PSYCHOLOGY

OF INDIVIDUAL
DIFFERENCES

PSYCHOLOGY OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

B.A. (HONS) PSYCHOLOGY
SEMESTER-II
DSC-04

DSC-04

DEPARTMENT OF DISTANCE AND CONTINUING EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF DISTANCE AND CONTINUING EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF DELHI UNIVERSITY OF DELHI
Psychology of Individual Differences

Editors
Prof. N.K. Chadha
Dr. Sarabjit K. Sran
Dr. Madhulika Bajpai

Content Writers
Dr. Nisha Chaudhary, Dr. Madhulika Bajpai
Prof. Pooja Wadhawan, Dr. Poonam Vats

Content Reviewer from the DDCE/COL/SOL

Dr. Nupur Gosain
Ms. Vidyut Singh

Academic Coordinator
Mr. Deekshant Awasthi

© Department of Distance and Continuing Education

ISBN: 978-81-19417-79-7
Ist edition: 2024
E-mail: ddceprinting@[Link]

Published by:
Department of Distance and Continuing Education
Campus of Open Learning/School of Open Learning,
University of Delhi, Delhi-110 007

Printed by:
School of Open Learning, University of Delhi

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

This Study Material is duly recommended in the meeting of Standing Committee

held on 08/05/2023 and approved in Academic Council meeting held on 26/05/2023
Vide item no. 1014 and subsequently Executive Council Meeting held on
09/06/2023 vide item no. 14 {14-1(14-1-11)}

Corrections/Modifications/Suggestions proposed by Statutory Body,

DU/Stakeholder/s in the Self Learning Material (SLM) will be incorporated in
the next edition. However, these corrections/modifications/suggestions will be
uploaded on the website [Link] Any feedback or suggestions can be
sent to the email- feedbackslm@[Link]

Printed at: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. Plot 20/4, Site-IV, Industrial Area Sahibabad, Ghaziabad - 201 010 (600 Copies)

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Psychology of Individual Differences

SYLLABUS
Psychology of Individual Differences
Syllabus Mapping

UNIT I
Personality: Nature of Personality; Approaches: Psychodynamic, Lesson 1: Personality
Phenomenological-Humanistic, Trait, Social-Cognitive; Biological (Pages 3-26)
Foundations of Personality; Culture, Gender and Personality

UNIT II
Intelligence: Psychometric and Cognitive Process Approaches; Broader Lesson 2: Intelligence
Conceptions of Intelligence; Heredity, Environment and Intelligence; Extremes (Pages 29-59)
of Intelligence

UNIT III
Psychological Testing: Defining Features of a Psychological Test; Historical Lesson 3: Testing
Foundations of Psychological Testing; Reliability, Validity, Norms; Types of (Pages 63-88)
Psychological Tests (Special Emphasis on Personality and Intelligence
Testing); Applications and Issues

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Psychology of Individual Differences

CONTENTS
UNIT I
LESSON 1 PERSONALITY 3-26

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Concept of Personality
1.4 Biological Foundation of Personality
1.5 Major Approaches to Personality
1.5.1 Trait Approach
1.5.2 Psychodynamic Approach
1.5.3 Social- cognitive Approach
1.5.4 Phenomenological- Humanistic Approach
1.6 Culture, Gender and Personality
1.6.1 Gender schemas
1.7 Solved Illustrations
1.8 Summary
1.9 Glossary
1.10 Answers to In-Text Questions
1.11 Self-Assessment Questions
1.12 References
1.13 Suggested Readings

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

UNIT II
LESSON 2 INTELLIGENCE 29-59

2.1 Learning Objectives

2.2 Introduction
2.3 Approaches to Understanding Intelligence
2.3.1 Psychometric Approach
2.3.2 Spearman’s “g” Factor Theory
2.3.3 Crystallised and Fluid Intelligence
2.3.4 Cognitive Process Approaches
2.3.5 Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
2.4 Broader Conceptions of Intelligence
2.4.1 Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence
2.4.2 Emotional Intelligence
2.4.3 Benefits of Emotional Intelligence
2.5 Heredity, Environment and Intelligence
2.6 Extremes of Intelligence
2.6.1 Intellectually Gifted
2.6.2 Intellectual Disability
2.7 Summary
2.8 Glossary
2.9 Answers to In-Text Questions
2.10 Self-Assessment Questions
2.11 References
2.12 Suggested Readings

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Psychology of Individual Differences

UNIT III
LESSON 3 TESTING 63-88

3.1 Learning Objectives

3.2 Introduction
3.3 Nature and Definitions of Psychological Testing
3.4 Further Distinctions in Testing
3.5 Origin of Psychological Testing
3.6 Purpose/Objective
3.7 Assumptions of Psychological Testing
3.8 Types of Tests
3.9 Characteristics of a Good Psychological Test
3.10 Validity
3.11 Reliability
3.12 Standardisation and Norms
3.13 Applications and Issues
3.14 Summary
3.15 Glossary
3.16 Answers to In-Text Questions
3.17 Self-Assessment Questions
3.18 References

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
UNIT I: PERSONALITY

LESSON 1 PERSONALITY
Personality

LESSON 1 NOTES

PERSONALITY
Dr. Nisha Chaudhary
Assistant Professor
Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar College
Email-Id: [Link]@[Link]
Structure
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Concept of Personality
1.4 Biological Foundation of Personality
1.5 Major Approaches to Personality
1.5.1 Trait Approach
1.5.2 Psychodynamic Approach
1.5.3 Social- cognitive Approach
1.5.4 Phenomenological- Humanistic Approach
1.6 Culture, Gender and Personality
1.6.1 Gender schemas
1.7 Solved Illustrations
1.8 Summary
1.9 Glossary
1.10 Answers to In-Text Questions
1.11 Self-Assessment Questions
1.12 References
1.13 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 To understand the concept of personality

 To describe various constituents of personality
 To identify differences in various approaches of personality
Self-Instructional
 To elaborate on the impact of culture and gender on personality development Material 3

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES
1.2 INTRODUCTION

Knowing about one’s behaviour and feelings has always been a study for not only
researchers but even for common people. Everyone wants to know what he or she
feels, thinks and why they act in a particular manner. This chapter will introduce you to
various components and theoretical perspectives of personality.

1.3 CONCEPT OF PERSONALITY

The term personality comes from the Latin word “Persona” which means a mask
worn by roman theatrical actors in early days to portray their role in plays. After
putting on the mask, audience expected the person to perform a role in a particular
manner.
In general terms, personality can be understood as the sum total of both inner
and outer qualities of a person and these qualities interact with different social situations
which leads to a certain kind of behaviour.
There are endless definitions of personality by many authors. After evaluating
more than 49 different definitions from the literature, Gordon W. Allport concluded,
“Personality is the dynamic organisation within the individual of those psycho-physical
systems that determine his characteristic behaviour and his unique adjustment to the
environment.”
Psychologists investigating personality always see it as a product of both heredity
and environment. An individual’s personality is developed because of continuous
interaction of innate factors (nature) and environmental factors (nurture).

1.4 BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF PERSONALITY

Our personalities are the sum total of both our genetics and environment. Research
related to genetic makeup, twin studies, and adoption studies, have unleashed a great
Self-Instructional
4 Material
deal of understanding in this sphere.

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Personality

Many researchers are in line with nearly 50% impact of genes on personality of NOTES
a person. Hence, it becomes important to understand that nervous system could open
the door of understanding of biological aspects of personality. Hormones and
neurotransmitters play an important role over here. Even certain brain regions have
been studied to know the physiological nature of personality (some of the important
regions are Amygdala, Hypothalamus).

In-Text Questions
1. According to Personality Definitions, which term seems not related?
a) Organized b) Unstable
c) Unique d) Psycho-Physical System
2. ____________ is a brain area affecting the physiological nature of personality.
a) Amygdala b) Hormones
c) Genes d) None of the above

1.5 MAJOR APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY

Different theories and approaches have been developed for understanding of personality
development, differences, consistencies and changes. These theories and approaches
are based on different models or schools of psychology explaining human behaviour.
Each approach has certain core concepts, and they define personality through use of
these concepts.
 Trait Approach
 Psychodynamic Approach
 Social- cognitive Approach
 Phenomenological- humanistic Approach

1.5.1 Trait Approach

These are concerned with identifying and quantifying different personality traits, or Self-Instructional
characteristics of personality. Traits are specific psychological attributes along which Material 5

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES individuals tend to differ. The theories under this approach is sometimes referred to as
Psychometric Theories because they emphasise on measuring personality by using
psychometric tests. The following theories are included under this approach:
 Gordan Allport’s Trait Theory
 Raymond Cattell’s Personality Factors Theory
 Eysenck’s Trait- Dimensional Theory
 Big Five Factor Model of Personality

Gordan Allport’s Trait Theory

He was one of the first theorists to launch personality as a field. According to him,
traits are determining tendencies or predispositions to respond. He proposed that
humans posses a number of traits which determine behaviour in such a manner that an
individual approaches different situations with different plans.
He proposed a hierarchy of levels of the three types of traits:
 Cardinal Traits: They stand at the top of the hierarchy and are collectively
known as individual’s master control. The word “Cardinal” means important,
primary and fundamental. Allport believed that some people have dispositions
that influence most aspects of their behaviour. These are so dominant that
nearly all the individual’s actions can be traced back to them. He called
these highly generalized dispositions, cardinal traits. E.g., Mahatma Gandhi’s
Non-Violence.
 Central Traits: These are next in the hierarchy. According to Allport, these
are less pervasive in nature but still generalized dispositions. These are general
characteristics found in varying degrees in every person. Like a person may
be foodie or kind. They are the basic building blocks that shape most of our
behaviour.
 Secondary Traits: These exist at the bottom of the hierarchy. They are
more specific in nature and consistent as compared to central traits. They
are plenty but are visible in specific situations; they include a person’s attitudes
and preferences. E.g., being foodie is a central trait whereas liking chinese
food specifically is secondary trait.
Self-Instructional
6 Material

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Personality

Allport hypothesized that internal and external forces influence an individual’s NOTES
behaviour and personality and he referred to them as genotypes and phenotypes.

Fig. 1.1 Allport’s Trait Theory

Raymond Cattell Personality Factors Theory

Cattell believed that there is a common structure on which people differ from each
other. He came up with the list of nearly 4500 words that are used for personality
description. He removed certain and added some, which lead to 171 trait names. He
applied a statistical technique called Factor Analysis to identify the basic or primary
traits.
According to Cattell, there is a continuum of personality traits. He concluded
that personality is composed of 16 primary or source traits.
 Source traits are stable and are considered as the building blocks of
personality. (Warmth, Reasoning, Perfectionism, Tension etc.)
 Surface Traits, other than source traits there are certain surface traits that
result out of interaction of source traits.
Each person has these 16 traits to a certain degree. Cattell also developed an
assessment based on these 16 personality factors. The test is known as 16 Personality
Factors Questionnaire where each dimension is scored on a continuum from high to
low.
Self-Instructional
Material 7

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES Eysenck’s Trait- Dimensional Theory/ Eysenck’s Hierarchical Theory

Eysenck’s theory is sometime called “Temperament” theory as he focused on biological

dimensions of personality and how these dimensions are related to the environmental
or social aspects. Eysenck’s original research found two dimensions of temperament:
Neuroticism and Extraversion- Introversion. Eysenck later added and discussed about
three major dimensions- Extraversion, Neuroticism and Psychoticism, all these formulate
three major personality traits.

 Introversion versus Extraversion

Introversion- Extraversion is the extent to which people are socially withdrawn or

socially outgoing. On one hand of the dimension there are people who are shy, silent,
passive, and reserved and on the other hand are those who are active, sociable, outgoing,
impulsive, and jolly.

 Emotional Stability versus Neuroticism

Stability here relates to the general moodiness of a person. Therefore, at one extreme,
an emotionally stable person would be reliable, even-tempered, calm and controlled
and on the other extreme, a neurotic person would be restless, anxious, touchy, moody
and aggressive.

 Psychoticism versus Sociability/ Impulse control

In the recent years, Eysenck has added a third descriptive dimension called Psychoticism,
which means a lack of feeling for others. People higher on psychoticism are generally
cold, antisocial and hostile whereas people high on socialization are more cooperative,
empathetic and helping towards others.
All these three dimensions could be measured by Questionnaire prepared by
Eysenck called Eysenck Personality Questionnaire.

Big Five Factor Model of Personality

After Cattell, many researchers attempted to reduce the number of trait dimensions
and have arrived to more or less similar kind of traits. Paul Costa and Robert Mc
Self-Instructional
8 Material

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Personality

Crae examined these possible personality traits and came up with five major personality NOTES
factors, which are:
 Openness to Experience: It is the willingness of a person to try new things
and being open to different experiences. Such people are imaginative, curious
and creative. Low scores on this factor are conventional in their working and
thinking, they are uncreative and not much curious.
 Conscientiousness: It is related to a person’s organisational skills and his
motivation. Such people are well organised, punctual and hard working. They
are the dependable ones. People low on this factor show laziness, neglect and
disorganisation.
 Extraversion: This term was first coined by Carl Jung, later used by Eysenck
and then by Crae and Costa. Extraverts are outgoing in nature, who love meeting
new people, making friends, are assertive and fun loving. On the other hand,
introverts are passive, reserved and quiet.
 Agreeableness: People high on agreeableness are easy going and good-hearted
people. They are pleasant, lenient, and trustworthy. They are ever ready to help
others. People low on this factor are critical, irritable and ruthless.
 Neuroticism: It refers to emotional stability or instability. Such people worry a
lot, remain anxious and self conscious all the time. Low scorers on this are calm,
well adjusted and even-tempered.
This five-factor model is also called OCEAN (Openness, Conscientiousness,
Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism). This model is useful across cultures.
On the basis of this model, NEO PI (NEO Personality Inventory) has been
developed which is found to be highly reliable and useful source of measuring
personality.
Although, trait approach became very popular because of it being simple and
precise but it has been criticised for being descriptive in nature. The universality of the
traits is found to be questionable, and the approach does not throw light on the causal
factors behind the behaviour.

Self-Instructional
Material 9

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES
In-Text Questions
3. According to Allport’s trait Theory, Mahatma Gandhi’s Non- violence, falls
under which type of traits?
a) Central Traits b) Secondary Traits
b) Cardinal Traits d) Surface Traits
4. Primary or Source Traits in Cattell’s theory are______ in number.
a) 12 b) 6
b) 8 d) 16
5. “Conscientiousness”, in Big Five Factor Model of Personality is related to:
a) Creative b) Passive
c) Organized and Dependable d) Emotional Unstable

1.5.2 Psychodynamic Approach

Sigmund Freud formed the basis of Psychodynamic Approach. The important concepts
of childhood experiences, instincts and unconscious motivation originated with Freud.
For him, the direction of behaviour is influenced by the interaction of instincts (these
are biological sources of energy that exert demands on the mind. They are categorised
as Life Instinct- Eros and Death Instinct- Thanatos), environment and social
prohibitions.
The Psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud has four important parts:
 Structure of Mind/ Levels of Consciousness
 Structure of Personality
 Defense Mechanisms
 Psychosexual Stages of Development

Structure of Mind

Freud compared the human mind as iceberg: only a small part of iceberg rises above
Self-Instructional
10 Material the surface of water. This visible part for him was conscious mind.

