs are an implementation of the Handle System:
URLs begin with [Link] and function the same
way as DOI-based URLs (CMOS 2017:746). When a print
 version of a source is referenced, a DOI does not need to be
included in the citation.

When citing online sources, use forms that will be most widely
accessible. It is important to keep in mind that even
documents in stable forms may not be accessible for the
following reasons:
– Some printed documents in electronic formats exist in
databases that are subscription-based and not widely available.
– Online newspapers and periodicals may have a time limit for
general access to some articles.
– Pursuant to court actions and other legal restrictions, some
documents do not exist in electronic forms that are generally
available.
• Domain name instead of URL: CMOS (2017:827) notes that for
formally published resources, it is usually acceptable simply to
list the name of the digital library or repository when a URL is
not available.

For example:
Dewey, John. 1920. Reconstruction in Philosophy. New York:
Henry Holt and Company. HathiTrust Digital Library.
• Access dates: CMOS (2017:748) considers self-reported dates
on which an author consulted a source of limited value.
Although access dates may be required for specific purposes
(certain journals, student papers), the ASA Style Guide requires
access dates for sources consulted online only if (1) a date for
the source is not available and cannot be determined from the
source (CMOS 2017:748, 915–16) or (2) when citing certain
online references and an access date can help identify which
version of the reference the author consulted. In those cases,
use n.d. (always lowercase) as the date of publication.
 For example:
ISA (International Sociological Association). n.d. “Executive
Committee.” Accessed October 2, 2018.
[Link]
committee/executive-committee-2018-2022/.
AAA (American Anthropological Association). 1998.
“Statement on Race.” Arlington, VA.
[Link]
[Link]?ItemNumber=2583.
For examples of citing online references, see 5.2
• Citing websites, blogs, and social media: Web-sites, blogs, and
social media can usually be entered in text with notes and are
not included in reference lists (CMOS 2017:915–18). Examples
of citations from sources drawn from websites, blog posts,
email communications, tweets, and Facebook postings are
included in 5.2.3 to 5.2.6. When a citation is included, a good
rule is to include any fact relevant to identifying the item in the
citation.
• Hyphenation and capitalization of email, internet: Email is not
hyphenated and internet is not capitalized. For other
compound expressions that include “electronic” (electronic-
commerce, electronic-loan), abbreviate “electronic” and
hyphenate according to the following form: e-commerce, e-
loan, e-journal.
• Permanent record of material cited from online sources:
Authors are strongly encouraged to keep a permanent record
of any research that is not formally published—particularly any
source that might be difficult to track down later (e.g., a post
on a social networking site) (CMOS 2017:749).
• Check all links before submitting a manuscript:
 – Check spelling of URLs so the source being cited is completely
and accurately identified.
– Do not type URL addresses: use the copy and paste functions
on a browser to transfer URL addresses to a manuscript.
– Avoid citing documents with URL addresses that no longer exist
by testing them before final submission of a manuscript.
– If a URL has expired but the document has been preserved in
hard copy or electronic form, cite it as an unpublished paper.

5.2 Forms of Electronic References

5.2.1 E-books
E-books are books requiring a specific application or device to
access. Because of the many different electronic formats available
(e.g., EPUB, PDF), authors must indicate which format was
consulted. The format for citing books accessed electronically is the
same as that used for citing print volumes, with the addition of
information about the medium consulted. If a book was consulted
online, the URL and date of access (if necessary) should be included
(CMOS 2017:824–28).
E-book
Wimberly, George L. 2015. LGBTQ Issues in Education:
Advancing a Research Agenda. Washington, DC:
American Educational Research Association.
[Link]
education-advancing-research-agenda.
EPUB edition of a book accessed through Adobe Digital Editions
(ADE)
Fenichel, Marilyn, and Heidi A. Schweingruber. 2010.
Surrounded by Science: Learning Science in Informal
Environments. Board on Science Education, Center for
 Education, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences
and Education. Washington, DC: National Academies
Press. Adobe Digital Editions EPUB.
Note: Unlike PDF versions of a book, text in an EPUB book will be
resized to devices and apps (e.g., Amazon Kindle) and may allow for
some interactive functions.
Online book in PDF form accessed from a database
Dewey, John. 1920. Reconstruction in Philosophy. New York:
Henry Holt and Company.
[Link]
id=hvd.32044017183484;view=1up;seq=5.
Book accessed using different applications and devices
Massey, Douglas S., Jorge Durand, and Nolan J. Malone.
2002. Beyond Smoke and Mirrors: Mexican Immigration
in an Era of Economic Integration. New York: Russell
Sage Foundation. Kindle.
For instruction on how to cite different versions of the same book
from a variety of sources for different platforms and devices (e.g.,
iBooks, Kindle, NOOK), see CMOS 2017:824–26.
Books
Sources cited from a reference book (dictionary, encyclopedia) are
typically cited in text and notes, rather than in reference lists. For
continually updated resources, include a posted publication or
revision date for the cited entry; if none is available, supply an
access date. Time stamps may be included for frequently updated
resources (as in the Wikipedia example below). (CMOS 2017:858–
59).
Merriam-Webster, s.v. “DVD,” accessed May 31, 2018,
[Link]
 Wikipedia, s.v. “Data Sharing,” last edited on May 13, 2018, at
03:05 (UTC), [Link]
Note: s.v. means “sub verbo,” Latin for “under the word.”

5.2.2 Periodicals available in online form

The general form for online periodicals (including online journals,
magazines, and newspapers) follows the pattern for all periodicals
(see 4.3.2).
Scott, Lionel D., Jr., and Laura E. House. 2005. “Relationship
of Distress and Perceived Control to Coping with
Perceived Racial Discrimination among Black Youth.”
Journal of Black Psychology 31(3):254–72.
Journal article with Digital Object Identifier (DOI) consulted online
Persell, Caroline Hodges, Kathryn M. Pfeiffer, and Ali Syed.
2008. “How Sociological Leaders Teach: Some Key
Principles.” Teaching Sociology 36(2):108–24.
doi:10.1177/0092055X0803600202.
Note: When a DOI is included, it should be copied and pasted from
the article.
Open-access journals
The following examples from ASA’s open-access journal Socius
illustrate different formats of the same article:
Article in pdf form:
Andersson, Matthew A. 2018. “Against All Odds or by Dint of
Privilege? Happiness and Life Satisfaction Returns to
College in America.” Socius: Sociological Research for a
Dynamic World.
[Link]
18773158.
Article in html form:
Andersson, Matthew A. 2018. “Against All Odds or by Dint of
Privilege? Happiness and Life Satisfaction Returns to
College in America.” Socius: Sociological Research for a
Dynamic World. doi:10.1177/2378023118773158.
Magazine articles
Kuttner, Robert. 2016. “The New Inequality Debate.”
American Prospect, January 14.
[Link]
Newspaper articles
Friedman, Thomas L. 2017. “Climate Shifts Aren’t Limited to
the Weather.” Opinion, New York Times, April 2.
[Link]
[Link].

5.2.3 Websites
Include as much of the following as can be determined from the
website: the title or description of the specific page; the title or
description of the site as a whole; the owner or sponsor of the site;
and a URL. Also include a publication date or date of revision or
modification (CMOS 2017:845–46).
A general rule may be applied to citing websites: if the website
contains data or evidence essential to a point being addressed in the
manuscript, it should be formally cited with the URL. CMOS
(2017:915–16) requires a date of access only if no date of
publication or date of revision can be determined from the website.
If no date can be determined, use n.d. as the date of publication in
the reference list entry and for the in-text citation.
• Example 1: A document retrieved from a website (unknown
publication date):
 Text: (WERA, n.d.)
Reference: WERA (World Education Research Association).
n.d. “About WERA.” Accessed November 15, 2021.
[Link]
• Example 2: A document retrieved from a website (known
publication date):

Text: (CEC 2014)

Reference: CEC (Council for Exceptional Children). 2021.
“CEC’s Mission Statement.”
[Link]
• Example 3: A document retrieved from an institution with a
known location:
Text: (ASA 2021)
Reference: ASA (American Sociological Association). 2021.
“Standing Committees.” Washington, DC: American
Sociological Association.
[Link]
leadership/standing-committees.
• Example 4: A document retrieved from a corporate website
(unknown location):
Text: (IBM 2009)
Reference: IBM (International Business Machines). 2009.
“2009 Annual Report.”
[Link]
[Link].

5.2.4 Blog entries or comments

Blog posts are cited in the same manner as online newspaper
articles. Citations include the author of the post, the title of the post
in quotation marks, the title of the blog in italics, the date of the
post, and a URL. In the author/date format, it is sufficient to cite
blog posts (as with newspapers and magazines) entirely in the text.
If references to blogs are needed in a manuscript, they should be
cited as follows (CMOS 2017:846–47, 916–17):
Ray, Victor. 2018. “The Racial Politics of Citation.”
Conditionally Accepted (blog), Inside Higher Ed. April
27, 2018.
[Link]
al-exclusions-scholarly-citations-opinion.

5.2.5 Email, text messages

Email and text messages (like other personal communications)
should be entered as part of the text and referenced in a footnote or
endnote. Emails are rarely cited in a reference list (CMOS 2017:848–
51). However, a frequently cited account or an extensive thread
related to a single subject or post may be included in a reference list
(CMOS 2017:917).

