Program : B.

Tech
Subject Name: Engineering Physics
Subject Code: BT-201
Semester: 2nd
Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

UNIT-1
QUANTUM MECHANICS
Q.1 What do you understand by matter waves? (Feb10)
Or
Discuss the concept of de-Broglie matter waves. (June 15)
Ans: The optical phenomenon, such as interference, diffraction and polarization of light could be
explained by wave theory of light; whereas photoelectric effect or Compton Effect of light could
only be explained if we consider the light as particle. Hence light shows itself wave nature at one
end while particle nature on the other hand.
This nature of light is known as dual nature and the property is known as wave particle duality.
In 1924 Louis de-Broglie proposed that the matter also possess dual character like light. His
concept about the dual nature of matter was based on the following facts:
(i) Matter and light both are forms of energy and each of them can be transformed
into the other.
(ii) Both are governed by the space time symmetries of the theory of the relativity.
According to Louis de-Broglie, a moving particle is surrounded by a wave whose wavelength
depends upon the mass of the particle and its velocity. These waves associated with the matter
particles are known as matter waves or de-Broglie waves.
De-Broglie provided a connection between, the wavelength of matter waves and momentum of
the particle i.e. �= (1)
Properties of Matter-waves
1. Matter-waves are associated with any moving body and their wavelength is given by
�=
2. The wavelength of matter-waves is inversely proportional to the velocity of the body.
Hence, a body at rest has an infinite wavelength whereas the one traveling with a high
velocity has a lower wavelength.
3. Wavelength of matter-waves depends on the mass of the body and decreases with
increase in mass. Because of this, the wave-like behavior of heavier objects is not very
evident whereas the wave nature of subatomic particles can be observed experimentally.
4. Amplitude of the matter-waves at a particular space and time depends on the probability
of finding the particle at that space and time.
5. Unlike other waves, there is no physical quantity that varies periodically in the case of
matter waves.
6. Matter waves are represented by a wave packet made up of a group of waves of slightly
differing wavelengths. Hence, we talk of group velocity of matter waves rather than the
phase velocity.
7. Matter-waves show similar properties as other waves such as interference and
diffraction.
Q.2 Define group velocity and particle velocity in reference of a group wave. (Dec 10)
Or
Define particle velocity, group velocity and phase velocity. (Dec 11,14, 15)
Ans: Group velocity: When two or more than two waves travel in a medium then the superposition
of these waves result in the formation of a wave packet. The velocity with which a wave packet
advances in medium is called group velocity. The group velocity of the wave packet is given by-
=

Page no: 1 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

Phase velocity or wave velocity: - when a monochromatic wave (wave of a single frequency or
wavelength) travels through a medium, the velocity with which the wave advances in the
forward direction of the medium is called wave or phase velocity. The phase velocity of the
2��
matter wave is given by- = = 2� = ��
�
Particle velocity: Particle velocity is the velocity of the material particle moving in medium or
space for a matter wave group velocity equals particle velocity. It is denoted by v.
Q.3 Derive mathematical expression for group and phase velocity. (Dec 15)
Ans: (Include the definitions of phase and group velocities as above)
Expression for group velocity: - When two or more than two waves travel in a medium then
the superposition of these waves result in the formation of a wave packet. The velocity with
which a wave packet advances in medium is called group velocity. Let us consider a wave group
which consists of two harmonic waves of equal amplitude but slightly different frequencies 1
& 2 and propagation constants 1 & 2 . Their separate displacements are given by-
1 = asin⁡( 1 − 1 ) (1)
And 2 = asin⁡ ( 2 − 2 ) (2)
Their superposition gives-
= 1+ 2
Or
= a[sin 1 − 1 + 2 − 2 ]

1 + 2 1 + 2 1 − 2 1 − 2
= 2 asin − cos⁡ −
2 2 2 2
As ω1 ~ 2~ � 1~ 2~
1+ 2 +
1− 2 =Δ �
1 2
Therefore = and = ,
2 2
1− 2 = ∆
∆ ∆
Hence = 2� cos − [ − ]
sin⁡ (3)
2 2
This represents a wave system with frequency and propagation constant but with amplitude
given by
∆ ∆
= 2� cos
2
− (4)
2
The wave system of the equation 3 can be represented as
The velocity of above wave system is called group velocity and represented by
∆
=
∆
If the frequency interval between the harmonics of the wave packet is infinitely small then
= (5)

Expression for Phase velocity or wave velocity: - when a monochromatic wave (wave of a
single frequency or wavelength) travels through a medium, the velocity with which the wave
advances in the forward direction of the medium is called wave or phase velocity.