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Personality

 Conscious Mind- It includes everything of which a person is aware at any NOTES

point of time. It refers to our sensory awareness of the environment and of
ourselves. Our present perceptions, thoughts and feelings are part of our
conscious mind. E.g., teacher teaching in class, so your senses are perceiving
and retaining whatever she is discussing.
 Preconscious Mind- It includes information, events, thoughts, feelings, and
concerns that is not in awareness at a particular time but can be retrieved and
recalled with a little effort. It is also called Subconscious/Preconscious. The
preconscious mind exists just beneath the surface of awareness. E.g., cooked a
vegetable when you were young, now after 15 years you recall it once you start
cooking again.
 Unconscious Mind- Freud was especially interested in the unconscious part.
He believed that there is a part of mind, which remains hidden all the time. It
holds thoughts and desires that are far below the level of person’s awareness. It
is the largest part and consists most of the area of iceberg lying below the
surface of water. This part of mind surfaces only in symbolic forms. E.g.,
traumatic childhood memories.
Freud argued that most of the psychic processes are unconscious in nature. For
him, unconscious awareness was both a reservoir of instinctual drives and a storehouse
of all the wishes, feelings and thoughts we conceal from our conscious awareness as it
may cause psychological conflicts.

Structure of Personality

Freud divided personality into three separate but interacting parts: Id, Ego, and
Superego. These are not physical divisions, but terms used for strong psychological
forces, the existence of which is inferred from the ways people behave. The effectiveness
of the interaction between these three systems determine the quality of an individual’s
mental health.
 Id- It is the first structure to appear in infancy. It is the pool of biological drives
that arise from our needs for food, water, love etc. It is the energy source of
whole system. The instinctual drive of id is Libido, it is the constructive energy
of life primarily sexual in nature. It is illogical and immature part and operates on
Pleasure Principle. It only focuses on pleasure without thinking of the outcomes Self-Instructional
Material 11

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES of a particular behaviour. E.g., picking a pencil from someone’s house as you
really liked it but did not think that it could be seen as stealing.
 Ego- Ego is the rational part of personality. It is in direct contact with the external
world. Ego develops when the id starts interacting with the environment. The
primary role of ego is to serve as a mediator between id and reality. Ego operates
on Reality Principle, which means that considering the past experiences it finds
the best time to seek most pleasure with least pain. It balances the demands of
id with what is practical or real. E.g., asking the elderly for permission before
picking up the pencil.
 Superego- It includes individual’s conscience, ideals, morals and values. It is
the ethical dimension of personality. It represents the duties, morals and standards
of society that have become part of the internal world of the individual in course
of development of his personality. The superego absorbs all the prohibitions,
inhibitions and standards that are expressed by parents and society. It is governed
by Morality Principle. It plays on morals and duties. “What ought to be” and
“what should be done” is the focus of superego. E.g., giving food to someone
who is hungry would be a part of our moral system.

Fig. 1.2 Structure of Mind/Personality

Self-Instructional Source: [Link]

12 Material

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Personality

The conflicts among id, ego and superego are central in Freudian Theory. Freud NOTES
proposed that the ego tries to resolve this conflict. Often, it resolves the conflict via
Defense Mechanisms. These are mental activities that prevent anxiety (from
unbearable thoughts or wishes) to directly affect a person’s mental status. Some of
which are:
Defense Mechanisms Example
Repression Mother’s Impulse to harm troubling a child is denied access to
consciousness and is repressed.
Rationalization An alcoholic may say- I drink beer, as it is effective for kidney
stone.
Projection A person who wants to watch a movie, tells his wife that she
wants to watch it.
Denial If someone really close to you dies, you deny the fact for some
days, as you are not able to take that anxiety consciously.
Regression A 12-year-old starts bed-wetting after facing deep stress.
Reaction Formation A male is attracted to his male friend but outwardly portray an
extreme hatred towards homosexuals.
Displacement You are angry with your teacher; you cannot take out your
anger on her, so you go home and direct that anger to your
family members.
Sublimation A hostile person becomes a football player.

All these defense mechanisms save our ego from threatening anxiety. We use
them in lesser degree in our day-to-day lives. The problem occurs when these defense
mechanisms are used exaggeratedly and for longer duration.

Psychosexual Stages of Development

Freud developed an extensive theory about shaping of adult personality by early

experiences. Since, he believed that personality develops because of sexual
development therefore, he called these stages as psychosexual stages of personality
development. He says that at each stage there is a conflict between sexual urges and
societal requirements, if there is failure to resolve the conflicts it can lead to fixation,
which later on resurfaces during a stressful event.
1. Oral Stage (0 to 1 year): It’s called oral as the erogenous zone is mouth. The
focus of pleasure is mouth and Id dominates child. Sucking and biting the breast
of mother gives pleasure. The conflict that can arise here will be because of

Self-Instructional
Material 13

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES rapid weaning (taking the mother’s breast away from the child, who will now
drink from a cup). Weaning too soon or too late can result in too little or too
much satisfaction of child’s oral needs resulting in oral receptive personality
(smoke, drinking, enjoying food, thumb sucking etc.) or oral aggressive
character (verbally aggressive, bite nails, sarcastic, argumentative etc.) later
on in life.
2. Anal Stage (1 to 3 years): Here, the child develops voluntary control over his
bowel movements. Hence, the erogenous zone becomes anus. Children in this
stage get pleasure from both with- holding and then releasing their faeces (body
waste). This allows children to develop self-control. The area of conflict here is
toilet training. Strict toilet training leads to “anal retentive personality” (mean,
stubborn, clean, perfectionist, dictatorial etc.) and too lenient toilet training leads
to “anal expulsive personality”(careless, disorganised, generous etc.)
3. Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years): Here, the pleasure zone shifts to genitals. The
child finds pleasure in self-stimulation of the genitals. Children understand the
difference between sexes by now. According to Freud, Infantile Masturbation
starts in this stage. The most important event that occurs during phallic stage is
Oedipus complex (Oedipus was a Greek King who unknowingly killed his
father and later married his mother) and Electra complex (Electra was a Greek
character, who induced her brother to kill their mother). He believed that the
boys develop sexual attraction towards mother and girls towards father, they
then develop jealousy of same-sex parent and eventually after resolution of this
complex, they identify with same sex parent and internalise their values and
identities.
4. Latency Stage (6 to 12 years): Here, the sexual instincts remain repressed.
There are hidden or latent sexual feelings. Children here are ashamed and
disgusted about sexual issues and so they tend to avoid members of other gender.
Children are busy learning a range of social, academic and cognitive skills. They
grow intellectually, physically and socially. (Learning maths, music, sports etc.)
5. Genital Stage (12 to adulthood): This is the final stage, which represents
resurfacing of sex drive. Puberty begins and bodily changes lead to finding
pleasure in sexual intercourse. Here also, the main source of pleasure is genital,
Self-Instructional but the difference is that focus is on genital of another person rather than oneself.
14 Material

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Personality

Sexual curiosity begins and child becomes attention seeker especially from NOTES
opposite gender. Successful resolution of conflict at this stage leads to being
able to form deep, mature love relationship and of assuming a place in the world
as a fully independent adult.
The impact of Freud’s ideas has been immense still there were certain criticisms,
which his theory faced. His theory lacked empirical research and many of his ideas
were untestable. He was even criticised for over emphasising the role of sexuality and
for not giving importance to social and cultural aspects in building of personality. The
women theorists criticised him for being biased.
Later, several of Freud’s colleagues published theoretical sections that were
based on his theories and gave attention to the elements that his theory lacked, such as
the social aspect and even the perspective of women. These were Neo- Freudian’s/
Post- Freudian’s (Erick Erickson, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Karen Horney etc.)
Psychodynamic approach includes both theories of Freud and Neo Freudian’s.
Carl Jung: Analytical Psychology- Jung emphasised not only on the sexual
aspects but also on the aims and aspirations humans have. He spoke about the
competing forces within the individual because of which his personality is formed,
these forces should be balanced and according to Jung, it is called Individuation. Jung
moved beyond unconscious and gave the concept of Collective Unconscious. For
him, part of unconscious is personal, and the remaining is common to all human beings.
This collective unconscious contains Archetypes. These are universal pattern of images
for species, which shape their behaviour. These are transferred from” one generation
to another”. They are found in myths, dreams and arts of all humans. E.g., Image of
Mother Earth, Sun God etc.
Karen Horney: Interpersonal Theory- Horney was a female disciple of
Freud. She gave a more optimistic view of humans and their lives. She criticised Freud
on his concept of Penis envy. Freud treated women as inferior. Horney challenged this
view and emphasised on how each sex has its own strengths and weaknesses and
neither of them can be seen as inferior or superior. She showed how women are more
influenced by social and cultural factors rather than biological factors.
Alfred Adler: Individual Psychology- According to Adler, human beings are
inherently social beings, they are motivated by social interest, welfare of others,
cooperation, and personal goals. They have tendency to choose and create, their Self-Instructional
Material 15

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES personal choices provide them motivation. Adler believed that, as children we are
helpless and dependent, we have an inborn feeling of inferiority. To overcome this
feeling, we strive for superiority. Our personality development depends on the lifestyle
we use while overcoming this inferiority complex.
Erik Erikson: Psychosocial Development- He was one of the most influential
Ego psychologists. He laid importance to the rational ego in personality development.
Like Freud, he too proposed stages of personality development, but his stages are
psychosocial in nature and unfold over course of entire life cycle. Erickson divided
life into eight stages, each characterized by a vital psychosocial crisis. These crises
are resolved through interaction with society and people around. His concept of Identity
Crisis (Failure to achieve ego identity during adolescence) became very famous.
Psychodynamic approach hence not only included Freud’s core aspects but
also laid importance to the social and cultural aspects missed by him. However, this
approach faced criticisms as it is based largely on case studies and small and atypical
samples.

In-Text Questions
6. In which psychosexual stage, Fixation might result into a habit of Smoking?
a) Phallic b) Oral
c) Anal d) Genital
7. Carl Jung spoke about a part of mind, which contains universal memories of
all humankind. This part is called:
a) Personal Unconscious b) Conscious
b) Preconscious d) Collective Unconscious
8. According to Adler, Human being strive for-
a) Inferiority b) Superiority
b) Hope d) Death

1.5.3 Social-Cognitive Approach

Self-Instructional
For behaviourists, personality is not related to the internal dynamics. They believe that
16 Material whatever is definable and measurable would formulate personality. Their major focuses

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Personality

were on stimulus- response connection, learning and reinforcement. According NOTES

to them, personality is the response to the environment. The internal events like thoughts,
feelings and motivation are irrelevant for behaviourists as they are not measurable.
However, with time the role of cognition has also been acknowledged in the development
of personality.
Some theories, which are classified under this approach, are:

Skinner Behaviorism

Skinner emphasised on the role of consequence of behaviour in the development of

personality. He defined a special kind of learning called “Operant Conditioning”. It
is the learning of voluntary behaviour through the effects of pleasant or unpleasant
consequences. So, the possibility of a behaviour to happen in future is depended on
the consequences of that behaviour presently. The key components of Operant
Conditioning are Reinforcement and Punishment.
 Reinforcement: Any stimulus when following a particular response leads to a
particular kind of outcome, which increases the probability of that response to
happen again. E.g., getting good marks leads to a chocolate from parents hence
the response of good marks would increase.
 Punishment: Any event that when following a response, makes that response
less likely to happen again is called punishment. It weakens the occurrence of a
particular response. E.g., disrespecting elders leads to scolding, hence the
disrespecting behaviour weakens. It would not happen again.

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Albert Bandura emphasised on the cognitive aspect. He showed that people learn
cognitively by observing others. The learning does not take place merely by experiencing
rewards. Most of the social learning, which occurs, is because of observation. Learning
through observation is also called Modeling. E.g., after listening to moralistic story,
you try to behave like the hero did, by seeing your parents’ brushing teeth at night
before sleeping you start performing as they do.
Bandura also used the term “Reciprocal Determinism”, to explain how
environment, behaviour and cognitive factors of a person work in interplay leading in
Self-Instructional
a particular kind of behaviour. All these three factors influence behaviour. One of the Material 17

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES most important personal variables, which he emphasised on, was “Self Efficacy”, it
refers to a person’s belief or perception of how effective a behaviour will be in a
particular situation. Higher self-efficacy builds on the competence, commitment and
perseverance level of a person.
Hence, Bandura believed that to understand a person’s personality, it’s important
to understand his personal, environmental, and behavioural variables and these personal
variables are most affected by modeling, self-beliefs, and self-expectations.

Walter Mischel and Yuichi Shoda – The Cognitive Effective Personality

System (CAPS)

Mischel was a student of Kelly and he worked with Bandura on cognitive aspects.
Mischel is an important person in cognitive revolution. Mischel and Shoda described
CAPS- Cognitive Affective Personality System. CAPS is a system consisting of 5
different variables which are continuously interacting with environment and with one
another generating the distinctive pattern of behaviour which eventually formulate a
person’s personality. These five variables are-
 Encoding Strategies
 Expectancies and Belief
 Goals and Values
 Affect
 Competencies and Self regulatory behaviour
 Encoding and Personal Construct- Encoding is a mental categorisation and
interpretation of situation. We all represent a particular situation in a particular
manner in our brains, these are being sorted by us in our personal construct
category.
 Expectations and Belief - Expectation of the outcome is an important factor
in conduction of a particular behaviour. It’s an “if then” choice, so the belief that
a particular behaviour would lead to a particular outcome basically decides our
actions.
 Goals and Values- The maintenance of any behaviour is related to the motivation
with which that behaviour is being done. Our goals and value system decides the
Self-Instructional
18 Material zeal with which we face all the barriers and achieve what we want to.

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Personality

 Affect- Our emotions are directly related to how we perceive situations and it NOTES
eventually impacts how we would be behaving in that situation.
 Competencies and self-regulatory behaviour- Controlling and regulating
one’s behaviour is the most important ability, which helps a person to maintain
behaviour in diverse situations. Self-administration and regulation lead to
adjustment of the person and helps in self-directed behaviour.
It’s important to understand that the interplay of all these variables with diverse
situations lead to the formation of unique personalities styles.
The behaviourists and cognitive psychologists have always laid importance to
discovering and identifying the universal laws of learning and the differences in behaviour
among people, but they are criticised on rejection of the notion of self actualization,
unconscious conflict, importance to past and much more.