Text: In an email message to the author,8 Jones indicated

that he was leaving the university.

Footnote: 8 John Jones, email message to author, May 23,

1999.
When referring to communication by email or text messages, obtain
the permission of the owner before using it. Do not cite the email
address.
Content posted to electronic mailing lists or forums can be cited
much like other social media: name of correspondent, title of subject
or thread (in quotation marks and capitalized as in the original), title
of the list or forum (followed by list or forum if it is not part of the
title), title of any host site, date of the message or post, and a URL.
Cite posts on private forums or lists in the same manner as personal
communications (CMOS 2017:849).

5.2.6 Social media sources

As with citations for email, text messages, and other personal
communications, citations of social media can often be limited to the
text. However, as with other personal communications, a frequently
cited account may be included in a reference list. In the reference
list, include the real name and a screen name, if both are available.
In the text, cite the name under which the entry is listed in the
reference list (usually the real name, unless only a screen name is
available) (CMOS 2017:917).
Twitter
Washington Capitals (@Capitals). 2018. “THE WASHINGTON
CAPITALS ARE THE 2018 #STANLEYCUP CHAMPIONS!
#ALLCAPS.” Twitter, June 7, 8:06 p.m.
[Link]
Facebook
(ASA) American Sociological Association. 2018. “Research
from Sociology of Education: Johns Hopkins University
sociologist Julia Burdick-Will discovered that the
consequences of neighborhood violence reach further than
previously known, even spilling over to students who come
from safe neighborhoods.” Facebook, July 4.
[Link]
posts/10160635088755165.

5.2.7 Online databases

Example 1. Research products (data documentation, data,
metadata) from a data repository (deposited by investigators)
 Schneider, Barbara, and Linda J. Waite. 1998– 2000. The
500 Family Study. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university
Consortium for Political and Social Research
[distributor], 2008-06-03. doi:10.3886/ICPSR04549.v1.
Example 2. Research products from census and survey data
Ruggles, Steven, Katie Genadek, Ronald Goeken, Josiah
Grover, and Matthew Sobek. 2017. Integrated Public Use
Microdata Series: Version 7.0 [dataset]. Minneapolis:
University of Minnesota. doi:10.18128/D010.V7.0.
Example 3. Administrative dataset
United States Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor
Statistics. 2020. “Occupational Employment and Wage
Statistics, May 2020 State Occupational Employment
and Wage Estimates, Illinois, 15-0000 Computer and
Mathematical Occupations.”
[Link]
0000.
Example 4. Tables in PDF or XLS spreadsheet format
Scientists and Engineers Statistical Data System (SESTAT).
2006. “Table B-1: U.S. Scientists and Engineers, by
Detailed Field and Level of Highest Degree Attained:
1999.” [Link]
workforce/1999/tables/[Link].

5.2.8 Data supporting materials: Machine-Readable

Data Files (MRDF)
Researchers frequently cite data and related information (coding
keys, statistical program information, variable lists) available in
Machine-Readable Data Files (MRDF). These sources may come from
electronic media (e.g., CD-ROM, DVD) or be downloaded from an
online source. For example, MRDF for the Youth Development Study
are available under the “export metadata tab” at the following site:
Mortimer, Jeylan T. 1988–2011. “Youth Development Study.”
[St. Paul, Minnesota]. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university
Consortium for Political and Social Research
[distributor], 2015-12-18. doi:10.3886/ICPSR24881.v3.

5.2.9 CD-ROM or DVD-ROM (fixed media formats)

References to materials on CD-ROM are treated similarly to printed
works (CMOS 2017:828). Place of publication may be omitted unless
relevant:
NRC (National Research Council of the National Academies).
2010. A Data-Based Assessment of Research –Doctorate
Programs in the United States: Data Tables
(Prepublication Copy). Washington, DC: National
Academy of Sciences. CD-ROM.

5.2.10 Podcast
If no date can be determined from the source, include the date the
material was last accessed (CMOS 2017:873–74). This applies to
videos as well.
Cunningham, Lillian. 2016. “John F. Kennedy: We Are All
Mortal.” August 28 in Presidential, produced by the
Washington Post, podcast, 43:15.
[Link]
sidential-podcast/.

5.2.11 Videos
Edin, Kathryn. 2018. “One Misfortune Away.” Produced by
the American Sociological Association. June 27. Video,
 5:13. [Link]
v=ExmHMXPZ8Nc.

5.1.12 Other Audiovisual Materials

Audiovisual recordings and other multimedia can be cited by
including the following type of information: name of person primarily
responsible for the content, title of the work (in quotation marks or
italics as applicable), information about the work (e.g., date and
location of recording), information about the publisher (including
date of publication), information about the format (LP, DVD, AVI),
and any other information that might be relevant to the format
(CMOS 2017:869). In many cases, however, it may be more
appropriate to list such materials in the text (CMOS 2017:919–20).
For general guidelines for citations and references for other types of
audiovisual media (film, sound recordings, slides, filmstrips, videos),
see CMOS (2017:869–73).
Eves, Derral. 2014. “How to Properly Upload Videos to
YouTube.” Posted January 2. Video, 4:22.
[Link]
PBS (Public Broadcasting Corporation). 2008. “Women,
Power and Politics.” Now. Aired September 19.
[Link]
Additional examples of online resources are included in section 12 of
the Appendix.