Page no: 2 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

A plane harmonic wave travelling along +ve x-direction is given by-

= a sin⁡( − ) (1)
2�
Where „a‟ is amplitude, (= 2��) is the angular frequency and (= ) is the propagation
�
constant of the wave.
The quantity ( − ) in the wave equation is called the phase of the wave. The planes of
constant phase are defined by-
− = �
Differentiating above wrt time, we get-
− =0 (2)
2��
Or = = = 2� = �� (3)
�
Thus velocity with which planes of constant phase advances through the medium is equal to the
wave velocity.
Q.4 Show that the phase velocity of matter waves exceeds the velocity of light.
Ans: The velocity with which planes of constant phase advances through the medium equal to the
wave velocity or phase velocity and is given as
2��
= = 2� = �� .
�
2πmc 2
As we know that ω = 2πν = h
m 0 c2
By the theory of special relativity =
v2
1− 2
c
2πm 0 c 2 2� 2�
Therefore ω = And =
�
=
v2
h 1− 2
c
2� 0
=
2
1− 2
2� 2
0
2
1− 2 2
As = Or = 2� 0 Or =
2
1− 2

Since no material particle can travel faster than the velocity of light, therefore phase velocity of
matter wave is greater than the velocity of light.
Q.5 Give the relation between group velocity and particle velocity. (Dec 10, 14, 15, 17)
Or
Shoe that the group velocity of matter waves equals particle velocity.
Or
Establish relation between particle and group velocities.
Ans: Proof group velocity equals particle velocity- Group velocity of a matter wave is given as

= or =
2 2 1
2� −
= 0
(1 − 2
) 2

Page no: 3 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

3
2 2 −
2� 1 2 2
= 0
− 1− 2
− 2
2
3
2 −
2� 2
= 0
1− 2

2 1
)−2
2�
Now = 0
(1 − 2

3
2 − 2 1
)−2
2� 1 2 2
Or = 0
− 1− 2
− 2
+ (1 − 2
2

3
2 − 2 2 1
)−2
2� 2
= 0
1− 2 2
+ (1 − 2

2 3 2 2
2� −
= 0
(1 − 2
) 2
2
+ 1− 2

2 3
)−2
2�
= 0
(1 − 2
3
2� 2 −2
0 1− 2
Therefore = 2� 0
2 −3 or =
(1− 2 ) 2
Q.6 Show that for non-relativistic free particle the phase velocity is half of the group velocity.( Jan
16, Jun 13 Dec 15)
Ans: As we know that for a non relativistic free particle its total energy is
1
�= 2
2
also =
1
Therefore � = 2
2
as � = �
1
Hence � = 2
2
1
For phase velocity of matter waves = �� or �
= 2
2

According to de-Broglie‟s hypothesis �= or �=

1
Therefore =
2
Q.7 Show that group velocity is less than the phase velocity in dispersive medium. (Jun 14)
Ans: Relation between Phase and Group velocity: The phase velocity of a wave is given by =
and =