In-Text Questions
9. Which of the following is not a part of CAPS?
a) Expectancies and Belief b) Goals and Values
c) Affect d) Decision Making

1.5.4 Phenomenological- Humanistic Approach

The psychodynamic theorists have long emphasised the unconscious drive and conflict,
but the phenomenological and humanistic perspectives gained its importance in 1950s.
It emphasised on the immediate conscious experience of the person in his own
environment. The attention is not on past but on the present; it also views human
beings as inherently positive and good. The primary interest of humanistic theories is in
experiencing people, focusing on the present, emphasising on personal responsibility,
focusing on personal growth and ultimately emphasising on improvement. Major theories
under this approach are:

George Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory

This theory was developed by Kelly during 1950s. Kelly laid importance to personal
meaning. He believed that the goal of human beings is to extract personal meaning
Self-Instructional
Material 19

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES from the situations. Every one of us is trying to make sense out of the world but when
we are not able to do so in difficult situations, then we experience uncertainty and
anxiety. To reduce this uncertainty and to enhance understanding we try to anticipate
and predict, and this is how we construct a reality. Our personal constructs are basically
cognitive categories in which we sort different people, events, and objects in our life.
Our perceptions and beliefs are channelised by these personal constructs and
eventually we behave in accordance with our psychological internal world. So, according
to Kelly if we need to understand a person’s personality and his behaviour, it’s important
to understand his internal psychological world.

Carl Rogers Self Theory

Rogers developed a theory of self and the condition that allows for its growth.
Personality, according to Rogers could be explained by following constructs:
 Self: For Rogers, self was an internal image of oneself, which is build by one’s
own perception of one’s life and interaction of significant people in one’s life.
This image of oneself is called Self Concept (it contains belief, perception,
attribution, goals, aspirations related to oneself). Rogers proposed two types of
self- Real Self and Ideal Self.
Real self is one’s perception of actual characteristics, traits and abilities of a
person and ideal self is one’s perception of whom one should be or would like
to be. Rogers used the term Congruence to show harmony between real and
ideal self. The more the congruence between real and ideal self, the more the
person would be competent and capable. If there is incongruence between real
and ideal self, the result would be anxiety and neurotic problems.
 Fully Functioning Person: Rogers believed that every human has the need to
become full functioning. He believed that humans have many positive
characteristics; they strive to experience life to the fullest. Becoming fully functional
would mean understanding own urges, acting on constructive impulses and
feelings and being in touch with oneself.
 Positive Regard: Rogers defined positive regard as love, warmth, care, affection
and respect that comes from significant others. He believed that to become fully
Self-Instructional
20 Material

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Personality

functional, a person needs to have Unconditional Positive Regard, which means NOTES
that his parents or other significant people should not attach any strings with
their love. They need to provide love and respect to the person without any
conditions.
For Rogers, personality is formulated when through unconditional positive regard,
there occurs congruence in real and ideal self of a person, and he moves on to become
Fully Functioning Being.

Fig. 1.3 Carl Rogers Self-Theory

Humanistic approach to personality became popular because of its fresh outlook

towards humans. Humanistic theorists believed in active and optimistic nature of human
being, which was missing from earlier approaches but there were many criticisms to
this approach too. Like - the abstract and difficult to measure concept of self-actualization
or fully functioning person. Even the internal conflicts and unconscious part of personality
was not taken in account.

In-Text Questions
10. The concept of Fully Functioning Person and Positive Regard was given by:
a) Carl Rogers b) Adler
c) Bandura d) Freud

Self-Instructional
Material 21

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES
1.6 CULTURE, GENDER AND PERSONALITY

As we discussed earlier that both biological and environmental factors impact a person’s
personality hence, it’s also important to study the environment which has an impact on
the behaviour of the person. This environment could be studied at different levels and
the surroundings could be divided as personal, social and cultural.
The culture we are born and brought up in, have certain defined norms and
value system. These norms and values influence the way we perceive, relate, and
behave in situations. These aspects not only include the physical environment where a
person lives in but the social and religious aspects, which affect a person’s personality.
The habitat a person lives in decides what kind of economic status that person would
have, and these economic statuses would in turn decide the social structure, child-
rearing practices and work division in the family.
These aspects in totality take on a person’s overall learning environment. With
these, the different rituals, ceremonies, plays, religious activities all define how and
what type of personality a person would have.
The different aspects and dimensions which could be studied while focusing on
culture and its impact on personal development is tightness and complexity. Tightness
over here means how many rules are there for the performance of behaviour in a
particular culture and complexity means the diversity of values and norms.
It’s important to understand the differences between the collectivistic and
individualistic cultures in terms of disposition, identity, personal norms, etc. Collectivistic
cultures are closer and more interdependent on one another whereas individualistic
cultures are much more open and propagate dependence on oneself. E.g.: Americans
had the themes of industriousness, success, competition, independence and as a result
the people tend to be ambitious & aggressive & put work & career over family whereas
Indians are more dependent, affiliated to each other hence their family comes before
personal achievement.

1.6.1 Gender schemas

Gender schemas are an organised cognitive structure that contains our understanding
Self-Instructional
22 Material of attributes, beliefs, norms and behaviours that are expected from males and females

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Personality

in a particular society. These gender schemas become a part of our cognitive NOTES
comprehension through the process of socialisation. It influences personality and
behaviour both. For e.g., males are encouraged for more emotional strength and self-
sufficiency in comparison to females. On the other hand, females are expected to be
more kind, helpful and emotional in the interpersonal relationship.
The culture also plays an important role over here like; there is more gender
fluidity in America as compared to collectivistic culture like India.
Once the understanding of varied approaches has been generated, it is important
to know about the formal analysis and measurement of personality, “Personality
assessment” is done through Self Report Personality Inventories/Psychometric
Tests or Structured Personality Tests/ Paper- Pencil Tests, Projective
Techniques and Behavioral assessment Tools.

1.7 SOLVED ILLUSTRATIONS

 Knowing one’s own Personality, helps in Self Growth and Self Enhancement, it
tells a person about their limitations and the ways to overcome them. (NEO-PI,
Keirsey Temperament Sorter, California Psychological Inventory, Maudsley
Personality Inventory)
 Personality testing is an important tool for organisational and industrial sector.
(Behavioral Observations and Personality Interviews, MBTI, FIRO-B)
 To cure any mental problem the first and foremost step is to understand that
problem for which in-depth understanding of that client’s personality is necessary,
personality assessment helps in that too. (TAT, SCT, DAP, Rorschach Inkblot
Test)

1.8 SUMMARY

Self and personality are generally used interchangeable. Personality is the dynamic
organisation within the individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine his Self-Instructional
Material 23

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES characteristic behaviour and his unique adjustment to the environment. Different theories
and approaches have been developed for understanding of personality. These theories
and approaches are based on different models or schools of psychology explaining
human behaviour. The most important of these are: Trait Approach, Psychodynamic
Approach, Social- Cognitive Approach and Phenomenological- Humanistic Approach.
Traits are specific psychological attributes along which individual tend to differ. Trait
Approach has been emphasised by Allport, Cattell and Eysenck. Freud developed
psychoanalytical approach and the important concepts of childhood experiences and
Unconscious motivation originated with him. He discussed about the Structure of Mind,
Personality, Psychosexual Stages and Defense Mechanisms. Post-Freudian theorists
focus on societal and cultural impact on personality, interpersonal forces and present
conditions of life of a person. Some of these important theorists are Jung, Adler, Horney
and Erikson. Social-Cognitive Theorists believed that whatever is definable and
measurable would formulate personality. There major focuses were on stimulus-
response connection, learning and reinforcement. Bandura, Skinner, Mischel and Shoda;
also, are important theorists under this approach. Phenomenological and Humanistic
approach studies individual as a whole, focusing on his subjective experience, self and
personal growth. The cultural aspects and gender schemes influence a person’s
behaviour through socialization process.

1.9 GLOSSARY

 Anal Stage- Psychosexual stage in which source of conflict is anus.

 Big Five Factor-5 primary factors of Personality (OCEAN)
 CAPS- Cognitive Affective Personality System
 Cardinal Traits- In Allport’s Theory, a trait which impacts almost every
behaviour of a person.
 Cognition- Process of Knowing
 Conditioning- Learning to engage in a particular behaviour as it leads to a
particular outcome every time.
Self-Instructional  Ego- Works on reality principle
24 Material

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Personality

 Fully Functioning Person- Person functioning at an optimum level (Rogers) NOTES

 Id- Works on pleasure principle
 Oedipus Complex- Unconscious psychological conflict where the child is
attracted towards parent of opposite gender.
 Self-Efficacy- Grading one’s own worth.
 Unconditional Positive Regard- Respect which is not contingent on specific
behaviours.

1.10 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. (b) Unstable
2. (a) Amygdala
3. (c) Cardinal traits
4. (d) 16
5. (c) Organized and Dependable
6. (b) Oral
7. (d) Collective Unconscious
8. (b) Superiority
9. (d) Decision Making
10. (a) Carl Rogers

1.11 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Define Personality. Discuss major approaches to personality in short.

2. Discuss the structure of personality, explained by Freud with relevant examples.
3. Highlight the key concepts of social-cognitive approach.
Self-Instructional
Material 25

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES 4. Explain the major constituents of Phenomenological-humanistic approach through

appropriate examples.
5. Elaborate the personality development process through the lenses of culture
and gender schemes.

1.12 REFERENCES

 Allport, G. W. (1961). Pattern and growth in personality. New York: Holt.

 Baraon, R. A. & Misra, G. E. (2014). Psychology. New Delhi: Pearson
Education.
 Chadha, N.K. & Seth, S. (2014). The Psychological Realm: An Introduction.
New Delhi: Pinnacle Learning.
 Ciccarelli, S. K., Meyer, G. E. & Misra, G. (2013). Psychology, South Asian
Edition. New Delhi: Pearson Education.
 Morgan, C. T., Rosen, J. W., Morgan, C. T., & King, R. A. (1975). Introduction
to Psychology: Fifth edition. New York: McGraw-Hill.

1.13 SUGGESTED READINGS

 N.K. Chadha and S.S. Phulia (2007) General Psychology (In Hindi). Sri Sai
Printographers: New Delhi
 N.K. Chadha and Salma Seth (eds) (2013) The Psychological Realm. Pinnacle
Learning: New Delhi
 Passer, M.W. & Smith, R.E. (2010). Psychology: The Science of Mind and
Behavior. Tata McGraw-Hill.
 [Link]

Self-Instructional
26 Material

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
UNIT II: INTELLIGENCE

LESSON 2 INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence

LESSON 2 NOTES

INTELLIGENCE
Dr. Madhulika Bajpai
Associate Professor,
Bhaskaracharya College of Applied Sciences,
University of Delhi
Email-Id: [Link]@[Link]
Structure
2.1 Learning Objectives
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Approaches to Understanding Intelligence
2.3.1 Psychometric Approach
2.3.2 Spearman’s “g” Factor Theory
2.3.3 Crystallised and Fluid Intelligence
2.3.4 Cognitive Process Approaches
2.3.5 Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
2.4 Broader Conceptions of Intelligence
2.4.1 Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence
2.4.2 Emotional Intelligence
2.4.3 Benefits of Emotional Intelligence
2.5 Heredity, Environment and Intelligence
2.6 Extremes of Intelligence
2.6.1 Intellectually Gifted
2.6.2 Intellectual Disability
2.7 Summary
2.8 Glossary
2.9 Answers to In-Text Questions
2.10 Self-Assessment Questions
2.11 References
2.12 Suggested Readings

Self-Instructional
Material 29

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES
2.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 To help students understand the basic tenets of human intelligence.

 To understand the different approaches to intelligence and their applications.
 Gain insight into the role of nature-nurture in understanding and development of
intelligence.
 To understand the two ends of the intelligence continuum.

2.2 INTRODUCTION

“The measure of intelligence is the ability to change.”

- Albert Einstein

Do you agree with this definition? Are you aware of other quotes defining
intelligence conceptualised by famous personalities? You may even have your
description of what intelligence means to you. Which one is appropriate and should be
followed is not an easy option, especially when we are spoilt for choices. In our
endeavour to learn about individual differences, intelligence is one of the most significant
concepts that provides several insights into understanding human behaviour.
Refer to the Video ([Link]
The quest for what represents human intelligence is not linear. Most often than
not, when discussing intelligence, it usually indicates intellectual abilities. (Refer to Fig.
2.1). But is intelligence restricted to these abilities alone? Can there be only one kind
of intelligence, or is there more? Can it be measured? Can it be learnt? These are
some of the questions that may arise in the mind of a psychology student. Let us
understand each of them in the subsequent sections.

Self-Instructional
30 Material

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Intelligence

NOTES

Fig. 2.1 General Characteristics of Intelligence

Definitions

The word intelligence derives its origin from the Latin verb ‘intellegere’, which translates
to understanding. Some of the definitions given by the eminent researchers include:
“Intelligence is the judgment or common sense, initiative, the ability to adapt
oneself” and again “to judge well, understand well, reason well —these are the
essentials of intelligence.”
- Alfred Binet (1905)
“The aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to
think rationally, and to deal effectively with his/her environment”
- David Weschler, (1958)
“The ability to derive information, learn from experience, adapt to the
environment, understand, and correctly utilise thought and reason.”
- APA Dictionary of Psychology
“Intelligence is the mental ability necessary for adaptation to, as well as shaping
and selection of, any environmental context.”
- Robert Sternberg (1985)

All the above definitions suggest a few common elements that constitute
intelligence, which include factors mentioned in Fig 2.1 and a general mastery of one’s
environment for adapting to its dynamic demands. For more definitions, Click Here:
[Link] Self-Instructional
by-different-psychologists/ Material 31

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES
In-Text Questions
1. What is the purpose of studying intelligence?
a) To understand what makes some people more innovative than others.
b) To improve educational systems and teaching methods
c) Both a and b
2. What is Intelligence?
a) The ability to read.
b) The ability to solve problems and adapt to new situations.
c) The ability to lift heavy weights.
d) The ability to play a musical instrument.
3. Intelligence is a complex construct that involves a variety of cognitive processes,
including __________ and problem-solving skills.
a) Memory b) Decision-Making
b) Attention d) All of the Above

2.3 APPROACHES TO UNDERSTANDING

INTELLIGENCE

In the preceding section, we have understood how intelligence was defined by different
psychologists as the research on intelligence evolved in the last century. We shall now
try to understand the concept of intelligence in an in-depth manner through the various
theories proposed. Psychologists have employed several approaches to study the
concept of intelligence. However, for ease of understanding, those can be classified
under two psychometric and cognitive approaches. The focus of the psychometric
approach has been to study what constitutes intelligence and highlight the different
types of proficiencies for assessing performances on the test. On the other hand,
cognitive approaches were rooted in exploring the different thought processes that aid
those mental proficiencies.
Self-Instructional
32 Material

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Intelligence

2.3.1 Psychometric Approach NOTES

Psychometric theories attempt to explain the concept by quantifying and measuring

intelligence. The theorists believe intelligence is an inborn ability determined by genes.
As per the theories, a person’s intelligence is determined by his/her ability to think,
solve problems, and memorise for future recall. Psychometric theories can be attributed
to developing intelligence tests. We shall study how psychometrics helped provide
insights into studying and measuring intelligence.
Psychometric researchers have long tried to recognise the mental abilities that
determine and enable the performance of individuals on varied tasks. The underlying
idea was that if an individual’s performance was similar across various ability tests, it
could be attributed to the same capability. To identify these different measures of
cognitive abilities, those were correlated with one another. Similar experiments were
carried out with other variables to test for any correlation. These experiments intended
to provide insights into the underlying abilities responsible for the performance or lack
of it in an individual. The statistical factor analysis technique was applied to infer from
the enormous data generated via these experiments. It helped in identifying underlying
links among the different variables being studied.