5.3 Some Key Terms and Definitions for Electronic Resources

The list below includes preferred spellings and definitions for some
key terms used in referring to electronic and online resources and
systems. The forms of the acronyms (including capitalization and
hyphenation) and definitions are drawn largely from The Chicago
Manual of Style (2017), Merriam-Webster Online (2018), and
Wikipedia (2018).
In the following list, an asterisk (*) indicates that all forms are
acceptable.
App
Application. Now commonly used to refer to any computer program,
app can be used more narrowly to refer to an interactive version of a
publication such as a dictionary or other reference work (CMOS
2017:975).
Avatar
An electronic image that represents and is manipulated by a
computer user in a virtual space (e.g., in a computer game or an
online shopping site) and that interacts with other objects in the
space. (Accessed May 31, 2018, [Link]
[Link]/dictionary/avatar.)
Beta testing
The final check of a computer application (e.g., a website) before it
is released (CMOS 2017:975).
Big data
Big data refers to datasets so big and complex that traditional data-
processing application software is inadequate to deal with them. Big
data challenges include: capturing data, data storage, data analysis,
search, sharing, transfer, visualization, querying, updating,
information privacy, and data source. (Last edited on July 14, 2018,
at 20:07 (UTC), [Link]
Bitmap
A digital representation of an image consisting of an array of pixels,
in rows and columns, that can be saved to a file (CMOS 2017:976).
Blog
Blog, from Weblog, is a web-based forum that consists of posted
entries organized by date or topic (and often titled or signed) and
usually accompanied by readers’ comments (CMOS 2017:844).
Cookie
A small file or part of a file stored on a World Wide Web user’s
computer, created and subsequently read by a website server, that
contains personal information (e.g., a user identification code,
customized preferences, or a record of pages visited). (Accessed
May 31, 2018, [Link]
CSS
Cascading Style Sheets. A style sheet language used to define the
presentation of a document marked up in HTML or another formal
markup language (CMOS 2017:978).
Data curation
Data curation is a broad term used to indicate processes and
activities related to the organization and integration of data collected
from various sources, annotation of the data, and publication and
presentation of the data such that the value of the data is
maintained over time, and the data remain available for reuse and
preservation. (Last edited on May 9, 2018, at 11:20 (UTC),
[Link]
Data sharing
Data sharing is the practice of making data used for scholarly
research available to other investigators. (Last edited on May 13,
2018, at 03:05 (UTC), [Link]
[See section 12.5 of the ASA Code of Ethics.])
Data mining
The practice of searching through large amounts of computerized
data to find useful patterns or trends. (Accessed May 31, 2018,
[Link]
DOI
Digital Object Identifier. A unique alphanumeric string (e.g.,
10.1086/597483) assigned to a publication or other unit of
intellectual property. As a digital identifier, a DOI provides a means
of looking up the current location of such an object on the internet
(CMOS 2017:978).
DRM
Digital Rights Management. Refers to a system designed to protect
copyrighted electronic works from unauthorized use, copying, or
distribution (CMOS 2017:978).
DPI
Dots Per Inch (dpi) is a measure of spatial printing or video or image
scanner dot density, in particular, the number of individual dots that
can be placed in a line within the span of 1 inch (2.54 cm). (Last
edited on April 3, 2018, at 14:53 (UTC),
[Link]
DTD
Document Type Definition. In markup language such as XML, a set
of rules about the structure of a document that dictate the
relationship among different tags and allowable text or elements
within specified tags (CMOS 2017:979).
DVD
An optical disk using a high-capacity format often containing a video
recording (e.g., a movie) or computer data. (Accessed May 31, 2018,
[Link]
E-book
An electronic book is a book made available in digital form,
consisting of text, images, or both, readable on the flat-panel display
of computers or other electronic devices. Although sometimes
defined as “an electronic version of a printed book,” some e-books
exist without a printed equivalent. (Last edited on July 13, 2018, at
18:27 (UTC), [Link] See also CMOS
2017:54, 824; EPUB.)
E-commerce
Commerce conducted via the internet. (Accessed May 31, 2018,
[Link]
EPS, eps, .eps*
Encapsulated PostScript File. A type of file used to encode graphics
so they can be embedded in a larger PostScript file (CMOS
2017:979).
EPUB
Electronic Publication. An international standard format for
packaging and encoding content for distribution as a single file
based on XHTML and CSS together with compatible formats and
technologies. EPUB can be used as an open format for electronic
books or in conjunction with commercial products that use systems
of digital rights management (CMOS 2017:979–80).
Facebook
Facebook is a U.S.-based online social media and social networking
service company with 2.2 billion monthly active users as of January
2018. (Last edited on July 13, 2018, at 09:29 (UTC),
[Link]
Firewall
Computer hardware or software that prevents unauthorized access
to private data (e.g., on a company’s local area network or intranet)
by outside computer users. (Accessed June 24, 2018,
[Link]
FTP
File Transfer Protocol. The protocol, or set of instructions and syntax,
for moving files between computers on the internet (CMOS
2017:981).
GIF, gif, .gif*
Graphics Interchange Format. A file format for compressing and
storing bitmapped graphics that contain line art or text for viewing
on-screen (CMOS 2017:981).
Google Books
Google Books is a service from Google Inc. that searches the full text
of books and magazines that Google has scanned, converted to text
using optical character recognition (OCR), and stored in its digital
database. Books are provided by publishers or authors, through the
Google Books Partner Program, or by Google’s library partners,
through the Library Project. (Last edited on April 23, 2018, at 12:45
(UTC), [Link]
Handle System
Corporation for National Research Initiatives’ (CNRI) proprietary
([Link] Registry) system for assigning persistent identifiers or
handles to information sources ([Link]
This system provides URLs that begin with [Link]
that function in much the same way as DOI-based URLs. DOIs are
an implementation of the Handle system (CMOS 2017:746).
Host
A computer that controls communications in a network or that
administers a database. (Accessed June 26, 2018,
[Link]
HTML, html, .html*
Hypertext Markup Language. A specific set of tags used to describe
the structure of hypertext documents that make up most web pages.
Web browsers interpret these tags to display the text and graphics
on a web page. HTML is an application of SGML (CMOS 2017:981).
HTTP
Hypertext Transfer Protocol. The protocol, or set of instructions and
syntax, for exchanging web pages and related content on the
internet and for enabling links between such content. HTTPS (the s
stands for secure) is a version of the protocol that adds support for
encryption and related security mechanisms (CMOS 2017:981).
Hypertext
The organization of digital information into associations connected
by links. In a hypertext environment, objects such as text and
images can contain links to other objects in the same file or in
external files, which users can choose to follow (CMOS 2017:981).
ICPSR
Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research is an
international consortium of more than 750 academic institutions and
research organizations that provides leadership and training in data
access, curation, and methods of analysis for the social science
research community. ICPSR maintains a data archive of more than
250,000 files of research in the social and behavioral sciences. It
hosts 21 specialized collections of data in education, aging, criminal
justice, substance abuse, terrorism, and other fields. (Accessed July
14, 2018, [Link]
Instagram
Instagram is a photo- and video-sharing social networking service
owned by Facebook, Inc. (Last edited on July 14, 2018, at 23:28
(UTC), [Link]
ISBN
International Standard Book Number. Publishers usually assign an
ISBN to each book in each format (e.g., cloth, paperback, e-book)
under a system maintained by the International ISBN Agency and
administered in the United States by R. R. Bowker. The ISBN
uniquely identifies a book, thus facilitating order fulfillment and
inventory tracking (CMOS 2017:982).
ISSN
International Standard Serial Number. An ISSN is a unique eight-
digit number that identifies a title journal or other periodical through
a database of numbers maintained by the ISSN International Centre.
Books that are part of a monograph series may be assigned an ISSN
in additional to an ISBN (CMOS 2017:982).
Internet
A global, public network of computers and computer networks that
communicate using TCP/IP (transmission control protocol/internet
protocol) (CMOS 2017:982).
JavaScript
JavaScript is a high-level, interpreted programming language.
Alongside HTML and CSS, JavaScript is one of the three core
technologies of the World Wide Web. JavaScript enables interactive
web pages and thus is an essential part of web applications. The
vast majority of websites use it, and all major web browsers have a
dedicated JavaScript engine to execute it. (Last edited on July 14,
2018, at 10:17 (UTC), [Link]
JPEG, jpeg, .jpg*
Joint Photographic Experts Group. A file format commonly used to
compress and store bitmapped graphics that contain photographic
and other continuous-tone images for viewing on-screen (CMOS
2017:982).
JSTOR
JSTOR, short for Journal Storage, is a digital library containing
digitized issues of academic journals, books, and primary sources. It
provides full-text searches of almost 2,000 journals. (Last edited on
June 12, 2018, at 07:22 (UTC),
[Link] JSTOR provides access to
more than 12 million academic journal articles, books, and primary
sources in 75 disciplines. (Accessed April 29, 2018,
[Link]
LISTSERV
The term Listserv (written by the registered trademark licensee, L-
Soft International, Inc., as LISTSERV) refers to electronic mailing list
software applications in general, but it is more properly applied to a
few early instances of such software that allow a sender to send one
email to a list, which then transparently sends it to the list’s
subscribers. (Last edited on June 6, 2018, at 18:09 (UTC),
[Link]
Metadata
A form of structured resource description, literally data about data.
The metadata for a given publication may include, among other
things, copyright information, an ISBN or ISSN, a volume or issue
number, the title and creator of the work, and a description.
Metadata is typically recorded using a standard syntax based on a
markup language such as XML (CMOS 2017:983).
OCR
Optical Character Recognition. A technology that converts images of
text (e.g., from a scan of a printed page) into character data that
can be manipulated like any other digital text (CMOS 2017:984).
ORCID
The ORCID (Open Researcher and Contributor ID) is a
nonproprietary alphanumeric code to uniquely identify scientific and
other academic authors and contributors. (Last edited on July 7,
2018, at 13:07 (UTC), [Link]
Permalinks
(See URL)
PDF, pdf, .pdf*
Portable Document Format. An Adobe file format—and now a formal,
open standard (ISO 32000-1)—for stable, device-independent
delivery of electronic documents. Preserving such elements as fonts,
formatting, and pagination, PDF is used not only as the basis for
many printed publications, but also as a format for electronic
publications, including many journal articles and e-books (CMOS
2017:984).
PNG
Portable Network Graphic. A file format for compressing and storing
bitmapped graphics that contain line art or text for viewing on
screen (CMOS 2017:984).
Pixel
In digital imaging, a pixel, pel, dots, or picture element is a physical
point in a raster image, or the smallest addressable element in an
all-points addressable display device; it is the smallest controllable
element of a picture represented on the screen. (Last edited on May
28, 2018, at 04:06 (UTC), [Link]
Plain-text file
An informal term for a file that contains data encoded using only
letters, numerals, punctuation marks, spaces, returns, line breaks,
and tabs with no additional formatting or special characters. Plain-
text files are often referred to as ASCII files, although newer
encoding schemes may be used, and other kinds of data (e.g., XML)
can also be stored as plain-text files (CMOS 2017:984).
Protocol
A standard set of instructions and syntax that define the rules by
which documents are shared between computers over a network
(CMOS 2017:986).
Resolution
The number of pixels per unit of measure used to form an image. In
the United States, image resolution is calculated per inch: the more
pixels per inch, the higher the quality of the image (CMOS
2017:986).
Running heads
Copy set at the top of a page, often containing the title of the
publication or chapter, chapter number, or other information. Such
copy is sometimes placed at the bottom of the page, in which case it
is referred to as running feet (CMOS 2017:987).
Sans serif
Sans serif is a typeface with no serifs (like this). Serif (like this) is a
short, light line projecting from the top or bottom of a main stroke of
a letter; originally, in handwritten letters, a beginning or finishing
stroke of the pen (CMOS 2017:987).
Search engines
A web search engine is a software system that is designed to search
for information on the World Wide Web. (Last edited on July 7, 2018,
at 17:27 (UTC), [Link]
SGML
Standard Generalized Markup Language. An international standard
for constructing sets of tags. SGML is not a specific set of tags but a
system for defining vocabularies of tags (the names of the tags and
what they mean) and using them to encode documents (CMOS
2017:987).
Social media
Social media (or social networking) refers to any internet-based
forum for public communication shared by means of a dedicated
platform or service. A website can host or consist of a blog or social
media content, and blogs overlap with social media, blurring the
distinctions between the terms. All three can include multimedia
content. Social media can also contain privately shared content,
which is normally cited like other forms of personal communication
(CMOS 2017:944–45).
Style sheet
A style sheet is a set of programming instructions that, in
conjunction with a markup language such as XML or HTML,
determine how a document is presented on a screen, on a printed
page, or in another medium such as speech. It is also a record of
terms kept by a manuscript editor to document particular usages for
a specific manuscript (CMOS 2017:988).
TIFF, tiff, .tif*
Tagged image file format. A file format developed by Aldus and
Microsoft and used to store bitmapped graphics, including scanned
line art, halftones, and color images (CMOS 2017:988).
TRAILS
Teaching Resources and Innovations Library for Sociology. The
Teaching Resources and Innovations Library for Sociology (TRAILS)
is an online, searchable database that aids in the creation and
dissemination of peer-reviewed teaching resources.
[Link]
Twitter
Twitter is an online news and social networking service on which
users post and interact with messages known as “tweets.” (Last
edited on July 14, 2018, at 07:15 (UTC),
[Link]
URL
Uniform Resource Locator. The address used to locate a document
on the internet (CMOS 2017:989). Some internet resources list
another version of the URL, intended for citing or sharing the link.
These URLs, often called persistent URLs, stable URLs, or
permalinks, are preferred absent a DOI or the like (CMOS
2017:747).
Web browser
A computer program designed to access information on the internet
or on a local network (CMOS 2017:990).
Wiki
A website that allows visitors to edit and contribute content (CMOS
2017:990).
World Wide Web
The internet’s most widely used information-retrieval service. The
World Wide Web uses hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) to allow
users to request and retrieve documents (web pages and multimedia
objects) from other computers on the internet (CMOS 2017:990).
XHTML
An application of XML for producing HTML that conforms to the rules
established for a particular XML-based document (CMOS 2017:990).
XML
Extensible Markup Language. A subset of the SGML standard, used
for structuring documents and data on the internet (CMOS
2017:990).
XSL
Extensible Style Sheet Language. A family of style sheet languages
used to define the presentation of XML documents and their
conversion, or transformation, into other formats such as HTML
(using XSLT, extensible style sheet language transformations) (CMOS
2017:990).
6
Preparing and Submitting a
Manuscript to an ASA Journal