2.3.2 Spearman’s “g” Factor Theory

This set of psychometric experiments indicating a common ability responsible for success
in different mental ability tests paved the path for Charles Spearman’s theory of “General
Intelligence”, popularly known as “g Factor Theory” (1904). Spearman was the first
psychologist to use statistical principles to analyse and interpret human intelligence.
Through his research, he found that students’ performance in some papers was
highly correlated but not entirely. He found similar results in Simon-Binet’s intelligence
tests (arithmetic, problem-solving, vocabulary etc.). While evaluating the performance,
he found that high scorers performed consistently across tests. Similarly, individuals
scoring low on one aptitude test scored lower marks on the other aptitude tests as
well.
He deduced that a high correlation in performances indicates a presence of a
general ability that translates to similar performance across subjects/test variables.
Self-Instructional
Spearman proposed that the performance could be a function of a “g factor” (general Material 33

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES intelligence) and also as a result of some specific skill needed for that particular subject/
variable, which he called an “s factor” (specific intelligence). He proposed that high
performance on any given task reflects general intelligence, further compounded with
specific intelligence (Fig. 2.2). Student scoring high in physics could be a result of her
general intelligence as well as the specific ability to ace the subject.
Spearman’s theory provided significant insights into human intelligence. Many
researchers have supported it even after 100 years since it was proposed, both in
academics and professional success (Kuncel et al., 2004; Lubinski, 2004; Schmidt &
Hunter, 2004).

Fig. 2.2 The ‘g’ and ‘s’ factors of Spearman’s Two Factor Theory

Criticism of Spearman’s theory of intelligence has primarily focused on his

reliance on the concept of general intelligence. While Spearman argued that a single
factor of general intelligence (g) underlies all intellectual activity, some theorists, like
E. L. Thorndike (1926), proposed that intelligence is a sum total of several distinct
characteristics and not a result of only one kind. Howard Gardner suggested that
multiple distinct abilities better explain intelligence. Similarly, Raymond Cattel, one
of his students, argued through his theory of two types of intelligence (which shall
Self-Instructional
34 Material

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Intelligence

be covered in the next segment) that intelligence is dynamic and continues to evolve NOTES
and expand.
Additionally, Spearman’s emphasis on the “g factor” as the only intelligence
source has been criticised as overlooking individual differences and emphasising the
differences between individuals. This assumption can also create binaries of being
either intelligent or not intelligent based on their “g” scores alone rather than recognising
the distinctive combination of abilities each individual may possess.
Thurstone’s theory of intelligence has been influential in the domain of intelligence
testing, and his ideas are still widely used today. Thurstone extended Spearmen’s
work utilising matrix algebra to demonstrate that seven primary abilities, rather than
the “g” factor, better fit the data than the two-factor theory. These abilities (Fig. 2.3)
are used to measure intelligence and can be used to assess the mental capabilities of
individuals. Thurstone argued that these abilities are independent and that the sum
of their abilities determines a person’s overall intelligence. Based on these abilities, he
constructed a measure of intelligence, the “Test of Primary Mental Abilities” (PMA).

Fig. 2.3 Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities

Self-Instructional
Material 35

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES 2.3.3 Crystallised and Fluid Intelligence

Fig. 2.4 Crystallised and Fluid Intelligence

Raymond Cattell (1971) and John Horn (1985) developed this theory of
intelligence. They extended Spearman’s theory by proposing that intelligence is composed
of not one but two distinct types of cognitive ability, crystallised (gc) and fluid (gf )
intelligence. Crystallised intelligence is the ability to utilise previously learnt/acquired
knowledge and skills to solve problems, whereas fluid intelligence is the ability to think
abstractly and solve novel problems accordingly. Crystallised intelligence shall be helpful
in tasks related to vocabulary, comprehension etc. On the other hand, fluid intelligence
can come in handy for solving puzzles and coming up with solutions to conceptual
challenges.
According to the theory, these two types of intelligence are independent of one
another yet complement each other. These can also be measured separately using
psychometric tests (Fig. 2.5.). Cattell and Horn concluded that humans shift from
utilising fluid intelligence to depending more on crystallised intelligence over the lifespan.
This shift was also attributed to relying on long-term memory to aid while dealing with
similar challenges, thus using crystallised intelligence. Kunzman & Baltes (2003) called
it the ‘essence of wisdom’.

Self-Instructional
36 Material

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Intelligence

NOTES

Intelligence
Vocabulary Tests Raven’s Progressive
General Knowledge
Crystallized
Intelligence

Fluid
Matrices Test Wechsler
Tests Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
Intelligence Scale for Children

Fig. 2.5 Tests Measuring gf-gc Intelligence

The theory was criticised for being overly reductionist and relying too heavily
on psychometric testing. Another criticism highlights inadequate attention to the
complexities of human intelligence and the fact that intelligence can be expressed in
myriad ways than just the two mentioned. Finally, the theory does not adequately
account for individual differences in intelligence or the effects of culture, environment,
and other factors on intelligence. Although, Cattell and Horn suggested that intelligence
is influenced by both heredity and environment and that it is malleable and can also be
improved with effort. While the theory of intelligence remains a vital contribution to
intelligence studies, it is crucial to consider these criticisms to understand the nature of
intelligence better.

In-Text Questions
4. __________ proposed that intelligence is a single general ability that can be
measured by intelligence tests.
5. What is the difference between Fluid Intelligence and Crystallized intelligence?
a) Fluid intelligence is the ability to solve problems and adapt to new situations,
while crystallized intelligence is knowledge acquired through experience.
b) Fluid intelligence is knowledge acquired through experience, while
crystallized intelligence is the ability to solve problems and adapt to new
situations.
c) Fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence are the same.
d) Fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence are unrelated to intelligence.

Self-Instructional
Material 37

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES 6. Which of the following is an example of fluid intelligence?

a) The ability to recall specific dates in history.
b) The ability to solve a new problem without prior experience or instruction.
c) The ability to speak multiple languages fluently.
d) The ability to recite a poem from memory.

2.3.4 Cognitive Process Approaches

As we learned in the previous sections, psychometric theories mapped human minds

well and highlighted how people differed in intelligence. However, these theories failed
to explain why people differed in these mental abilities. Cognitive set of theories thus
aimed to find the specific processes that determine intellectual skills.

2.3.5 Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

This section will study Robert Sternberg’s “triarchic theory” of intelligence (1985,
1989). Through his approach, he highlighted the underlying psychological processes’
role and included the different manifestations of intelligence. Sternberg divided this
information processing approach into three different components (Fig. 2.6).

Fig. 2.6 Sternberg Information Processing Approach

Meta components include what helps an individual to plan, monitor and review
activities. Performance components enable one to carry out what is planned with
the help of meta components. Knowledge-acquisition components come in handy
to learning and acquiring skills for problem-solving. The information processing
Self-Instructional approach could be elaborated with an example of a researcher who outlines a research
38 Material

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Intelligence

plan (meta components), conducts the study (performance components), learn new NOTES
findings and gain insights after successfully carrying out the study (knowledge-
acquisition components).
As the title (triarchic) of the theory suggested, Sternberg proposed three types
of intelligence (Fig. 2.7). He added that even if there are variations/alternate
interpretations of what is considered intelligence across cultures, the mental processes
required to arrive at them remain the same. He categorised these processes into the
following three:

Analytical Practical Creative

Intelligence Intelligence Intelligence
 It is used for  This is needed for dealing or  It refers to
analysing, resolving issues pertaining to cognitive
comparing day to day lives at home or skills needed
and work. to formulate
evaluating.  It is also sometimes referred new ideas and
 These to as being street smart or also adapt to
abilities can having tacit knowledge- new,
be tested by abilities needed to effectively uncharted
conventional handle/adjust to immediate territories.
intelligence environment without any
tests. formal training or expertise.

Fig. 2.7 Types of Intelligence

Through this theory, Sternberg suggested that even if the three types of intelligence
have a trace of the “g” factor, as suggested by Spearman, they are independent in their
own right. Through his subsequent studies, he also concluded that educational curriculum
should lay equal emphasis on all three types of skills and not only on analytical skills.
Triarchic theory provides a comprehensive understanding of information
processing, especially problem-solving. According to (Eysenck, 1998), “the triarchic
theory bridges the gap between intelligence and research in problem-solving”. Self-Instructional
Material 39

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES However, the theory is critiqued for limiting itself to merely an intelligent behaviour/
abilities index. It does not provide any insights or pathways to acquiring new knowledge.

In-Text Questions
7. Which of the following was not proposed as a component of triarchic theory?
a) Emotional component
b) Meta component
c) Knowledge-acquisition component
d) Performance component
8. According to Robert Sternberg, intelligence is composed of which of these
three components?
a) Cognitive, practical, and creative
b) Social, emotional, and physical
c) Analytical, creative, and practical
d) Logical, linguistic, and spatial

2.4 BROADER CONCEPTIONS OF INTELLIGENCE

2.4.1 Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence

Intelligence has long been considered as a mental competence that IQ tests can measure.
Howard Gardner empirically challenged this idea. He proposed that intelligence could
be viewed as an inclusive ability that enables one to rise to the demands of the ever-
evolving environment. He attempted to change the direction of empirical inquiry by
proposing that research should focus on finding answers to “How are you smart?”
than “How smart are you?” Pursuing his quest for this answer, he proposed the
theory of “multiple intelligences” (Gardner, 2000).
He proposed seven different bits of intelligence and later added the last two,
later to the list (Fig 2.8,) which can be used to describe a person’s cognitive abilities:
Self-Instructional
40 Material

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Intelligence

 Linguistic Intelligence: The ability to use language to express ideas and NOTES
thoughts, read, and write.
 Logical-Mathematical Intelligence: The ability to solve logical &
complex problems, understand patterns and relationships, and use
mathematical skills. Scientists and engineers are adept at this type.
 Visual-Spatial Intelligence: The ability to think in pictures and manipulate
objects in space. Architects, pilots and artists are gifted with this kind of
intelligence.
 Musical Intelligence: The ability to understand, create and appreciate
the elements of music. Singers, music composers and instrumentalists
demonstrate this kind of competence.
 Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence: The ability to use one’s body to express
ideas and feelings and precisely manipulate objects. Sports personnel and
dancers are competent in this ability.
 Interpersonal Intelligence: The ability to understand, interact and work
with others. Leaders and therapists shall display such intelligence.
 Intrapersonal Intelligence: Understanding one’s feelings, motivations and
goals. It also includes one’s capability to take responsibility for one’s decisions
and act accordingly. This ability can be reflected in life coaches and educators.
 Naturalistic Intelligence: The ability to appreciate and understand the
environment, including plants, animals, and the planet. Biologists, zoologists,
botanists, farmers and conservationists can be suitable candidates for this
type of intelligence.
 Existential Intelligence: A person’s ability to contemplate and understand
the nature of human existence and think philosophically and deeply about
the meaning of life, death, and the purpose of human existence. Philosophers
and spiritual thinkers like Gautam, Buddha and Swami Vivekanand.
According to Gardner, each type of intelligence is distinct and significant in its
own right. Also, an individual can excel in one of these but, at the same time, may
struggle with others. For example, performers from the field of sports or entertainment
may be good at kinesthetic, musical, or linguistic intelligence but may struggle with
mathematical intelligence. Self-Instructional
Material 41

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES
Linguistic Logical-Mathematical Visuospatial
Intelligence Intelligence Intelligence
(Munshi Premchand) (Shakuntala Devi) (Raja Ravi Verma)

Musical Bodily-Kinesthetic Interpersonal

Intelligence Intelligence Intelligence
(Pt. Shiv Kumar Sharma) (Sonal Mansingh) (Sardar Patel)

Intrapersonal Naturalistic Existential

Intelligence Intelligence Intelligence
(Sigmund Freud) (Salim Ali) (Swami Vivekanand)

Fig. 2.8 Examples of Multiple Intelligence

*(Source mentioned at the end of the lesson)

Recognising and valuing different forms of intelligence, the theory promotes a

more inclusive and diverse approach to education, learning and employment. One of
the key strengths of the theory is that it recognises the diversity of human abilities and
talents. It highlights how each intelligence is unique and independent of one other, and
people can have competence in one or a combination of these. It also suggests many
ways to be “smart” beyond the traditional academic measures of intelligence.
The theory has significant implications for teaching and learning as it suggests
that educators should provide tailor made opportunities for learning for the pupil’s
needs, strengths, and interests. His theory offers insights that can be adopted per the
ethos New Education Policy (NEP) to create a more holistic approach to education.
However, the theory also faced criticism, for some suggesting its lack of empirical
support and that the types of intelligence identified by Gardner are too diverse and
ambiguous. Critics also hinted that the multiple intelligences Gardner proposed were
more reflective of varied skills and talents rather than distinct forms of intelligence.
Overall, while the theory of multiple intelligences has been influential in education
and has challenged traditional notions of intelligence, it remains a topic of debate, and
further research is needed to understand its validity and implications fully.
Summary: [Link]
Self-Instructional
42 Material

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Intelligence

2.4.2 Emotional Intelligence NOTES

Introduction

Emotional Intelligence (EI) has become increasingly popular in recent years, as it has
been linked to improved mental health and better social relationships. Research suggests
that various therapies and interventions can develop and improve emotional intelligence.
This section aims to provide an in-depth understanding of emotional intelligence, its
components, and its significance in various contexts.
Salovey and Mayer first introduced the concept of emotional intelligence (EI) in
1990. They defined it as “the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s feelings
and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide
one’s thinking and actions” (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). Since then, various
researchers, such as Daniel Goleman (1995), have expanded and refined the concept.
EI is a vital component of an individual’s psychological makeup that explains
how people manage their emotions and interact with others. It can be called the ability
to recognise, understand, manage, and use emotions effectively to facilitate thinking,
communication, and social interactions. It involves a set of skills that allow people to
regulate their emotions, recognise and respond appropriately to the emotions of others,
and establish and maintain positive relationships with others.