Journals published by the American Sociological Association (ASA)

have specific format requirements for manuscripts submitted for
publication. Although most journals now require submissions
electronically, authors are advised to follow the guidelines listed
below when submitting a manuscript to an ASA journal. A checklist
of elements required for submission is included in 6.7.

6.1 Ethical Guidelines

ASA regards the submission of a manuscript to more than one
professional journal at the same time as an unethical practice.
Manuscripts that have appeared or will appear, in whole or part, in
other publications must be clearly identified as such. All persons who
publish in ASA journals are required to abide by the ASA Code of
Ethics regarding plagiarism, authorship credit, and other ethical
issues. See the ASA Code of Ethics, available online at
[Link]

6.2 Copyright
In general, ASA holds the copyright to content published in its
journals. For most ASA journals, if a manuscript is accepted for
publication, an author will be required to transfer the copyright to
the ASA. After an article has been published, an author may use it
without charge or permission in any future book or article of which
that author is the sole author or editor. If an author, either by choice
or funder mandate, would like their article to be freely avail- able
upon publication, the author can pay a fee to have their article
unlocked on the publisher’s website.
Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World, is ASA’s general
open-access journal. Unlike other ASA journals, the standard Socius
license is Creative Commons by Attribution Noncommercial (CC BY-
NC), which allows authors to retain copyright and others to reuse
the work without permission if the work is properly referenced and
the use is noncommercial.

6.2.1 Contributors’ Rights

In most cases, authors of material published in an ASA journal can
share their work under ASA’s Green Open-Access policy as explained
below. Authors should review the transfer of copyright document
they signed for more details and any updated policies.
Each author may:
1. Share the version of the article submitted to the journal (version
1) anywhere at any time.
2. Once the article has been accepted for publication, authors may
post their accepted version (version 2) of the article on their own
personal website, their department’s website, or the repository
of their institution without any restrictions.
3. Authors may use the published article (version 3) for their own
teaching needs or to supply on an individual basis to research
colleagues, provided that such supply is not for commercial
purposes.
4. Authors may use the published article (version 3) in a book
solely authored or edited by the author at any time after
publication in the journal. This does not apply to books where
authors are contributing a chapter to a book authored or edited
by someone else.
5. Authors may not post the published article (version 3) on a
website or in a repository without permission from the ASA or its
publisher.
When posting or reusing an article under the above policy,
appropriate credit must be given to the journal where the article has
been published as the original source of the content as follows:
Author(s), “Article Title,” Journal Title (Volume xx, Issue xx) pp. xx-
xx. Copyright © [year] (Copyright Holder). Additionally, provide a
link to the appropriate DOI for the published version of the article.

6.3 Contributors’ Responsibilities

On occasion, scholars need to include copyrighted material in their
manuscript. However, responsibility for obtaining permission for any
copyrighted material rests with the author. ASA journal content
published prior to 1964 is now in the public domain.
If a manuscript includes material for which the author does not hold
the copyright, the author is responsible for submit- ting written
permission from the copyright holder of the material to include and
reproduce the material within the manuscript. The permission must
cover all media and all languages throughout the world in perpetuity.
Contributors are responsible for the payment of such permissions if
required.
Note: Whether the material is being used with permission, or on the
basis that it falls under fair use, full citation for the copyright holder
and the original publication of the material must be included with
the manuscript submission.

6.4 Manuscript Specifications

6.4.1 Manuscript Format
Prior to submission, authors are advised to check with specific
journal submission guidelines. The checklists in 6.7 contain detailed
specifications for page format requirements for manuscripts
submitted to ASA journals in general.
6.4.2 Title Page
The title page should include the full title of the article, the name(s)
and institution(s) of the author(s) (listed vertically if more than one),
a running head, the word count for the manuscript (including
footnotes and references), and a title footnote. An asterisk (*)
following the title can be used to refer to the title footnote at the
bottom of the page. This footnote should include the name, address,
and email of the corresponding author, acknowledgments, credits,
grant numbers, and key words.

6.5 Submitting a Manuscript

Manuscripts for most ASA journals are submitted electronically.
Please check with the journal’s website or editorial office for specific
instructions. (Visit
[Link] for
editorial office and submission site information.)
For most ASA journals, there is a $25 manuscript processing fee
payable online at the time of submission. No fee is required for
papers authored by ASA student members. Processing fees are not
required for comments, replies, or revise-resubmits. For most
journals, submit comments on previously published articles through
the electronic submission system.

6.5.1 Electronic Submission Requirements

As part of the anonymous peer-review process, authors will often
need to upload a anonymized manuscript without a title page, as
well as a separate title page with the authors’ institutional
affiliations, acknowledgments, and contact information for the
corresponding author.
Authors may need to upload the following separate files/ items to
complete the submission process:
• Cover Letter. Provide complete contact information for the
corresponding author (name, address, phone, email), the
complete manuscript title, and any other important and
relevant information.
• Abstract. Provide 200 words or fewer describing the purpose,
methods, and general findings of the study.
• Title Page. See 6.4.2 for title page specifications.
• Anonymized Manuscript. Anonymized manuscripts do not
include the title page (or any self-identifying information).
There is no need to include the abstract with the manuscript.
 • Biography Page. Please provide a short biography (fewer than
100 words) for each author.

6.6 Formatting a Manuscript for Submission

The guidelines below are based on manuscript requirements for
ASA’s flagship journal, the American Sociological Review. Prior to
submission, authors are advised to check with specific journal
submission guidelines. Sections in a manuscript may include the
following: title page, abstract, text, notes, references, tables, figures,
and appendixes.

Title Page
See 6.4.2 for title page specifications.

Abstract
The abstract is a one-paragraph (no more than 200 words)
descriptive summary of the most important contributions of the
manuscript. Do not include authors’ names or other identifying
information. See 4.1.2.

Anonymized Manuscript
The manuscript should not include the title page, authors’ names or
affiliations, or any other identifying information. Delete or rewrite
any text that identifies you as the author. For example, when citing
your own work, please write “Smith (2016) concluded …,” instead of
“I concluded (Smith 2016)”

Text
For readable copy for the purpose of peer review, text should be set
in a serif typeface (e.g., Times New Roman). All text must be
double-spaced and in 12-point font size. Margins should be at least
one inch on all four sides. See 4.1.4.

Notes
Notes should be listed in a separate “ENDNOTES” section. Begin
each note with the superscript numeral to which it is keyed in the
text (e.g., “1. After 1981, there were”). Notes can (a) explain or
amplify text, (b) cite materials of limited availability, or (c) append
information presented in a table or figure. Avoid long notes: consider
(a) stating in the text that information is available from the author,
(b) depositing the information in a national retrieval center and
inserting a short footnote or a citation in the text, or (c) adding an
appendix. Each note should not exceed 100 words. See 4.5.

References
References should be listed in a separate “REFERENCES” section. All
references cited in the text must be listed in the reference section,
and vice versa. Publication information for each must be complete
and correct. List the references in alphabetical order by authors’ last
names; include first names and middle initials for all authors when
available. See 4.3.2.

Tables
Number tables consecutively in the order in which they appear in the
text. Tables will appear in the published article in the order in which
they are numbered initially. Each table must include a descriptive
title and headings for all columns and rows. See 4.8.1.
Figures (Including Illustrations and Photographs)
Number figures consecutively in the order in which they appear in
the text. Figures will appear in the published article in the order in
which they are numbered initially. Figures should include a title and
may have a caption. Preferred programs and formats for figures
include the following: Excel, Word, PowerPoint, .wmf, .emf, and .tif
(300 dpi). See 4.8.2.
Appendixes
Appendixes should be lettered to distinguish them from numbered
tables and figures. Include a descriptive title for each appendix (e.g.,
“Appendix A. Variable Names and Definitions”). See 4.6.

6.7 Checklist for Preparing and Submitting a Manuscript to

an ASA Journal
For more specific information on any of the following guidelines,
review the contents of Chapter 4 and 6.4 to 6.6 of the ASA Style
Guide. See also The Chicago Manual of Style (2017:59, 63–76);
“Manuscript Preparation Guidelines for Authors,” available at
[Link]
These checklists are intended as guidelines and are not exhaustive.

6.7.1 Manuscript Specifications

❑ Double-space text (including references, footnotes, and
endnotes).
– Text must be in 12-point serif type face (e.g., Times New
Roman).
– Block quotes may be single-spaced.
❑ Create margins of at least one inch on all four sides.

❑ Number all pages sequentially.

❑ Remove comments, annotations, field codes, or other hidden
text; accept all tracked changes as final (i.e., there should be
nothing hidden in the manuscript).
❑ Do not use space bars or indents to achieve tabs, align text,
or create hanging indents.
❑ Avoid using the automatic hyphen feature. The hyphenation
feature on your word processor should be turned off. Do not
manually break markedly long words.

❑ Do not right-justify text.

❑ Use only “normal” format settings. Do not assign different

styles for headings, block quotations, and so on.

❑ Create block quotations using the word-processing feature for

indenting paragraphs, not with tabs. Use one hard return at
the end of the quotation block.
❑ Produce special characters using only the word- processing
program’s built-in character set (i.e., do not create characters
from characters on the keyboard).

❑ Use a hard return after the following:

– Title of the article
– Running heads
– Each paragraph
– Each text heading
– Each page heading (e.g., Abstract, Biography, Table titles)
– Each reference
– Each footnote
❑ Place footnotes or endnotes as text at the end of the
manuscript. Use the word-processing software’s built-in note-
making feature. This will automatically connect the text of a
 specific note with a specific place in the text. Footnotes and
endnotes in the text must be indicated by superscript
numbers and should be limited to 100 words.

6.7.2 Manuscript Content

❑ Run spell check and grammar check. Note that these
functions may not always be reliable.

❑ Check for subject-verb agreement and parallel grammatical

structures.
❑ Check all headings and subheadings for consistency and
accuracy. Are headings formatted correctly for all levels? Do
titles accurately reflect content and organization of the paper?

❑ Has permission been obtained to use all copyrighted material

included in the manuscript?

❑ Cite all attributions to other publications and works fully,

appropriately, and accurately.

❑ Check accuracy of form and content of references cited in the

text.
❑ Check that all text citations have references and vice versa
(i.e., drop any references not cited in the text).
❑ Check that all references follow ASA style guidelines.

❑ Check that references are alphabetized.

❑ Proof accuracy of references (e.g., author names, titles of

articles, journal names, page numbers).

❑ Be sensitive to anonymizing the manuscript for reviewers by

removing all identifying information throughout the
manuscript.
 ❑ Proof tables and figures for accuracy.
❑ Cross-check:
– Figures, illustrations, and photographs against captions
and text references
– Tables with text references and against table lists
– All cross-references
– All URLs cited and all electronic links
– Notes against their text reference
– Appendixes against their text reference

6.7.3 Submitting the Manuscript

When submitting a manuscript to a journal, include the following:

❑ Cover letter with the address, phone number, and email

address of the corresponding author; the complete title of the
manuscript; and any other important information, such as
changes of address and availability.
❑ Title page, including:
– Full title of the article
– Names and institutions for all authors (listed vertically if
there is more than one author)
– Running head (60 characters or less)
– Manuscript word count (including text, notes, and
references)
– Title footnote, including the name, address, and email of
the corresponding author, acknowledgements, credits,
grant information, and keywords
❑ Abstract, which is
– On a separate page
 – One paragraph, no more than 200 words
– Descriptive (a summary of the most important
contributions in a paper) and accessible (jargon-free and
clear to the general reader)
❑ Three to five key words, which will be used for indexing.

❑ Appendixes:
– Label appendixes Appendix A, Appendix B, and so on, and
include a descriptive title. Appendixes appear at the end of
an article (after references)
❑ Tables:
– Number tables consecutively throughout the text
– Include tables at the end of the manuscript or as a
separate file
– Place each table on a separate page
– Include a descriptive title and include headings for all
columns and rows in each table

❑ Figures, illustrations, photographs, and other graphic

materials:
– Number each item consecutively throughout the text
– Include a title for each figure, illustration, and photograph.
Each must be labeled clearly

❑ Proof of permissions that may be required to reproduce

illustrations or previously published materials.

❑ Biography of each author, including:

– Author’s name, title, department, and institution
– A brief description (fewer than 100 words) of current
research interests, publications, or awards for each author
❑ A manuscript processing fee. No fee is required for papers
authored by ASA student members.
7 Interpreting Copy Editors’ Notations

When a manuscript is accepted for publication, a copy editor may

mark up your manuscript electronically or by hand. The following are
examples of standard proofreading marks:

Changes to Text
Delete
Close up; delete space
Delete and close up (for letters within a word)
Let it stand as is
Insert space
New paragraph
Flush paragraph
Move to the right; indent
Move to the left; to left margin
Center
Move up
Move down
Align horizontally
Align vertically
Transpose
Spell out

Type Specifications
Italic type
 Roman (not bold or italic) type
Bold type
Lowercase letters
Uppercase letters
Small capitals
Superscript
Subscript
Capitalize

Punctuation
Insert comma
Insert apostrophe or single quotation mark
Insert quotation marks
Insert period
Insert ellipses
Insert semicolon
Insert colon
Insert virgule (slash)
Insert hyphen
Insert em dash
Insert en dash
Insert parentheses
Insert brackets
8 References and Other Sources

8.1 References

AERA (American Educational Research Association). 2006.

“Standards for Reporting on Empirical Social Science Research in
AERA Publications.” Educational Researcher 35(6):33–40.
doi:10.3102/0013189X035006033.

APA (American Psychological Association). 2010. Publication Manual

of the American Psychological Association. 6th ed. Washington,
DC: American Psychological Association.

APA (American Psychological Association). 2012. “APA Style Guide to

Electronic References.” Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association.

ASA (American Sociological Association). 1981. Publications Manual.

Unpublished report prepared by the Subcommittee on a
Publications Manual: Charles M. Bonjean, Lois B. DeFleur, and
Norval Glenn, December 5.

ASA (American Sociological Association). 2018. ASA Code of Ethics.

Washington, DC: American Sociological Association.
[Link]

Becker, Howard. 2007. Writing for Social Scientists. 2nd ed. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.

Gastel, Barbara, and Robert A. Day. 2016. How to Write and Publish
a Scientific Paper, 8th ed. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood.
Harvard Law Review Association. 2015. The Bluebook: A Uniform
System of Citation. 20th ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Law
Review Association.

Library of Congress. 2018. [Link]. Washington, DC.

[Link]

Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary. 2005. 11th ed. Springfield,

MA: Merriam-Webster.

Merriam-Webster Online. 2018. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster.

[Link]

Miller, Jane E. 2015. The Chicago Guide to Writing about Numbers,

2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. National Archives
and Records Administration. 2010. “Citing Records in the
National Archives of the United States: General Information
Leaflet 17.” Washington, DC.
[Link]
[Link].

Stein, Arlene, and Jessie Daniels. 2017. Going Public: A Guide for
Social Scientists. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Strunk, William F., Jr., and E. B. White. 2000. The Elements of Style.
4th ed. New York: Macmillan.

The University of Chicago Press. 2017. The Chicago Manual of Style.

17th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

The University of Chicago Press. 2018a. “Chicago-Style Citation

Quick Guide.”
[Link]

The University of Chicago Press. 2018b. “Manuscript Preparation

Guidelines for Authors.”
 [Link]

Wikipedia Foundation. 2018. “Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia.”

[Link]

Williams, Joseph M., and Joseph Bizup. 2017. Style: Lessons in

Clarity and Grace. 12th ed. Boston: Pearson.

8.2 Other Sources

The references listed below are widely used in the social sciences:

Evans, Bergen, and Cornelia Evans. [1957] 2000. A Dictionary of

Contemporary American Usage. New York: Random House.

Fowler, H. W. [1926] 2010. A Dictionary of Modern English Usage.

New York: Oxford University Press.

Merriam-Webster Concise Handbook for Writers. 1998. 2nd ed.

Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster.

Merriam-Webster Thesaurus. 2005. Springfield, MA: Merriam-

Webster.

Modern Language Association of America. 2008. MLA Style Manual

and Guide to Scholarly Publishing. 3rd ed. New York: Modern
Language Association of America.

Modern Language Association of America. 2016. MLA Handbook. 8th

ed. New York: Modern Language Association of America.

Mullins, Carolyn J. [1977] 1984. A Guide to Writing and Publishing in

the Social and Behavioral Sciences. New York: John Wiley and
Sons.
Skillin, Marjorie E., with Robert M. Gay et al. 1974. Words into Type.
3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Swanson, Ellen. 1999. Mathematics into Type. Updated ed.

Providence, RI: American Mathematical Society.

Theodorson, George A., and Achilles G. Theodorson. [1969] 1979. A

Modern Dictionary of Sociology. 11th ed. New York: Barnes and
Noble.

Zinsser, William. 2006. On Writing Well. 30th anniversary ed. New

York: Harper and Row.
Appendix

Reference List Formats: Some Examples

1. Books
See 4.3.2 for explanations and additional examples. See section 12
in the Appendix for electronic book examples.