Components of Emotional Intelligence

Emotional intelligence comprises four essential domains that enable individuals to

manage their emotions effectively. These components include self-awareness, self-
management, social awareness, and relationship management. Let us understand
each one of them in some detail.
 Self-awareness: This component refers to the ability to recognise and
understand one’s emotions, thoughts, and behaviours and how they affect one’s
behaviour. This awareness can help people be more in tune with their emotions.
 Self-regulation: It involves the ability to manage and regulate one’s emotions,
thoughts, and behaviours. It involves controlling impulsive behaviour, managing
stress, and adapting to changing situations. With self-awareness, self-regulation
becomes easier. Self-Instructional
Material 43

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES  Social awareness: EI also looks into the connection with others after oneself.
Social awareness thus involves the ability to recognise and understand the
emotions of others. It involves being empathetic and understanding the
perspective of others.
 Relationship management: To have meaningful relationships with others is
necessary for harmonious living. Thus, relationship management is also an essential
component of EI. It refers to the ability to establish and maintain positive
relationships with others. It involves effective communication, conflict resolution,
and the ability to work collaboratively.

Fig. 2.9 Benefits of Emotional Intelligence

2.4.3 Benefits of Emotional Intelligence

EI plays a critical role in both personal and professional success. It is essential for
effective communication, conflict resolution, and building solid relationships. Individuals
with high emotional intelligence are better able to handle stress, make better decisions,
and are more adaptable to change. It has also been linked to various positive outcomes,
such as better interpersonal relationships, higher job performance, and greater
Self-Instructional
44 Material

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Intelligence

psychological well-being (Brackett & Salovey, 2006). Research has also shown that NOTES
emotional intelligence can be developed and improved through various training programs
and interventions (Mayer, Salovey et al., 2008).
Emotional intelligence is significant in personal relationships as well. It enables
individuals to establish and maintain positive relationships with others. It helps individuals
to understand and respond to the emotions of others, fostering empathy and further
connection. In the workplace, EI is increasingly acknowledged as an essential skill for
effective leadership and management. Leaders with high emotional intelligence are
better able to inspire and motivate their teams, resolve conflicts, and create a positive
work environment.
However, some critics suggest that it lacks empirical support and has limited
predictive power over and above traditional measures of intelligence (Mayer et al.,
2008). However, subsequent research has suggested that emotional intelligence can
be valuable for predicting specific outcomes, such as leadership effectiveness and job
performance (Joseph & Newman, 2010). Research also indicates that it may effectively
predict various outcomes in personal and professional realms.
In conclusion, emotional intelligence is a vital skill that enables individuals to
manage their emotions effectively, establish positive relationships with others, and
succeed in personal and professional contexts. Its components of self-awareness,
self-regulation, social awareness, and relationship management work together to enable
individuals to navigate complex social situations and thrive in all spheres of their lives.

In-Text Questions
9. Who proposed the theory of multiple intelligences?
a) Howard Gardner b) Robert Sternberg
b) Alfred Binet d) David Wechsler
10. Which of the following has not been included in theory of multiple intelligences?
a) Musical intelligence b) Visual-spatial intelligence
c) Self-reflection intelligence d) Interpersonal intelligence

Self-Instructional
Material 45

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES 11. What is emotional intelligence?

a) The ability to understand and manage one’s own emotions and the
emotions of others.
b) The ability to solve complex problems.
c) The ability to memorize large amounts of information.
d) The ability to perform well on standardised tests.
12. The concept of emotional intelligence was first introduced by:
a) Howard Gardner b) Salovey and Mayer
b) Daniel Goleman d) Robert Sternberg

2.5 HEREDITY, ENVIRONMENT AND

INTELLIGENCE

The impact of heredity and environment on intelligence is a complex and controversial

topic. The nature-nurture debate continuously indicates the significance of both in
similar measures. Heredity and environment play an essential role in determining
intelligence, but the degree to which each factor influences intelligence is debatable.
Heredity is the genetic information we receive from our parents and is responsible for
much of the variation in intelligence between individuals.
While research has shown that genetic factors account for around half of the
differences in intelligence among individuals, environmental factors such as nutrition,
education, and access to resources also contribute to intelligence levels. For example,
a study by the University of Colorado (Petrill et al., 1998) found that intelligence is
about 50% heritable, meaning that half of the variation in intelligence among individuals
can be explained by genetics. Results suggest that the genes we inherit from our parents
can significantly affect our intelligence levels. Evidence from studies of twins, adopted
children, and families suggest that genetic factors account for approximately 50% of
the variation in intelligence in a population (Plomin et al., 1988; Plomin et al., 1997;
Plomin et al., 2013; Gignac & Bates, 2013). Thus, a child’s intelligence is partly
Self-Instructional
determined by their inherited genes, and the complexity of the genes involved suggests
46 Material that intelligence is a polygenic trait. Similarly, research on twins has shown that identical

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Intelligence

twins who are raised separately often have very similar IQ scores, despite experiencing NOTES
different environmental influences (e.g., Bouchard et al., 1990; Deary et al., 2009).
On the other hand, the environment includes extrinsic influences (such as nutrition,
family, culture, socio-economic environment, education, etc.) that can impact a child’s
intellectual development. While less influential than heredity, specific learning
environments and academic opportunities can positively impact intellectual development.
For example, research suggests that children exposed to early language stimulation,
such as reading, have higher cognitive abilities later in life. Studies also found that
children who attend high-quality schools, have access to various resources, and receive
adequate nutrition are more likely to have higher intelligence levels than those who do
not. (Scarr, McCartney, 1983; Neisser et al., 1996; Turkheimer, 2003)
Overall, research has shown that heredity and environment both play a complex
role in influencing intelligence and determining its level. The exact extent to which each
contributes is still widely debated. Future research is needed to understand the complex
interplay between the two.

In-Text Questions
13. Which of the following is not a factor that influences intelligence?
a) Genetics b) Environment
c) Social media use d) Nutrition
14. Which of the following statements about the role of heredity and environment
on intelligence is true?
a) Intelligence is solely determined by genetics.
b) Environmental factors solely determine intelligence.
c) Both heredity and environment play a role in determining intelligence.
d) Either heredity or environment does not determine intelligence.

2.6 EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE

As discussed in the previous section, genetic and environmental influences on intelligence

Self-Instructional
can lead to two extreme ends of intelligence distribution. The ones at the upper end Material 47

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES are known as “intellectually gifted”, the ones at the other extreme are called “mentally
retarded” or “cognitively disabled.” A study conducted on students at a gifted program
in the United States of America found that the students had an average IQ of 145,
which is well above the average IQ of 100 (Kail & Sattler, 2008). On the other hand,
many may possess considerably lower levels of intelligence, often called intellectual
disability or mental retardation. A study of individuals with intellectual disabilities in
the USA found that the average IQ of the sample was 58, well below the average IQ
of 100 (Kail & Sattler, 2008). Thus, intellectual giftedness and mental retardation are
two extreme ends of the intelligence continuum.

2.6.1 Intellectually Gifted

As construed by psychologists, intelligence can vary significantly from individual to

individual. On one extreme, individuals may exhibit exceptional intelligence indicators,
often referred to as “giftedness” or “exceptional intelligence”. Intellectually gifted
individuals demonstrate a high ability to think abstractly, reason, comprehend complex
ideas, and process information quickly and accurately. This kind of intelligence is often
measured through IQ tests. They excel in academic or creative pursuits and possess
an enhanced ability to think, reason, and solve complex problems. Examples of
intellectually gifted individuals include Albert Einstein, Srinivasa Ramanujan, Marie
Curie, and Stephen Hawking. Albert Einstein was known for his exceptional ability to
think abstractly and solve complex mathematical problems. The lesser-known fact is
that he was also an accomplished musician, philosopher, and writer.
Read this for further reference ([Link]
social-relevance/[Link])
One of the most renowned studies of intellectually gifted individuals was
conducted by Lewis Terman (1973). He studied 1,528 gifted children and found that
they consistently scored higher than average on IQ tests. He also noted that gifted
children could solve problems far more quickly and accurately than the average child.
This study has been cited in numerous other studies that have sought to define giftedness
and its associated characteristics. Other studies have also suggested that intellectually
gifted individuals often possess higher levels of creativity and divergent thinking, which
allow them to generate more solutions to problems. They are also more likely to be
Self-Instructional self-motivated to achieve their goals. Additionally, those with higher general intelligence
48 Material

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Intelligence

have been found to perform better academically and reflect advanced career aspirations. NOTES
(Renzulli, 1978; Gardner, 1983; Silverman, 2013). However, Renzulli (2002) suggested
that not all mentally gifted individuals shall scale the height of excellence. He attributed
success to three related factors (Fig. 2.10). He concluded that combining these three
factors ensures eminence in one’s field and not just a higher IQ alone. Intellectually
gifted children also need opportunities for special education. The regular classrooms
could not be stimulating enough for them (Phillipson & McCann, 2007).
However, in the name of parity, educational institutions do not follow this practice.
Thus, the onus of providing relevant opportunities comes on the parents and guardians.
Without such opportunities, we may lose higher IQ children to mediocrity.
Video: [Link]

Fig. 2.10 Key to Eminence for Intellectually Gifted

2.6.2 Intellectual Disability

The other extreme of the intelligence continuum is the intellectual disability or mental
retardation. It is defined by the American Association on Intellectual and Developmental
Disabilities (AAIDD) as “significantly sub-average intellectual functioning existing Self-Instructional
Material 49

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES concurrently with related limitations in two or more of the following applicable
adaptive skill areas: communication, self-care, home living, social/interpersonal
skills, use of community resources, self-direction, functional academics, work,
leisure, health, and safety.”
It is a disability characterised by marked inadequacies in cognitive functioning
and adaptive behaviour, which has an onset before age 18. It is important to note that
mental retardation is not a single disorder but rather an umbrella term used to describe
various conditions that affect an individual’s ability to learn and function in everyday
life.
Refer this Video ([Link]
The American Psychiatric Association has devised a four-level system that
classifies mental retardation as mild, moderate, severe, or profound based on IQ
scores. Severity can accordingly lead to difficulty in self-care, communication, and
social skills. Individuals with mental retardation often struggle with basic reasoning and
problem-solving skills and struggle to learn complex concepts. They may also exhibit
limitations in understanding abstract concepts and have difficulty communicating with
others. Additionally, individuals with intellectual disabilities may struggle with social
skills, such as making eye contact, following conversations quickly, and expressing
their feelings and needs.
Research has found that individuals with intellectual disabilities often have deficits
in executive functioning skills, including working memory, cognitive flexibility, and
inhibitory control. These insufficiencies can lead to self-regulation, planning, and goal-
directed behaviour difficulties. Furthermore, individuals with mental retardation may
exhibit impulsivity, disorganisation, and difficulty completing tasks independently
(O’Brien & Sohlberg, 2004; Matson & Shoemaker, 2009). This may be due to a lack
of motivation, difficulty understanding instructions, or a lack of interest in their
environment. For this reason, people with intellectual disabilities may require support
to learn and practice new skills.
An intellectual disability could result from genetic, biological, and environmental
factors. Genetic abnormalities are among the leading (approximately 28 percent)
(Winnepenninckx et al., 2003).Genetics plays a separate role in different levels of
retardation. (Plomin & Spinath, 2004). Cases of severe retardation/intellectual disability
Self-Instructional
50 Material

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Intelligence

are primarily a result of genetic accidents than inherited genotype (Zechner et al., NOTES
2001); hence it is not “inherited”. Intellectual disabilities could also result from natal
accidents, such as oxygen deprivation, and mothers suffering from diseases like rubella
or syphilis. Also, any intoxicants taken during the early gestation period could lead to
brain damage resulting in mental retardation/intellectual disabilities. Despite the known
biological factors, in most cases, it is difficult to ascertain the exact causes of disability.
Experts believe the other factors responsible could include undetectable brain damage
and/or extreme environmental deprivation.
Similar to catering to the needs of the intellectually gifted, children with poor
intellectual abilities also require special education for effective redressal of their needs.
However, it comes with its challenges of either alienating students from the mainstream
or feeding their inadequacies by putting them in the same classroom with children of
higher IQs. It is a delicate balance and needs more sensitive handling than in the case
of intellectually gifted ones. The family, society, and educational institutions need to
strike a balance for what is in the best interest of the concerned children. In both
extreme cases, there cannot be a straight-jacketed approach. Nurturing the future of
any nation, especially those that belong to either extreme, requires more extensive
participation and profound deliberations.

In-Text Questions
15. According to Kail & Sattler’s study, which of the following reflect the average
IQ scores of intellectually gifted and children with cognitive abilities
respectively?
a) 145;58 b) 185;80
b) 122;52 d) 137;51
16. What are some factors that contribute to intelligence?
a) Genetics, environment, and education.
b) Physical strength, creativity, and social skills.
c) Age, gender, and race.
17. The most widely used tool for identifying intellectual giftedness is the ____.
18. Individuals with intellectual disabilities may have difficulty with ____.
Self-Instructional
Material 51

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES
2.7 SUMMARY

Intelligence is a complex and multifaceted construct studied extensively through a

multidisciplinary approach. It encompasses a range of theories, methods, and
perspectives. While there is no definitive theory or definition of intelligence, most theories
agree that it involves learning, reasoning, solving problems, adapting to new situations,
and acquiring knowledge.
This theory has been challenged and revised over time. In the beginning,
intelligence was conceptualised as a single, general ability or factor known as “g”,
which posits that intelligence is a single, underlying trait that determines a person’s
overall cognitive ability across various tasks and domains. Subsequent theories have
emphasised the significance and relevance of multiple intelligences. The focus thus
shifted to other aspects of cognition, such as problem-solving, creativity, emotional
intelligence, and practical intelligence. The resultant theory emphasises the importance
of context, motivation, and social factors in understanding and measuring intelligence.
Another central theme in the study of intelligence is the nature-nurture debate,
which attempts to determine the role of genetics or the environment in determining
intellectual competence. Most contemporary researchers agree that both factors play
a crucial role in shaping intelligence, and their interaction is complex and dynamic.
Also, as psychology students, we must pay attention to the needs of both intellectually
gifted and cognitively disabled individuals. The role of “nurture” can sometimes minimise
the harm done by “nature” or at the least enable people to lead a better-adjusted life.
Overall, the study of intelligence remains an active and ongoing area of research,
with new theories, models, and methods constantly emerging. As our understanding of
intelligence evolves, we will likely gain new insights into this critical construct and its
many applications. Hopefully, you may enrich the field by bringing your well-researched
insights.

2.8 GLOSSARY

Self-Instructional  Intelligence: The ability to learn, reason, solve problems, and adapt to new
52 Material
situations.

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Intelligence

 General Intelligence (g-factor): A hypothesised underlying factor that explains NOTES

performance on different cognitive tasks.
 Fluid Intelligence: The ability to solve novel problems and adapt to new
situations.
 Crystallised Intelligence: Knowledge and skills gained through experience
and education.
 Multiple intelligences: The theory that intelligence can be divided into different
categories, such as linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-
kinaesthetic, intrapersonal, interpersonal, naturalistic and existential.
 Emotional Intelligence: The ability to monitor one’s own and other’s feelings
and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide
one’s thinking and actions.
 Heritability: The proportion of individual differences in a trait that can be
attributed to genetic factors.
 Nature vs Nurture: The deliberation over the relative contributions of genetics
and environment to developing a trait or behaviour.
 Intellectual disability: A condition characterised by significant limitations in
intellectual functioning and adaptive behaviours, typically with onset in childhood.
 Intellectual giftedness: A high ability to think abstractly, reason, comprehend
complex ideas, and process information quickly and accurately.

2.9 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. (c) Both a and b

2. (b) The ability to solve problems and adapt to new situations
3. (d) All of the above
4. Charles Spearman
5. (a) Fluid Intelligence is the ability to solve problems and adapt to new situations,
whereas crystallised intelligence is knowledge acquired through experiences.
Self-Instructional
Material 53

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES 6. (b) The ability to solve a new problem without prior experience or instruction.
7. (a) Emotional component
8. (c) Analytical, creative, and practical
9. (a) Howard Gardner
10. (c) Self-reflection intelligence
11. (a) The ability to understand and manage one’s and other’s emotions
12. (b) Salovey and Mayer
13. (c) Social media use
14. (c) Both heredity and environment play a role in determining intelligence.
15. (a) 145;58
16. (a) Genetics, environment, and education
17. IQ test
18. Learning, communication, and adaptive functioning.

2.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Briefly trace the history of intelligence as a psychological construct.

2. What are the different theories of intelligence, and how do they explain variations
in intellectual abilities?
3. Do you agree with Spearman’s theory? Justify your answer.
4. What do you understand by crystallised and fluid intelligence? How does age
impact these?
5. Explain the different kinds of abilities included in the theory of multiple
intelligences.
6. Discuss the similarities and differences between Sternberg’s and Gardner’s
theories of intelligence.
7. Define emotional intelligence and explain its four components.
Self-Instructional
54 Material

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Intelligence

8. What is the relationship between intelligence and genetics, and how does the NOTES
environment influence intelligence development?
9. Which factors can contribute to the success of intellectually gifted children?
10. What are the different causes of intellectual disabilities?

2.11 REFERENCES

 Boucchard, T.J., Lykken, D.T., McGue, M., Segel, N.L. & Tellegen, A. (1990).
“Source of Human Psychological Differences: The Minnesota Study of Twins
Reared Apart”. Science, 250, 223-228.
 Brackett, M. A., & Salovey, P. (2006). “Measuring Emotional Intelligence with
the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT)”.
Psicothema, 18, 34-41.
 Deary IJ, Johnson W, Houlihan LM. (2009). “Genetic Foundations of Human
Intelligence” Hum Genet. ;126:215–232.
 Donaire-Gonzalez, D., Arrondo, G., & Cuesta, P. (2010). “Influence of Heredity
and Environment on Intelligence”. International Journal of Psychology and
Psychological Therapy, 10(1), 113–128.
 Eysenck, H. J. (1998). “Intelligence: A New Look”. London: Transaction Press.
 Gardner H. (1983). ”Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences”
Basic Books.
 Gardner, H. (1983) “Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligence”.
New York: Basic Books.
 Gardner, H. (2000) “Intelligence Reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st
Century”. New York: Basic Books.
 Gignac, G., & Bates, T. (2013). “The Heritability of Intelligence: A Review”.
Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22(3), 259–264 doi:10.1177/
0963721413478890

Self-Instructional
Material 55

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES  Goleman, D. (1995). “Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than
IQ”. New York: Bantam Books.
 [Link]
 Joseph, D. L., & Newman, D. A. (2010). “Emotional Intelligence: An Integrative
Meta-Analysis and Cascading Model”. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95,
54-78.
 Kail, R. V., & Sattler, J. M. (2008). “Human Intelligence: An Introduction to
the Psychology of Intelligence” Celmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
 Kuncel, N. P., Hezlett, S. A., & Ones, D. S. (2004). “Academic Performance,
Career Potential, and Job Performance: Can One Construct Predict Them All?”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 148–161.
 Kunzman, U., & Baltes, P. B. (2003). “Beyond the Traditional Scope of
Intelligence: Wisdom in Action” n R. J. Sternberg, J. Lautrey, & T. I. Lubart
(Eds.), “Models of Intelligence: International Perspectives”. Washington, DC:
American Psychological Association[Link]
doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fh0024654
 Lubinski, D. (2004) “Introduction to the Special Section on Cognitive Abilities:
100 Years After Spearman’s (1904) General Intelligence, Objectively Determined
and Measured.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 96–111.
 Matson, J.L., & Shoemaker, M. (2009). “Mental retardation: An Overview”
Research in Developmental Disabilities, 30(2), 139–149.
 Mayer, J. D., Roberts, R. D., & Barsade, S. G. (2008). “Human Abilities:
Emotional Intelligence”. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 507-536.
 Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. R. (2004) “Emotional Intelligence:
Theory, Findings, and Implications”. Psychological Inquiry, 15, 197–215.
 Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. R. (2008). “Emotional Intelligence:
New Ability or Eclectic Traits?”. American Psychologist, 63, 503-517.
 Neisser, U., Boodoo, G., Bouchard, T.J., Boykin, A.W., Brody, N., Ceci, S.J.,
Halpern, D.F., Loehlin, J.C., Perloff, R.,Sternberg, R.J. & Urbina, S. (1996).
“Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns”. American Psychologist, 51, 77-101.
Self-Instructional
56 Material

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Intelligence

 O’Brien, J., & Sohlberg, M.M. (2004). “Cognitive Rehabilitation: An Integrative NOTES
Neuropsychological Approach” New York, NY: Guilford Publications
 Petrill, S. A., Plomin, R., & Thompson, L. A. (1998). “The Heritability of General
Cognitive Ability in the Colorado Adoption Project”. Intelligence, 26(3), 323-
340.
 Plomin R, DeFries JC, Knopik VS, Neiderhiser JM. (2013). “Behavioral
Genetics”(6th ed) Worth Publishers: New York.
 Plomin R, Fulker D.W., Corley R, DeFriesJ.C. (1997). “Nature, Nurture and
Cognitive Development from 1 to 16 Years: A Parent-Offspring Adoption
Study. Psychol Sci.;8:442–447
 Plomin, R., & Spinath, F. M. (2004). “Intelligence: Genetics, Genes, and
Genomics” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 86, 112–129.
 Plomin, R., DeFries, J. C., & Fulker, D. W. (1988). “Nature and Nurture
during Infancy and Early Childhood”. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 Plomin, R., DeFries, J. C., McClearn, G. E., & McGuffin, P. (2008). “Behavioral
Genetics”(5th ed.) New York, NY: Worth Publishers.
 Renzulli, J. S. (1978). “What Makes Giftedness: A Re-examination of the
Definition of the Gifted and Talented?” [Link]
234665343_What_Makes_Giftedness_A_Reexamination_of_the_Definition
 Renzulli, J. S. (2002). “Emerging Conceptions of Giftedness: Building a Bridge
to the New Century” Exceptionality, 10, 67–75.
 Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). “Emotional Intelligence”. Imagination,
Cognition, and Personality, 9, 185-211.
 Scarr, S., & McCartney, K. (1983) “How People Make Their Own
Environments: A Theory of Genotype ’! Environment Effects”. Child
Development, 54(3), 424–435 doi:10.2307/1129859
 Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. (2004). “General Mental Ability in the World of
Work: Occupational Attainment and Job Performance”. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 86, 162–173.
 Silverman, L. K. (2013). “Giftedness 101” Springer Publishing Company, New
York, NY. Self-Instructional
Material 57

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES  Spearman, C. (1904) “General Intelligence: Objectively Determined &

Measured”American Journal of Psychology, 15, 201- 293.
 Sternberg, R. J. (1986). “Intelligence Applied: Understanding and Increasing
Your Intellectual Skills”. Orlando, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers.
 Sternberg, R.J. (1989) “The Triarchic Mind: A New Theory of Human
Intelligence”. New York: Penguin Books.
 Terman, L. M. (1973). ”Genetic Studies of Genius”. Stanford, Ca: Stanford
University Press.
 Turkheimer, E., Haley, A., Waldron, M., D’Onofrio, B., & Gottesman, I. (2003).
“Socio-economic Status Modifies Heritability of IQ in Young Children”.
Psychological Science, 14(6), 623–628 doi:10.1111/14
 Winnepenninckx, B., Rooms, L., & Kooy, R. F. (2003). “Mental Retardation:
A Review of The Genetic Causes” British Journal of Developmental
Disabilities, 49, 29–44.
 Zechner, U., Wilda, M., Kehrer-Sawatzki, H., Vogel, W., Fundele, R., &
Hameister, H. (2001). “A High Density of X-Linked Genes for General Cognitive
Ability: A Runaway Process Shaping Human Evolution?”. Trends in Genetics,
17, 697–701.

2.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

 Lyndsay T Wilson (Nov 21, 2017). Spearman and the Theory of General
Intelligence [Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]
Heredity_or_Environment

Self-Instructional
58 Material

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Intelligence

Image Sources NOTES

[Link]
[Link] sharma&title
=Special:MediaSearch&go=Go&type=image
[Link]
MediaSearch&go=Go&type=image

Self-Instructional
Material 59

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
UNIT III: TESTING

LESSON 3 TESTING
Testing

LESSON 3 NOTES

TESTING
Prof. Pooja Wadhawan
Professor
Mata Sundri College for Women
University of Delhi
Email-Id: poojamalik@[Link]
Dr. Poonam Vats
Assistant Professor
Mata Sundri College for Women
University of Delhi
Email-Id: poonamvats@[Link]
Structure
3.1 Learning Objectives
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Nature and Definitions of Psychological Testing
3.4 Further Distinctions in Testing
3.5 Origin of Psychological Testing
3.6 Purpose/Objective
3.7 Assumptions of Psychological Testing
3.8 Types of Tests
3.9 Characteristics of a Good Psychological Test
3.10 Validity
3.11 Reliability
3.12 Standardisation and Norms
3.13 Applications and Issues
3.14 Summary
3.15 Glossary
3.16 Answers to In-Text Questions
3.17 Self-Assessment Questions
3.18 References

Self-Instructional
Material 63

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES
3.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 To help students to understand nature and definitions of Psychological Testing.

 To understand purpose, assumptions and origin of tests.
 To discuss the types of tests and classify the characteristics of a good
psychological test.
 To gain an insight into reliability, validity, standardisation and norms.
 To discuss applications and issues of test.

3.2 INTRODUCTION

Testing and other psychological assessment procedures are important for understanding
individual differences or reactions of similar individuals in varied circumstances. The
purpose of psychological tests is, rather to describe or explain a person’s behaviour
based on his or her personal attributes. Psychological tests measure wide variety of
attributes – motivation, vocational choices, intelligence, anxiety and others. But with
limited precision, as they cannot make accurate decisions about individuals. Although
psychological tests aren’t flawless, they are still the most reliable and accurate tool for
determining many important aspects of someone’s personality.

3.3 NATURE AND DEFINITIONS OF

PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING

Testing or assessing someone’s behaviour is known as psychological assessment.

Various psychological tests can provide insights into different aspects of human
behaviour. By doing so, we are able to interpret why one person is better than another.
Humans are complex in nature and cannot be defined in certain ways.

Self-Instructional
Every day, a wide range of experts administer psychological tests to different
64 Material individuals, and the outcomes have a big impact on you and the people around you.

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Testing

Test results are used, for instance, to diagnose mental illnesses, treat mental and NOTES
emotional disorders, choose candidates for employment, choose candidates for
undergraduate and professional programmes (such as law school and medical school),
and assign grades. High-quality decisions are facilitated by good tests, while decisions
of low quality are facilitated by bad tests.
The consequences of bad decisions can be significant. For instance, a bad hiring
choice can have a significant impact on both the candidate and the hiring company.
From the viewpoint of the company, a poor hiring choice can lead to higher absenteeism,
lower staff morale, lost productivity, and decreased income. From the perspective of
the employee, a poor hiring choice could lead to demotivation, increased stress that
can cause unhappiness and worry. In order to effectively assess the effectiveness of a
decision, you must know the foundations of psychological testing.
To be able to perform this, you must understand about psychological testing.
A psychological test measures a person’s different abilities, including their aptitude
in a particular field, their cognitive abilities such as memory and spatial recognition, or
even their traits such as introversion. Tests can be either pencil and paper or computer-
based. There are activities like puzzle solving, drawing, logic problems solving, and
memory games. Also, projective techniques are sometimes used as a means of gaining
access to the unconscious. Psychological interpretation and complex algorithms are
used in these instances to analyse the subjects’ responses.
A person’s personality and emotional functioning can be assessed using the
Rorschach test, commonly known as the ink-blot test. It is possible to conduct
psychological tests by observing how someone interacts and behaves. It will be possible
to make an inference about the ability and potential of an individual based on the
results of the test.
Psychological testing is best defined as “The process of administering, scoring,
and interpreting psychological tests” (Maloney & Ward, 1976, p. 9).
Whereas testing involves sampling behaviour and categorizing or scoring it in a
standardised manner. Most of the test have norms or standard ways by which results
can be assessed and we can predict important behaviours.
By this, it is understood that a psychological test is standardised, objective, and
refers to sampling. Here are some important definitions of psychological tests. Self-Instructional
Material 65

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES According to Freeman (1965), “Test is a standardised instrument designed to

measure objectively one or more aspects of total personality by means of samples of
verbal or non- verbal responses or by means of other behaviour”.
According to Anastasi (2005), “Psychological test is essentially an objective,
standardised measure of sample of behaviour. Psychological tests are like tests in any
other science in so far as observations are based on a small but carefully chosen
sample of an individual’s behaviour”.
According to Gregory (2014), “Test is a standardised procedure for sampling
behaviour and describing it with categories or scores”.
To better understand what a test is, there needs to be an understanding of the
difference between tests and assessments, tests and experiments.

3.4 FURTHER DISTINCTIONS IN TESTING

Test and Assessment

Assessment is a very broad term and can be defined as an evaluation or estimation of

the magnitude of one or more characteristics of a person. Human trait assessment
includes observation, interviews, checklists, inventories, and other psychological tests.
The test is only a source of information used in an assessment process.

Test and Experiment

Test Experiment
Individual differences are studied through A cause-and-effect relationship is established
testing. between stimulus and response variables through
an experiment.
It is the examinee who is the primary concern. Subjects serve only as a means to an end.
The examinee is given a test and its capacity to Under controlled conditions, the effect of
perform is assessed. independent variables is measured on dependent
variables.
An individual's psychological make-up cannot Hypotheses are expressed through statements,
be understood by formulating a hypothesis. which can either be accepted or rejected.
The purpose of tests is not to produce new New knowledge can be gained through
knowledge, but to assist people and to support experiments.
experimenters.
Specific instructions are to be followed by the The experimenter directly manipulates the
tester and no variables are to be manipulated. variables.
Good tests are reliable, valid, and have well- Experiments that are well controlled are good
Self-Instructional
66 Material
established norms. experiments.