Collins, Patricia Hill. 2004. Black Sexual Politics: African Americans,

Gender, and the New Racism. New York: Routledge.

Edelman, Peter, Harry J. Holzer, and Paul Offner. 2006. Reconnecting

Disadvantaged Young Men. Washington, DC: Urban Institute
Press.

Berlin, Gorden, and Andrew Sum. 1988. Toward a More Perfect

Union: Basic Skills, Poor Families, and Our Economic Future.
New York: Ford Foundation.

Editions of Books
Ingraham, Chrys. 2008. White Weddings: Romancing
Heterosexuality in Popular Culture. 2nd ed. New York:
Routledge.

Greene, William H. 2008. Econometric Analysis. 6th ed. Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Note: 2nd is now the preferred abbreviation for second edition
(CMOS 2017:806); other possible abbreviations for editions include:
Rev. ed., 2 vols., 3rd ed.
Volumes of Books
Gurr, Ted Robert, ed. 1989. Violence in America. Vol. 1, History of
Crime. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE Publications.

Cutrona, Carolyn E. 1996. Social Science Support in Couples:

Marriage as a Resource in Times of Stress. Vol. 13. Thousand
Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Translations
Barbagli, Marzio. 1982. Educating for Unemployment: Politics, Labor
Markets, and the School System—Italy, 1959–1973. Translated
by R. H. Ross. New York: Columbia University Press.

Lattimore, Richmond, trans. 1951. The Iliad of Homer. Chicago:

University of Chicago Press.
Note: The second example suggests an alternative form for citing
translated works.

Compilations
Russell, Katheryn K., Heather L. Pfeifer, and Judith L. Jones, comp.
2000. Race and Crime: An Annotated Bibliography. Westport,
CT: Greenwood Press.

Edited Volumes
Leonard, Kimberly Kempf, Carl E. Pope, and William H. Feyerherm,
eds. 1995. Minorities in Juvenile Justice. Thousand Oaks, CA:
SAGE Publications.

Koshar, Rudy, ed. 1990. Splintered Classes: Politics and the Lower
Middle Classes in Interwar Europe. New York: Holmes and Meier.
Republished Works
Bernard, Claude. [1865] 1957. An Introduction to the Study of
Experimental Medicine. Translated by H. C. Greene. Reprint,
New York: Dover.

Beccaria, Cesare. [1764] 1983. On Crimes and Punishment. Reprint,

Boston: Branden Books.

2. Chapters from Books

See [Link] for explanation and additional examples.

Palacios, Wilson R., Chinita Heard, and Dorothy [Link]. 2003. “At a
Crossroad: Affirmative Action and Criminology.” Pp. 415–29 in
Crime Control and Social Justice: The Delicate Balance, edited
by D. F. Hawkins, S. L. Myers Jr., and R. N. Stone. Westport, CT:
Greenwood Press.

Danziger, Sheldon, and David Ratner. 2010. “Labor Market Outcomes

and the Transition to Adulthood.” Pp. 133–58 in Transition to
Adulthood: Special Issue of the Future of Children 20(1), edited
by G. Berlin, F. Furstenberg Jr., and M. C. Waters. Washington,
DC: Brookings Institution and Princeton.

3. Periodicals: Journal Articles

See [Link] for explanation and additional examples.

Krivo, Lauren J., and Ruth D. Peterson. 2000. “The Structural

Context of Homicide: Accounting for Racial Differences in
Process.” American Sociological Review 65(4):547–59.

Sampson, Robert J., Jeffrey D. Morenoff, and Felton Earls. 1999.

“Beyond Social Capital: Spatial Dynamics of Collective Efficacy
 for Children.” American Sociological Review 64(5):633–60.

Tuchman, Gaye. 1976a. “The News’ Manufacture of Sociological

Data.” American Sociological Review 41(6):1065–67.

Tuchman, Gaye. 1976b. Review of Newsmaking by Bernard Roshco.

Contemporary Sociology 5(4):449–50.

Conger, Rand D. Forthcoming. “The Effects of Positive Feedback on

Direction and Amount of Verbalization in a Social Setting.”
Sociological Perspectives.
For more information on forthcoming works, see [Link].

Articles in Special Issues

Thoits, Peggy A. 2010. “Stress and Health: Major Findings and Policy
Implications.” Extra Issue: What Do We Know? Key Findings
from 50 Years of Medical Sociology, Journal of Health and Social
Behavior 51:S41– S53. [Link]

Articles Published in More than One Volume in a Series

Patch, C. Ross. 1985–1986. “The Next to Last Angry Man,” parts 1–
3. World’s End Review 8:315–30; 9:27–52, 125–42.

Articles from Non-English Language Journals

Muñoz Labraña, Carlos, and Rosendo Martínez Rodríguez. 2015.
“Prácticas pedagógicas y competencias ciudadanas: El caso del
docente de historia en Chile” (Pedagogical Practices and
Citizens’ Competences: The Case of the History Teacher in
Chile). Revista Actualidades Investigativas en Educación
15(3):1–21. doi:10.15517/aie.v15i3.20658.
Abstracts
Quimby, Ernest. 1993. “Obstacles to Reducing AIDS among African
Americans.” Abstract. The Journal of Black Psychology
19(2):215–22.

Dugan, Laura, and Erica Chenoweth. 2012. “Moving Beyond

Deterrence: The Effectiveness of Raising the Expected Utility of
Abstaining from Terrorism in Israel.” Abstract. American
Sociological Review 77(4):597–624.

Book Reviews in Journals and Online

Saenz, Rogelio. 1990. Review of Migracion en el Occidente de
Mexico by Gustavo Lopez Castro. Contemporary Sociology
19(3):415.

Brown-Saracino, Japonica. 2013. Review of The Philadelphia Barrio:

The Arts, Branding, and Neighborhood Transformations by
Frederick F. Wherry. Contemporary Sociology 42(5):756–58.

Tough, Paul. 2006. “Supersize Them.” Review of Chutes and

Ladders: Navigating the Low-Wage Labor Market by Katherine
S. Newman. Cambridge, MA: Russell Sage Foundation Books at
Harvard University Press.
[Link]
l.

4. Periodicals: Magazine and Newspaper Articles

Note: This edition corrects an error in prior Style Guide editions:
“pp.” is not needed (CMOS 2017:915).

Anderson, Elijah. 1994. “The Code of the Streets.” Atlantic Monthly,

May, 81–94.
Duke, Lynne. 1994. “Confronting Violence: African American
Conferees Look Inward.” Washington Post, January 8, A1, A10.

Friedman, Thomas L. 2017. “Climate Shifts Aren’t Limited to the

Weather.” Opinion, New York Times, April 2.
[Link]
[Link].

5. Archival Sources/Manuscript Collections

National Archives, Record Group 174, Box 144. 1964. File: State and
Local Promotion, January–February 1964. Letter from the
President of the United Association of Journeymen and
Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipe Fitting Industry to Willard
Wirtz.

ASA (American Sociological Association) Archives, Certificate of

Indebtedness Folders, Box 32, Folder 8, 1935–1939. Certificate
of Indebtedness, 1935. Pennsylvania State University.
Note: If a manuscript refers to large numbers of archival sources,
group them together in a separate section of the references headed
“Archival Sources.”

Manuscript Collection
University of Chicago, Social Science Research Committee. c1934.
The Social Science Research Committee Maps: Census Tracts of
Chicago, 1934 Economic Status of Families. Chicago: University
of Chicago Digital Preservation Collection.
[Link]

Stone, Alfred Holt, 1870–1955. Letter from Alfred Holt Stone to W. E.

B. Du Bois, March 2, 1903. W. E. B. Du Bois Papers (MS 312).
Special Collections and University Archives, University of
 Massachusetts-Amherst Libraries.
[Link]

6. Government Documents

Bonczar, Thomas P., and Allen J. Beck. 1997. Lifetime Likelihood of

Going to State or Federal Prison. Bureau of Justice Statistics
Special Report. NCJ 160092. Washington, DC: U.S. Department
of Justice.

U.S. Congress. 1950. House Subcommittee on the Study of

Monopoly Power of the Committee on the Judiciary. Study of
Monopoly Power: Hearing. 81st Congress, 2nd Session, 788–91.

U.S. Census Bureau. 1960. Characteristics of Population. Vol. 1.

Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

U.S. Department of Justice. Federal Bureau of Investigation. 2016.

Crime in the United States, 2016 Uniform Crime Reports.
Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
[Link]

7. Dissertations and Theses

Bao, Luoman. 2016. “Intergenerational Support and Well-being of

Older Adults in Changing Family Contexts.” PhD dissertation,
Department of Sociology, University of Maryland-College Park.
ProQuest, 1840192880.

King, Andrew J. 1976. “Law and Land Use in Chicago: A Pre-History

of Modern Zoning.” PhD dissertation, Department of Sociology,
University of Wisconsin- Madison.

8. Unpublished Papers
Schrodt, Philip A. 2006. “Twenty Years of the Kansas Event Data
System Project.” Department of Political Science, University of
Kansas, Lawrence, KS. Unpublished manuscript.