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Testing

NOTES
3.5 ORIGIN OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING

Psychological testing’s history is very fascinating and relevant to the present day.
Application of psychological test can be traced to 2000 BC in China. Major testing in
China began with primitive forms and progressed to well-developed standardised
testing in the twentieth century.
During the Chinese Emperor Yushan’s time from 2200 BC to 2100 BC, tests
for proficiency were conducted to determine the skills, intelligence, and endurance of
officials, (Bowman, 1989; Chaffee, 1985; Franke, 1963; Teng, 1942-43). The officials
were periodically tested every three years. Archaeological evidence for this claim is
limited.
Early Han Dynasty or Late Qin Dynasty were both periods when royal
examinations were conducted. Written examinations were introduced during this time
period in 165 BC. The Ming Dynasty was a period of formal examinations. Titles and
rankings were determined by exam results. It was in China that the concept of objectivity
and reliability in testing was introduced. Examinees’ identities were kept anonymous in
order to ensure objectivity. Under carefully controlled conditions, a relatively small
sample of an individual’s performance was used to determine whether that person will
perform well under broader conditions for a longer period of time or not. As a result,
the concept of reliability was developed.
It was believed by many scholars, not until the emergence of intelligence testing
in the 20th century that serious research on the usefulness and use of psychological
tests truly began.
Francis Galton developed the first true psychometric test in the 1880s. Instead
of searching for common traits among people, Galton sought to understand their
psychological differences. His method of measuring intelligence included measuring
physical attributes as well as sensory and motor skills. Around 17,000 people were
tested by Galton and objective tests were shown to be a useful tool for gathering
meaningful information.

Self-Instructional
Material 67

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES Dr. James Cattell coined the term ‘mental test and measurements’ for the first
time. As a result, he used brass instruments to measure motor acuity, which was inspired
by Galton’s method of testing.
France’s first experimental psychology laboratory was founded by Alfred Binet
in the late 19th century. Binet developed experiments that measured the intelligence
and reasoning abilities of people in his lab. An individual’s reasoning, judgment, and
problem-solving abilities can be used to determine intelligence, he believed. Binet
measured intelligence, and published the first test of mental ability.
Because of the sudden entry of Americans into World War I, there was a need
for tests that could be administered to large groups of recruits according to their mental
abilities. For recruiting Army officials, two sets of tests were created - Army Alpha for
literates and Army Beta for illiterates. Instead of administering clinical tests, these were
replaced with self-reported inventories.
Thus, intelligence testing, in early 1900s saw an immense increase in personality
measurement. The Personal Information Form during World War I, identified soldiers
who would be unable to handle the stress of combat. The questions covered topics
such as excessive anxiety, depression, sleepwalking, nightmares, and memory problems
(Segal & Coolidge, 2004).
During the 1930s, there was also an increase in interest in measuring personality
by exploring the unconscious. As a result of this interest, two important projective
tests were developed: the Rorschach Inkblot Test and the TAT. Hermann Rorschach
developed the Rorschach, a projective personality test. Henry A. Murray and C. D.
Morgan, two American psychologists, created the TAT, which is also a projective
personality test.

Self-Instructional
68 Material

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Testing

Timeline on the History of Psychological Testing NOTES

200 B.C.E. Modern Testing in the Occupational Realm

Competitive examinations developed in the ancient Chinese empire to select
meritorious individuals for government positions.
13the century Modern Testing in the Field of Education
Earliest use of testing within the realm of education occurred during the Middle
Ages with the rise of the first universities in Europe.
Early 19th Modern Testing in Clinical Psychology
century Several antecedents of psychological tests stem from the field of psychiatry.
Mid-19th Modern Testing in Scientific Psychology
century The rise of the new discipline of experimental psychology, there also arose
much interest in developing apparatus and standardized procedures for
mapping out the range of human capabilities in the realm of sensation and
perception.
Early 1900s The Rise of Modern Psychological Testing
The rise of the first truly modern and successful psychological test was in place.
Binet and Simon create the first useful IQ test.
1911 The Birth of the IQ
Binet himself revised, expanded and refined his fist scale in 1908.
1917 Group Testing
Developing a group test of intelligence that could be efficiently administered
to all recruits into the U.S. Army.
1st half of the Other Developments in Psychological Testing
20th century The rise of the new forms and types of modern psychological tests.
Early part of Standardized Testing in Educational Setting
the 20th Two major developments in standardized educational testing in the early part
century of the 20th century are highlighted.
1910 Standardized Achievement Tests
Pioneered by E.L. Thorndike, standardized tests are designed to evaluate
arithmetic, reading and spelling skills would follow, until measures of these
and other subjects became a staple of elementary and secondary education.
1926 Scholastic Aptitude Tests
The arrival of many more instruments that are used to select.

Here are some insights into how psychological testing evolved in India.
Calcutta University was the first to introduce psychology lock-stock and barrel
in 1916 after importing it from the West. The head of the Department at Mysore, M.V.
Gopalswami, was trained at London University under Spearman in the mental testing
tradition. Adapting Western intelligence tests for Indians and applying psychological
principles to education are some of his accomplishments. A laboratory for the study of
animals was established for the first time in India by Gopalswami.

Self-Instructional
Material 69

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES In the directory compiled by Pareek and T.V. Rao (1974a), of the 503 tests,
218 were in the section of personality. In addition to tests, a number of surveys were
undertaken to investigate the prevalence of mental health problems by Sethi and his
associates in Lucknow, by Dube (1970) in Agra, by Elnager, Mitra, and Rao (1971)
in rural Bengal, and by Verghese (1973) in Vellore.
It is important to understand why psychological tests were needed, along with
the important norms for them, in order to better understand the origins of psychological
tests.

3.6 PURPOSE/OBJECTIVE

Tests serve two purposes in psychology and education.

Firstly, it attempts to compare traits on more than one aspect of an individual.
Secondly, two or more people can be compared on a common trait. It is possible
to measure such factors either quantitatively or qualitatively.
A variety of mental abilities and attributes can be assessed by psychological
tests, including achievement and ability, personality, and neurological conditions.

3.7 ASSUMPTIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING

 The purpose of psychological tests is to measure or predict what they’re

intended to measure. A test score must also be considered when drawing
conclusions or inferences about test takers. This is also called test validity. The
ability to measure mechanical ability is assumed to be measured by a test that is
designed to measure that ability.
 Test scores and behaviour of individuals tend to remain constant, called
test-retest reliability. The results of a test that is administered at one time and
then administered at another time (for instance, two weeks later) are likely to be
similar, depending on what is being measured.
Self-Instructional
70 Material

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Testing

 Individuals understand test items similarly (Wiggins, 1973). If a test item NOTES
assess, “I am almost always happy”, we will assume that all test takers interpret
this statement similarly.
 Individuals will describe truly about themselves (for example, about their
personalities, about their likes and dislikes; (Wiggins, 1973). In asking people
about their memories or their feelings, we must assume that they will recall
correctly as well as assess and report on their emotions and thoughts accurately.
 Individuals will convey their thoughts and feelings openly (Wiggins, 1973).It
is possible that people may choose not to disclose accurate information about
themselves even if they are able to do so. Thus, a test has to be constructed to
ensure that people are honest about their thoughts and feelings when reporting
about themselves.
 A person’s test score is equal to their true ability also related to the test,
the test-taker, or the setting. In this way, a test taker’s takes into account
factors other than the attribute being tested, such as difficult question wording,
mistakes made during test administration, test taker tiredness, and the temperature
of the testing environment. We must consider that an individual’s score will
contain some mistake while analysing it.
Tests can be classified into the following types when it comes to assessing
individuals:

3.8 TYPES OF TESTS

 Individual test: A test that is administered to only one person at a time.

Psychologists prefer to conduct individual intelligence tests in clinics, hospitals,
and other settings. This process is very time-consuming. Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scale (WAIS), Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (SB), Bhatia battery
are some individual tests.

Self-Instructional
Material 71

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES

Fig. 3.1 Bhatia battery

Fig. 3.2 WAIS

 Group test: Such tests can be administered to a group of individuals at the

same time. Tiredness, anxiety, and illness of the candidates cannot be detected
easily in group test. For example, NEO PI and Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory Speed test.

Self-Instructional
72 Material

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Testing

Other psychological tests are: NOTES

 Intelligence tests: Intelligence can be expressed as the ability to adapt to and
deal with the environment. According to Binet and Simon (1960), intelligence is
the ability to make adequate judgments, to reason, and to understand. Wechsler
(1944, page 3) defined intelligence as “the aggregate or global capacity of the
individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his
environment”. These tests are commonly used in educational and clinical settings.
Intelligence tests are the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), the
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (SB), and the Bhatia Battery and 104
Quantitative and Qualitative research.

Types of intelligence test

 Verbal test: Any test that involves paper and pencil is called a verbal test in
which the respondent is asked to respond verbally. E.g. Army Alpha Test,
Wechsler’s Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). Verbal tests are useful to measure
higher mental abilities.
 Non-verbal test: In this test, specific figures and symbols are used to assess
the performance of an individual like Raven’s Progressive Matrices. Language
is the medium to give instructions only.

Performance test

In this, the individual who will take the test has to perform certain tasks. Like Koh’s
block design test and also Alexander’s pass-along test.
 Power test: In this test, the emphasis is on assessing the candidate’s knowledge,
understanding, and ability rather than the speed of answering to items. Most of
the intelligence tests belong to the category of power tests.
 Speed Test: In speed test, the candidates must answer all the questions of the
test within a time limit or in the shortest possible time. The speed test is considered
a time-constraint test.

Self-Instructional
Material 73

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES

Fig. 3.3 Types of Intelligence Test

Personality tests

It used in measure personality of individuals. Larsen and Buss (2018) defined personality
as “a collection of psychological traits and mechanisms that are stable and organised
and that have an influence an individual’s interaction and also has an impact on how he/
she modifies his/ her physical, social and psychological environment”. The results of a
personality test are used to assess our thoughts, feelings, behaviour and environment,
attitudes, and to detect clinical disturbances in us. Examples are Eysenck’s Personality
Inventory, Somatic Inkblot Series (SIS) and Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).
Types of personality test:
 Objective tests: The individual will choose from a list of predetermined
answers. As a result, there is no subjectivity on the part of the scorer. The
Self-Instructional
74 Material

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Testing

responses are given in form of true/false or multiple choices and also Likert NOTES
scale may be used, NEO PI for example.
 Projective Tests: These tests are subjective in nature. Respondent is asked
to respond to certain semi-structured or unstructured stimuli. The responses
are then interpreted by the administrator, where subjectivity may creep in.
Projective tests are Rorschach Inkblot test, Somatic Inkblot Series, Sentence
Completion Test, Thematic Apperception Test and Children’s Apperception
Test.

Fig. 3.4 Types of Personality Test

If a test is to be considered as a good measuring instrument, it must possess

some essential characteristics.

3.9 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD

PSYCHOLOGICAL TEST

 Psychological tests should be objective: According to the definition of

objectivity, a test is objective if all competent users get the same scoring results.
The degree of consistency in scoring may be considered an indicator of objectivity.
The objective nature of a psychological test is essential, not its subjective nature.
A bias-free environment is essential. Test shows that it is valid and reliable. In
order to score a test objectively, all test scorers must obtain similar results on
the test.
 Validity is the ability of the test to measure what it is supposed to measure. It is
a valid tool for measuring weight and not length. Boring defined “The degree to
Self-Instructional
Material 75

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES which the test actually succeeds in measuring what it sets out to measure is
called its validity.”
 Reliability: Psychological test must be reliable and consistent. For example, if
you measure the length of a table with a measuring tape, and after seven months
you measure the length of the same table with the same ruler, the length obtained
in centimetres will remain the same and indicate that ruler is reliable.
 Standardized procedure- It is the key component of any psychological test. If
the procedures for administering a test are uniform across examiners and settings,
it is considered standardised. As an example, consider the different approaches
a test developer might use to assess digit span, or the maximum number of
orally presented digits a subject can recall from memory. A number such as “1-
700-825-4345” would be much easier to remember than any random numbers
which might be “9-7-4-8-6-2-9-5-7-1”. It is also crucial for the uniformity of a
digit span test that each examiner present each series at a constant rate, for
example one digit per second, in order to achieve standardisation. Thus,
standardised tests are those administered uniformly across examiners and settings.
 A good psychological test will have a distinctive feature: It is imperative
for the test to be able to identify some differences between two individuals and
another in relation to a specific aspect or variable.
In order for a test to be considered comprehensive, it must measure all the
dimensions or aspects of the construct that it measures.

In-Text Questions
1. The role of the test taker is not clear in which one of the following?
a) Objective tests b) Projective tests
c) Standardized tests d) Self-report tests
2. Who published the Stanford–Binet?
a) Henry Murray b) Robert Woodworth
c) Lewis Terman d) Alfred Binet
3. The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale is an example of a(n) _____ test
a) individual-administered b) group-administered
Self-Instructional
76 Material c) computer-administered d) criterion-referenced

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Testing

4. Psychological tests are used to NOTES

a) help make decisions about people
b) promote self-understanding
c) measure psychological constructs
d) all of the above
5. This is a term we use to describe whether a test measures what it is supposed
to measure
a) validity b) norms
c) development d) reliability
6. What type of test is most likely to be administered by a classroom teacher?
a) Achievement test b) Aptitude test
c) Intelligence test d) Interest inventory

3.10 VALIDITY

Validity refers to whether a psychological test measures what it intends to measure or

aims to measure. Therefore, a self-esteem test must measure self-esteem, and an
adjustment test must measure adjustment. Rulers measuring length are not valid
instruments for measuring weight, and weighing machines may not be valid tool for
measuring length. Thus, a good valid test will measure what it is supposed to measure.
Different methods of validity are:
I. Construct validity: Validity comes from formulating hypotheses based
on the theories of the construct, then testing them using the data collected.
For example, Medications may have an effect because of placebo
effects rather than because of their putative active ingredients.
a) Face validity: In this type of validity, face value of the test is essential.
Face validity is when the test appears to measure the things it is
supposed to measure. For example, a math test consisting of tasks
that require the test-taker to add and subtract numbers may be Self-Instructional
considered with strong face validity. Material 77

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES b) Content validity: The validity of this psychological test is based on

its content. When it comes to content validity, what is measured by a
test and whether it really measures it is what is focused on. Whether
the questions, tasks, or items represent universal behaviour is what
determines validity. Example: in exams, written exam examines
whether the theoretical knowledge is sufficient to obtain a driver’s
license. The content of the exam would be very meaningful if the
questions asked covered all possible traffic law topics of the course.
II. Criterion related validity: The test has proven effective in estimating an
examiner’s performance on a specific outcome, which is a criterion. For
example - A researcher wants to know whether a college entrance exam
is able to predict future academic performance.
Criterion validity constitutes the following categories:
a) In discriminative validity, a test does not measure the same construct
as another test. Constructs are behaviours, attitudes, or concepts
that are not directly observable. Consequently, discriminant validity
indicates how different constructs are from each other. Based on
theoretical reasoning, no correlation can be found between the scores
of two tests measuring loneliness and security. Those who score
high in security should not score high in loneliness. There would be
high discriminant validity if that is the case for these two tests.
b) Concurrent validity: When a test has concurrent validity, its scores
are compared with the scores of a valid test measuring a dissimilar
or similar entity. The two tests can be administered simultaneously to
the same group of individuals. For example, a recruitment test can
be administered to a group of employees and then the test results
can be correlated with the evaluations of employee supervisors
conducted on the same day or week.
c) Convergent validity: A test’s validity is measured by how similar
two tests measure and further to understand how identical constructs
overlap. For example, a test designed to measure work-related stress
shows a significant positive correlation with another valid test that
Self-Instructional also measures work-related stress.
78 Material

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Testing

d) Predictive validity: Testing or other measuring methods that NOTES

can predict future outcomes are considered predictive validity.
Future outcomes can include things like behaviour, performance,
and even diseases.

Fig. 3.5 Types of Criterion Validity

3.11 RELIABILITY

In psychology, reliability refers to the consistency of a test over time. The length of a
table will be the same if it is measured with a ruler once and again after six months, for
instance. This makes the ruler a consistent tool for measuring length. Thus, reliability of
a psychological test is determined by whether findings or results remain the same or
Self-Instructional
over multiple attempts. Material 79

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES There are several methods to test the reliability, as follows:

 Test–Retest Method: It involves administering the same test twice to the
same group of individuals and comparing the results. A test retest method
computes a correlation between a test’s original score and its retest score.
In order to establish consistency, a group of individuals is administered at
the test at a particular time and later re-administered after a gap. However,
there are several factors that can affect test-retest reliability, including practice,
maturation, learning, and participant memory.
 Alternate form method: In order to establish consistency or reliability, the
two forms are administered one after the other to the same group of individuals.
Alternate form methods can be used to overcome some of the issues faced
by test-retest reliability. To create two equivalent test forms is one of the
main challenges.
 Split- half method: The split half reliability method involves taking the test
once, dividing it in half, and correlating the two scores. Internal consistency
is the main focus of this method. As only one test is developed and
administered, this approach can counter the disadvantages of alternate forms.
As an example, the test can be divided in half, with items above 50% and
below 50%. In power tests with increasing difficulty, however, this will not
work. Splitting on alternate items would be better, i.e. having odd numbered
items in one lot and even in another.
 Interrater Reliability: In tests containing performance tasks or other items
requiring human evaluation, the reliability of the raters must be evaluated.
Using this reliability method, the question is whether an examinee would
receive the same score if multiple raters scored their performance. An
interrater reliability measure indicates the consistency or dependability of
scores among different raters. Let us understand by an example, a video
recording of university students interacting with another student for the first
time could serve as an indicator of their social skills, for instance. After
watching the videos, two or more observers can rate the social skills of each
student. A highly correlated pattern of ratings should be observed for different

Self-Instructional
80 Material

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Testing

observers, assuming that each participant has some level of interpersonal NOTES
skills. In Bandura’s Bobo doll study, inter-rater reliability was also measured.
There should have been a strong positive correlation between observers’
ratings of the number of aggressions committed by each child when they
played with Bobo.
The reliability coefficient should exceed at least +0.70 regardless of the method
used.

Fig. 3.6 Methods of Reliability

3.12 STANDARISATION AND NORMS

Psychological tests also require standardisation and norms, which are outlined in the
manual that comes with the test. Various psychological entities are measured by
psychological tests in order to determine how individuals differ from one another. An
individual’s presence and level of such entities needs to be adequately measured through
a test that is uniform in its administration, scoring, and procedure. This is referred to as
standardisation.
In addition, it is important to have a norm in order to interpret the results scored
by individuals. An individual’s raw score is calculated after the test is administered and
scored. This raw score does not hold any meaning if it cannot be compared to any
standard or norm.
Self-Instructional
Material 81

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES While creating norms for different psychological tests, different aspects such as
gender, culture, geographical location, etc., different types of people require different
norms, so it is important to consider these differences.
Hence the details must be clearly reflected in the test manual.

Types of norms

 Percentile Norms: In standardisation samples, percentile norms are used to

determine what percentage of courses score below a given raw score. On a
test, 94% of the samples fall below the raw score of 25, so the raw score is
equal to the 94 percentile and is represented as P24. The higher the percentile,
the better the score. A percentile norm does not refer to the percentage of
correct answers.
 In standard scores, the standard deviation is expressed as the distance
between the raw score and the mean. The standard score of +1.00 is equivalent
to a raw score of exactly one standard deviation above the mean.
 T-scores and other standardised scores: Standard scores have the disadvantage
of being expressed as decimals and always having a positive or negative sign.
As a result of these concerns, test specialists have designed a variety of variations
of standard scores referred to as standardised scores.
One popular kind of standardised scores is T-scores which has a mean of 50
and standard deviation is 10. T-scores are especially common with personality tests.
Example: MMDI
T= 10Z + 50
Age norms and Grade norms: Based on a normative sample of test
performance, age norms indicate how each age group performs. The purpose of age
norms is to facilitate peer relationships.
According to grade norms, each grade in the normative sample performs
consistently on tests at the same level. Grade norms are rarely used in an ability test.
However, they are particularly useful in the school environment when it comes to
reporting the performance of school children.

Self-Instructional
82 Material

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Testing

NOTES
3.13 APPLICATIONS AND ISSUES

Psychological tests are used in various settings:

 In the academic and educational setting, psychological tests are used to assess
a student’s ability, aptitude, or interest in a particular profession or field of study.
 Psychological tests are used in counseling settings to improve the quality of life,
productivity, and adjustment of the assesses.
 The purpose of psychological testing in clinical settings is to assist with the
screening and diagnosis of behavioural problems. In order to determine the
effectiveness of a specific type of psychotherapy, psychotherapists use a variety
of assessment procedures and psychological tests.
 For hiring, promotions, transfers, training, performance, and eligibility, businesses
assess employees for achievement, aptitude, personality, interest, and motivation.
 Consumer behaviour is also tracked through psychological testing. A consumer
psychologist assesses the receptivity of the public to a new brand, a new product,
and a new advertising campaign using a variety of attitude and value tests.
 Psychological tests are also used for the systematic evaluation of social programs
and educational research. Specifically, tests are used to evaluate social programs.
The purpose of social programs is to improve the living conditions of the
community and to improve living conditions.
 Forensic medicine has recently become increasingly interested in psychometrics.
In order to keep psychological testing valid and efficient, it is important to follow
social and ethical considerations.
 Only qualified professionals should administer tests. In order to administer
effectively, a person must be qualified and competent in the field.
 Publishers are responsible for verifying relevant details, such as the reliability
and validity of tests. In addition, the test can only be sold to legitimate institutions
and individuals.

Self-Instructional
Material 83

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES  Protection of privacy: It involves two factors- informed consent and relevance.
Test results should be explained thoroughly to the client, including the purpose
for which they will be used. In addition, the client must be asked questions
relevant to the purpose of the test.
 Information obtained from clients must be kept confidential by the test
administrator. It is ethically permissible to release the results of the test to others
only after the client has consented.
 It is critical for the client to understand what the examiner is evaluating and why.
People should debrief before entering a test situation so that they can enter it
with the same frame of mind.
 It is important to keep test materials secure and prevent their misuse. A test
administrator must ensure that test items are not revealed in order to maintain
the integrity of a test.
 It is critical for the test administrator to make sure that any test does not
disadvantage certain groups or individuals. It should be suitable for all diverse
groups and individuals.

3.14 SUMMARY

Human behaviour or traits can be measured by psychological tests. In short, it involves

measuring a person’s behaviour quantitatively. The purpose of tests is to measure
something. In order for psychological measurements to be accurate, the tests must be
able to measure efficiently. One person is examined at a time during individual tests. In
contrast, group tests are designed for mass testing. A good test must have four essential
qualities: validity, reliability, objectivity, and normativity. The characteristic of validity
refers to the ability of a test to serve the purpose for which it was designed. A test’s
reliability is its consistency in measuring whatever it measures with the same results
every time. An individual’s presence and level of such entities needs to be adequately
measured through a test that is uniform in its administration, scoring, and procedure.
This is referred to as standardisation. Psychological tests are used in counseling settings
Self-Instructional to improve the quality of life, productivity, and adjustment of the assesses. Information
84 Material obtained from clients must be kept confidential by the test administrator.

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Testing

NOTES
3.15 GLOSSARY

 Psychological testing: psychological test is essentially an objective, standardised

measure of sample of behaviour.
 Individual test: A test that is administered to only one person at a time.
 Group test: Such tests can be administered to a group of individuals at the same
time.
 Standardisation: If the procedures for administering a test are uniform across
examiners and settings, it is considered standardised.
 Validity is the ability of the test to measure what it is supposed to measure.
 Reliability: refers to reliable and consistency of a test.
 Concurrent validity: Tests that correlate with independent measures of the same
characteristics or variables.
 Construct validity: The extent to which evidence exists that a test measures a
particular hypothetical construct; involves testing both the test and its theoretically
underlying characteristics.
 Content validity: The extent to which a test includes items that are relevant to
the variable being measured.
 Convergent validity: A test’s ability to correlate with another test that supposedly
measures the same construct or characteristic.
 Divergent validity refers to the extent to which a test measures qualities it was
not designed to measure.

3.16 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. (b) Projective tests

2. (c) Lewis Terman
3. (a) Individual-administered Self-Instructional
Material 85

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES 4. (d) All of above

5. (a) Validity
6. (a) Achievement test

3.17 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is a psychological test?

2. State the characteristics of a psychological test.
3. What is the meaning of validity of a test?
4. What are the characteristic features of psychological tests?
5. Discuss the application of psychological tests.
6. Describe the concept of Validity and its types.
7. Explain various types of psychological test.

3.18 REFERENCES

 Anastasi, Anne and Urbina, Susana (1997). Psychological Testing. Prentice

Hall, NY.
 Freeman, Frank, S. (1953). Theory and Practice of Psychological Testing.
London. Pitman.
 Binet, A and Simon, T. (1960). The Development of Intelligence in Children,
Vineland, N.J.: T.S. Publication.
 Bordens, K. S and Abbott, B. B. (2011). Research Designs and Methods: A
Process Approach. New Delh: McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited.
 Burns, Robert B. (2000). Introduction to Research Methods. New Delhi: Sage
Publication Ltd.
 Goodwin, C. J. (2003). Research in Psychology: Methods and Designs.
Self-Instructional
86 Material Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley.

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Testing

 Gregory Robert J. (2015), ‘Psychological testing’; Pearson Indian Education NOTES

Services.
 Haynes, S. N., Nelson, K., & Blaine, D. D. (1999). Psychometric issues in
assessment research.
 Hjelle, L. A. &Zieglar, D.J. (1992). Personality Theories. Basic Assumptions,
Research, and Applications.
 McGraw Hill Book Co. Lanyon, R. I. & Goodstein, L.D. (1997). Personality
Assessment.3rd edition.
 John Wiley & Sons. Singh, A. K. (1997). Tests, Measurements and Research
Methods in Behavioral Sciences. Bharti Bhawan, Patna.
 P. C. Kendall, J. N. Butcher, & G. N. Holmbeck (Eds.), Handbook of research
methods in clinical psychology (2nd ed., pp. 125–154). New York: Wiley.
 Jackson, S.L. (2009). Research Methods and Statistics: A Critical Thinking
Approach 3rd edition. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
 Kaplan, R. M. and Saccuzzo, D. P. (2013). Psychological testing: Principles,
applications and issues. Belmont CA: Wadsworth/ Thomson Learning.
 Kazdin, A. E. (1998). Research design in clinical psychology (3rd ed.). Boston:
Allyn& Bacon.
 Kerlinger, Fred, N. (1995). Foundations of Behavioural Research. Bangalore:
Prism Books Pvt. Ltd. for information on research, research designs, types of
research and methods of data collection.
 Larsen, R.R., and Buss, D.M. (2018). Personality Psychology: Domains of
Knowledge about Human Nature.
 Majumdar, P.K. research Methods in Social Science. New Delhi: Viva Books.
 Mcbride, B. M. (2010). The Process of Research in Psychology. Sage
Publications: USA Wilson-108.
 N.K. Chadha and S.S. Phulia (2007) General Psychology (In Hindi). Sri Sai
Printographers: New Delhi
 N.K. Chadha and Salma Seth (eds) (2013) The Psychological Realm. Pinnacle
Learning: New Delhi
Self-Instructional
Material 87

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Psychology of Individual Differences

NOTES  Research Murphy, K. R. and Davidshofer, C. O. (1998). Psychological testing:

Principles and applications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
 Rich, B. A., &Eyberg, S. M. (2001). Accuracy of assessment: The discriminative
and predictive power of the Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory. Ambulatory Child
Health, 7, 249–257.
 River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. (2003). Psychological testing. Delhi: Pearson Education
Pvt. Ltd.
 Ruane, J. M. (2016). Introducing Social Research Methods: Essentials for
Getting the Edge. United Kingdoms: John Wiley and Sons Ltd.
 Veera Raghavan, V and Shetgovekar, S. (2016). Textbook of Parametric and
Nonparametric Statistics. Delhi: Sage.
 Wechsler, D. (1944). The measurement of adult intelligence (3rd ed.). Baltimore:
Williams& Wilkins.
 Zoltor, A. J., & Mayer, J. (2004). Does a short symptom checklist accurately
diagnose ADHD? Journal of Family Practice. Retrieved February 14, 2005.

Image Sources

[Link]
2Fpro ddetai l%2 Fbh ati a-b attery-of-performan ce-tes t-
[Link]&psig=AOvVaw0aoVVb33yMmu1Yn4eOCkg3&ust
=1677823374387000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved= 0CBAQjRxqFwo
TCNiduaPJvP0CFQAAAAAdAAAAABAE
[Link]
901a6247a4533b99798b52f39a493d54/thumb_1200_1553.png

Self-Instructional
88 Material

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 PSYCHOLOGY
OF INDIVIDUAL
DIFFERENCES

PSYCHOLOGY OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

B.A. (HONS) PSYCHOLOGY
SEMESTER-II
DSC-04

DSC-04

DEPARTMENT OF DISTANCE AND CONTINUING EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF DISTANCE AND CONTINUING EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF DELHI UNIVERSITY OF DELHI