Sharvit, Keren, Arie W. Kruglanski, Mo Wang, Xiaoyan Chen, Lauren

Minacapelli, Boaz Ganor, and Eitan Azani. 2012. “The Effects of
Israeli Coercive and Conciliatory Policies on Palestinian Terrorist
Activity: 2000–2006.” Department of Psychology, University of
Haifa, Israel. Unpublished manuscript.

9. Working and Discussion Papers

Cutler, David, Fabian Lange, Ellen Meara, Seth Richards, and

Christopher J. Ruhm. 2010. “Explaining the Rise in Educational
Gradients in Mortality.” National Bureau of Economic Research,
Working Paper Series, Working Paper 15678.

Benmelech, Efraim, Claude Berrebi, and Esteban Klor. 2010.

“Counter-Suicide Terrorism: Evidence from Home Demolitions.”
Working Paper No. 16493, National Bureau of Economic
Research, Cambridge, MA.

10. Paper Presentations, Poster Sessions, PowerPoint Slides

Chenoweth, Erica, and Laura Dugan. 2011. “Exploring

Counterterrorism in the Middle East and North Africa: A New
Data Set.” Paper presented at the annual meeting of the
American Political Science Association, Seattle, WA, September
2.

Rodriguez, Awilda. 2018. “Redefining College Match: Examining the

Role of Affordability and Graduation Rates in Match.” Poster
presented at the 2018 Annual Meeting of the American
Educational Research As- sociation, New York City, April 15.
Ford, Jessie, Paula England, and Jonathan Bearak. 2015. “The
American College Hookup Scene: Findings from the Online
College Social Life Survey.” PowerPoint presentation.
[Link]
hookup-scene-findings-from-the.

Ponce, Adriana. 2021. “Classed and Gendered Understandings of

Financial Support in Child Custody Arrangements: A Qualitative
Study.” Paper presented at the 116th American Sociological
Association Annual Meeting, virtual, August 7.

11. Machine-Readable Data Files

See 5.2.8 for explanations and examples.

12. Electronic Resources

See Chapter 5 for explanations and additional examples.

E-Book
Wimberly, George L. 2015. LGBTQ Issues in Education: Advancing a
Research Agenda. Washington, DC: American Educational
Research Association.
[Link]
advancing-research-agenda.

Book Accessed Using Applications and Devices

Fenichel, Marilyn, and Heidi A. Schweingruber. 2010. Surrounded by
Science: Learning Science in Informal Environments. Board on
Science Education, Center for Education, Division of Behavioral
and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: National
Academies Press. Adobe Digital Editions EPUB.
Massey, Douglas S., Jorge Durand, and Nolan J. Malone. 2002.
Beyond Smoke and Mirrors: Mexican Immigration in an Era of
Economic Integration. New York: Russel Sage Foundation.
Kindle.

Journal Articles
Chase-Dunn, Christopher. 2013. “Five Linked Crises in the
Contemporary World-System.” Journal of World-Systems
Research 19(2). doi:10.5195/jwsr.2013.494.

Andersson, Matthew A. 2018. “Against All Odds or by Dint of

Privilege? Happiness and Life Satisfaction Returns to College in
America.” Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World.
Retrieved June 18, 2018. doi:10.1177/2378023118773158.

Persell, Caroline Hodges, Kathryn M. Pfeiffer, and Ali Syed. 2008.

“How Sociological Leaders Teach: Some Key Principles.”
Teaching Sociology 36(2):108–
[Link].1177/0092055X0803600202.
• Journal articles without a Digital Object Identifiers (DOI)

Mcmillion, Tonya, and Carie S. Tucker King. 2017. “Communication

and Security Issues in Online Education: Student Self-
Disclosure in Course Introductions.” Journal of Interactive
Online Learning 15(1): 1-25.
[Link]

Reports, Bulletins, Fact Sheets, and Newsletters

• Report: online version (no author)

U.S. Department of Justice. Bureau of Justice Statistics. 2010.

“Key Facts at a Glance: Imprisonment Rates.”
[Link]
 • Report: online version (with author or with suggested citations)

Catalano, Shannan M. 2006. National Crime Victimization Survey:

Criminal Victimization, 2005. Bureau of Justice Statistics:
Bulletin. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
[Link]
• Newsletter with author

Howery, Carla B. 2006. “New Annual Meeting Workshops

Designed for Practitioner Networking.” Footnotes, November.
[Link]
• Newsletter with no author

American Sociological Association. 2004. “Public Affairs Update:

Concerned Scientists Say Bush Administration Ignores
Research.” Footnotes, April.
[Link]
pdf

Newspapers and Magazines

Sampson, Robert J. 2006. “Open Doors Don’t Invite Criminals.” New
York Times, March 11.
[Link]

Kuttner, Robert. 2016. “The New Inequality Debate.” American

Prospect, January 14. [Link]
debate-0

Online Databases, Spreadsheets, and Code Books

• Research products (data documentation, data, metadata) from
a data repository, (deposited by investigators)
 Schneider, Barbara, and Linda J. Waite. 1998–2000. The 500
Family Study. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter- university Consortium for
Political and Social Research [distributor], 2008-06-03.
doi:10.3886/ICPSR04549.v1.
• Research products from census and survey data

Ruggles, Steven, Katie Genadek, Ronald Goeken, Josiah Grover,

and Matthew Sobek. 2017. Integrated Public Use Microdata
Series: Version 7.0 [dataset]. Minneapolis: University of
Minnesota. doi:10.18128/D010.V7.0.
• Administrative dataset

United States Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.

2020. “Occupational Employment and Wage Statistics, May
2020 State Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates,
Illinois, 15-0000 Computer and Mathematical Occupations.”
[Link]
• Tables in PDF or XLS spreadsheet format

Scientists and Engineers Statistical Data System (SESTAT). 2006.

“Table B-1: U.S. Scientists and Engineers, by Detailed Field
and Level of Highest Degree Attained: 1999.”
[Link]
workforce/1999/tables/[Link].

Survey Instrument
NSF (National Science Foundation, National Center for Science and
Engineering Statistics [NCSES]). 2015. “2015 Survey of
Doctorate Recipients.” Arlington, VA: National Science
Foundation.
[Link]
octoratework_2015.pdf.
Website (No Author)
American Anthropological Association. 1998. “AAA Statement on
Race.”
[Link]
ItemNumber=2583.

Blog Post
Emba, Christine. 2018. “The Good-ness of Won’t You Be My
Neighbor?” Act Four, blog, the Washington Post, July 6.
[Link]
four/wp/2018/07/06/the-good-ness-of-wont-you-be-my-
neighbor/?utm_term=.398851284a83.

Podcast
Cunningham, Lillian. 2016. “John F. Kennedy: We Are All Mortal.”
August 28 in Presidential, produced by the Washington Post,
podcast, 43:15.
[Link]
-podcast/.

DVD, CD-ROM
NRC (National Research Council of the National Academies). 2010. A
Data-Based Assessment of Research-Doctorate Programs in the
United States: Data Tables (Prepublication Copy). Washington,
DC: National Academy of Sciences. CD-ROM.

Video
Edin, Kathryn. 2018. “One Misfortune Away.” Produced by the
American Sociological Association, June 27. Video, 5:13.
 [Link]

Social Media
• Twitter

Lee, Jooyoung (@theyoungjoo). 2018. “Spoke with @CTVToronto

about gun violence today. The rush to call shootings of young
black men ‘gang-related’ is deeply problematic and plays on
racist assumptions about gunshot victims. Lotsa nuance lost if
we assume this right off the bat. @UofTNews @SocResearchUT
#toronto.” Twitter, July 4, 11:00 a.m.
[Link]

American Sociological Association (@ASAnews). 2018. “Historic

increases in income inequality have coincided with widening
class divides in parental investments of money and time in
children. See [Link]
releases/income-inequality-changing-how-parents-invest-their-
kids-widening-class-divides-us.” Twitter, July 9, 12:50 p.m.
• Facebook

Journal of Health and Social Behavior (@JofHSB). 2017. “New Today

in JHSB: McKay & Timmermans open access paper & policy brief
on the importance of the Affordable Care Act for strengthening
communities. #healthinsurance #aca #neighborhoodeffects
#community.” Facebook, January 16.
[Link]

Maps/Illustrations
University of Chicago. 1890. Map of Chicago and Suburbs. University
of Chicago Digital Preservation Collection, Chicago in the 1890s.
Chicago: Charles T. Gilbert Real Estate.
[Link]
Van Vechten, James. 1863. Before and After the Fire: Chicago in the
1860s, 1870s, and 1880s. [Map of ] Chicago drawn from Davie’s
atlas with the latest recorded subdivisions by W.L. Flower and J.
Van Vechten; revised, published & sold by James Van Vechten.
University of Chicago Digital Preservation Collection. Chicago:
Engraved, printed & mounted by Chas. Shober.
[Link]
Index

A
abbreviations, 41, 42, 50, 51, 70, 77, 127
abstracts, 53, 64, 113, 114, 119, 130
academic degrees, 42-43
acronyms, 33, 41, 42, 95
active and passive voice, 8
addresses, 50
American Psychological Association (APA), ix, xi, 4, 5, 77, 81, 123
American Sociological Association (ASA)
about, iii
Code of Ethics, 3, 4, 47,109, 123
editorial style, 1, 2, 7
manuscript submission guidelines, 109
publications, iii–iv, 47
usages and guidelines, 47–51
American Statistical Association, ix
anonymized manuscripts, 113-14
APA. See American Psychological Association
apostrophes, 30
appendixes, 36, 76, 115, 119
archival sources, 57-58, 131, 132
articles. See journal articles; manuscripts
ASA. See American Sociological Association
audiovisual materials, 67, 82, 94
author
biography, 113, 117, 119
copyrights, ii, 109, 110-11
multiple, 56, 68
names in references, 68–69

B
bias, avoiding, 4–6
bibliographies, 55.
See also reference lists
Bizup, Joseph, 4, 23, 124
block quotations, 32-33, 116
blogs, 84, 90, 96, 105, 138
See also e-resources
Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation, 70, 123
book chapters, 61-62, 129
books
compilations, 128
e-book, 85, 98, 135
edited volumes, 128
editions, 127
legal, 70, 71
reference, 59, 63, 86-87
reference format, 59, 61, 62, 64, 81, 86, 127-29, 137
republications, 128
title capitalization, 36
translations, 42-44, 128
volumes, 127, 128
brackets, 33, 34, 44, 56, 122
bulletins, 136

C
capitalization, 36-37, 43, 47-49, 84
CD-ROMs, 93, 138
Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS), ix, xi, 1, 81
citations. See references
clarity, 4, 24
CMOS. See Chicago Manual of Style
colons, 23, 26-27, 122
commas, 24-25, 26, 27, 122
conference presentations, 64-65, 134
copy editors’ notations, 121-22
copyrights, 109, 111

D
dashes, 27-29
databases, 66, 92
dates, 40-41
Day, Robert A., 2, 9, 10, 123
dictionaries, 1, 36, 124, 125
Digital Object Identifier (DOI), 62-63, 82, 87, 97
digital resources. See e-resources
dissertations, 63, 64, 80, 133
DOI. See Digital Object Identifier
DVD-ROM, 93
E
e-books, 85, 98, 135
electronic resources. See e-resources
ellipses, 34-35
email messages, 28, 90-91
em dashes, 29
en dashes, 29-30
endnotes, 71, 75, 117
e-resources, 58, 95, 134-35
access dates, 83–84
articles, 62
databases, 137
Digital Object Identifiers, 62, 82, 87, 97
permanent records, 84–85
reference formats, 57, 88, 89-94, 131, 134-40
research products, 92, 137
terms and definitions, 95-107
types, 81-82
ethics
ASA Code of Ethics, 4, 109, 123
manuscript submission guidelines, 109
ethnicity, xiii. See race and ethnicity

F
fact sheets, 136
figures, 77, 79, 115, 118, 119
footnotes, 53, 54, 71, 75, 78, 90, 112, 114, 117
foreign languages. See non-English languages
forthcoming articles, 67, 69, 129

G
Gastel, Barbara, 2, 9, 10, 123
gender-neutral terms, xii-xiii, 4-6
government documents, 70, 71, 132-33
grammar
guidelines, 23-24
subject-verb agreement, 9-10
verbs, 7-10
Green Open-Access policy, 110

H
handle systems, 82-83, 99
Harvard Law Review Association, 70, 123
hyphens, 27-28, 47, 50, 51, 84, 116, 122

I
illustrations, 79, 115, 118, 119, 140
informally published documents, 64-65
italics, 38, 49

J
jargon, 10-13
journal articles
Digital Object Identifiers, 62-63, 82, 87, 97
forthcoming, 67, 69, 129
online, 62, 82-84, 87-88, 129-30, 135-36
 preprints, 67
reference format, 43, 59-60, 62-63, 81, 83-84, 84-88, 135-36
supplemental online materials, 61
title capitalization, 36, 37, 43, 112
See also manuscripts
journals. See periodicals

K
key words, 54, 119

L
legal citations, 70-72
Library of Congress, 43-44, 71, 124
literature reviews, 8-9

M
Machine-Readable Data Files (MDRF), 58, 93
magazine articles, 87, 88, 131,137
manuscript collections, 57, 132
manuscripts
abstracts, 53, 64, 113, 114, 119, 130
anonymized, 113, 114, 118
appendixes, 76, 115, 118, 119
bibliographies, 55
footnotes and endnotes, 75, 78, 90, 114, 116, 117
formats and style, 80
headings and subheadings, 54
key words, 54-55, 117
 literature reviews, 8
mathematical symbols and equations, 76
methods section, 9
order and form of pages, 53
reference lists, 59-69, 115, 118
results section, 9
tables, figures, and graphic materials, 77-79, 115, 118
text pages, 54, 114, 116-17
title pages, 53, 112, 113, 118-19
See also journal articles; manuscript submission guidelines;
references
manuscript submission guidelines, 116
checklist, 116-20
contributors’ rights and responsibilities, 110-11
copyrights, 109-11
electronic submissions, 113
ethical guidelines, 109
fees, 113
manuscript specifications, 111-15
maps, 67, 140
mathematical symbols and equations, 76-77
meetings. See conference presentations
Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, xii, 1, 5, 36, 124
MLA Handbook, 81, 125
MRDF. See Machine-Readable Data Files

N
names, author, 67–69
See also nouns
National Archives and Records Administration, 57-58, 124, 131
newsletters, 136
newspaper articles, 41, 83, 88, 131, 137
non-English languages, 42
italicizing words, 43, 45
reference format, 43-44
special characters, 44-45
title capitalization, 43
translations, 44
transliteration, 43
usage, 42-43
notes, footnotes and endnotes, 53-54, 71, 75, 90, 112, 114-15, 117
nouns
collective, 9
plural, 5, 9-10, 30, 42
possessive, 30
proper, 28, 30, 37, 43, 55
See also grammar
numbered lists, 27
numbers, 38–40, 51–52, 124–26

O
online resources. See e-resources
open-access periodicals, iv, 87, 110

P
page numbers, inclusive, 27, 39, 55
parentheses, 33
passive voice, 8-9
periodicals
ASA journals, iii–iv
magazine articles, 87-88, 131, 137
newspaper articles, 87-88, 131, 137
non-english Language, 130
online, 81, 87–88
open-access, iv, 87, 110
titles, 60
See also journal articles; manuscript submission guidelines
permissions, 79, 109-11
personal communications, 66, 82, 90, 91
photographs
See also illustrations
plagiarism, 3, 109
podcast, 93-94, 138
poster sessions, 64-65, 134
PowerPoint Slides, 134
preprint, 67
pronoun, xii, 5, 6
proofreading marks, 121-22
public documents. See government documents
punctuation, 23-35, 122
apostrophes, 30, 122
brackets, 33, 122
colons, 26-27, 122
commas, 24-25, 26-27, 122
dashes, 27-30, 122
 ellipses, 34-35, 122
em dashes, 29, 122
en dashes, 29-30, 122
hyphens, 27-28, 122
in references, 27, 29, 31
parentheses, 33, 122
proofreading marks, 121-22
quotation marks, 31, 122
semicolons, 26-27, 122

Q
quoted material, 32-33

R
race and ethnicity, xii-xiv, 4, 6-7, 36-37
reference books, 63, 86
reference lists, 39, 55, 59-67, 71
references
abstracts, 64, 130
archival sources, 57, 131-32
audiovisual materials, 93-94, 131-32
author-date system, 55-56
author names, 55-57, 115
book chapters, 59, 63, 129
book reviews, 64, 131
books, 59, 62, 63, 86, 127-28
conference presentations, 64-65, 134
databases, 66, 86, 92-93, 137-38
 e-resources, 57, 85-93, 135-40
examples, 127-40
goverment documents, 73-75, 132-33
in non-English languages, 42-44, 130
journal articles, 60, 62, 87-88, 129-30, 135-36
legal citations, 71-72
maps or illustrations, 140
multiple authors, 56, 68
non-dated material, 69, 83-84, 89, 93
page ranges, 39
personal communications, 90-91
punctuation, 27, 29, 31
testimony, 65
unpublished materials, 64-65, 133
working and discussion papers, 64-65, 133-34
reports, 40, 81, 136
reviews, 8, 64, 131

S
semicolons, 26, 27, 56, 122
social media, 66, 82, 84, 91-92, 98, 105, 106, 139
spelling, 36
capitalization, 36-38, 47-48
dictionary, 36, 124
spreadsheets, 92, 137-38
state abbreviations, 51
statistics, 76-77, 78
style, 1-2, 23
subject-verb agreement, 9-10
survey instruments, 138
symbols, mathematical, 76

T
tables, 29, 38, 76, 77-78, 92, 115, 118, 119, 137
telephone numbers, 51
testimony, 65
text messages, 66, 82, 90-91
theses, 63-64, 133
title page, 53, 112, 113, 114, 118
titles
capitalization, 36, 37, 43, 112
journals, 60
translations, 43-44

U
unpublished materials, 63, 64, 67, 69, 133
URLs, 82-83, 85, 88-89, 106

V
verbs, 7-10
videos, 94, 139
virtual presentation, 65, 134
visual graphics, 79, 98, 99, 102, 103, 105, 119

W
websites, 82-85, 88-90, 138
Williams, Joseph M., 4, 23, 124
words
capitalization, 36-38, 47-49, 84
common misusages, 14-22
dictionaries, 1, 5, 36
verbs, 7-9
wordy phrases, 10-13
working and discussion papers, 64-65, 66, 133-34