Page no: 4 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

=
Or = +
2�
As =
�
2�
= + 2�
� ( )
�
1
= +
� (1 )
�

Therefore = −� �
This is the desired relation between group velocity �� phase velocities �� .
Q.8 Explain Heisenberg uncertainty principle with an example. (Jun 10,12 16, Dec 12)
Or
Prove that electrons do not exist inside the nucleus using uncertainty principle. (Apr 10)
Ans: Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle: According to Heisenberg‟s uncertainty principle “it is
impossible to determine simultaneously the position and momentum of any particle with any
desired accuracy, rather the product of uncertainties in the position and momentum is always
greater than or equal to h/4π, where h is Planck‟s constant.
Mathematically Δ Δ Where Δ Uncertainty in the position
4�
Δ Uncertainty in the momentum
Like position and momentum, other two pairs of conjugate physical quantities are time and
energy, and orbital angular momentum and angular position, the Heisenberg‟s uncertainty
principle follows for these two pairs also and can be written as Δ�Δ and Δ Δ�
4� 4�
Where Δ� uncertainty in the Energy
Δ Uncertainty in the time
Δ Uncertainty in the orbital angular momentum
Δ� Uncertainty in the angular position
Non Existence of Electrons in the Nucleus
The size of a typical nucleus is of the order of 10−14 m. If any particle is to exist within nucleus
then the uncertainty in the position of the particle will be-
Δ = 2 10−14
Then according the uncertainty principle the uncertainty in the momentum will be given as
6.6 10−34
Δ = = = 3.31 10−20 /
2 10−14 2 10−14
Thus the magnitude of the momentum of the particle must be at least of this order. Then the
relativistic energy of electron in the nucleus will be
�= 2 4
0 + 2 2

= 9.1 10−31 2 3 108 4 + 3.31 10−20 2 3 108 2

= 6.7 10−27 + 98.6 10−24

= 9860 + 0.67 10−26

= 99.3 10−13

Page no: 5 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

= 62 �.
Thus if electron resides insides the nucleus, it must possess energy of the order of 62 �
while the electrons emitted in beta decay have only the energies of the order of 3 �. The big
mismatch in two values confirms that electron does not reside inside the nucleus.
Q.9 Explain Heisenberg uncertainty principle with an example. (Jun 10,12 16, Dec 12)
Or
Derive Heisenberg principle from hypothetical gamma ray microscope. (June 13)
Ans. Determination of position of electron by gamma ray microscope
Consider a free electron beneath the center of the microscope's lens The circular lens forms a
cone of angle 2α from the electron. The electron is then illuminated from the left by gamma
rays--high energy light which has the shortest wavelength. According to a principle of wave
optics, the microscope can resolve objects to a size of ∆x, which is related to the wavelength λ
of the gamma ray, by the expression:
∆x = λ/ (2sinA)

P Q
α

To be observed by the microscope, the gamma ray must be scattered into any angle within the
cone of angle 2α. In quantum mechanics, the gamma ray carries momentum, as if it were a
particle. The total momentum p is related to the wavelength by the formula p = h / λ, where h is
Planck's constant.
In the extreme case of diffraction of the gamma ray to the right edge of the lens, i.e. at the point
Q then the momentum in the x direction would be (h/λ) sinα , while at another extreme at point
P the momentum in the x direction would be (-h/λ) sinα
The total change in the momentum of the photon will be
∆p = (h/λ) sinα –( -(h/λ) sinα )
∆p = (2h/λ) sinα
∆x∆p=h
We obtain a reciprocal relationship between the minimum uncertainty in the measured position,
∆x, of the electron along the x axis and the uncertainty in its momentum, ∆p, in the x direction
this is in accordance with the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
Q.10 Explain the diffraction of electron by a single slit to illustrate Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
(Dec 14)
Or
Explain Heisenberg uncertainty principle with an example. (Jun 10,12 16, Dec 12)
Ans: Diffraction of electron by single slit
Let us consider a narrow beam of electrons of momentum p is travelling in +x direction and

Page no: 6 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

passing through a slit of width ∆ . Since electrons are passing through the width ∆ therefore
the uncertainty in the position of the electrons will be equal to ∆ . A diffraction pattern as
shown in the figure will be formed by electron beam after passing through the slit.

� Δ�
Y

The first minimum of Fraunhoffer diffraction is given as sin � = �. For the first order
minima = 1. The slit width is ∆
�
therefore ∆ sin � = � or ∆ = 1
sin �
The moving electrons initially have no component of momentum along y- direction because they
are moving along x-axis. But after diffraction from slit the electrons have a component of
momentum sin � along y-direction. Now as electron end up anywhere between – � to �, the y-
component of momentum may lie somewhere between sin � to − sin �. Hence the
uncertainty in the y-component of the momentum will be
Δ = sin � − − sin � = 2 sin �
2
Or Δ = sin � 2
�
Taking the product of equation 1 and 2 we get

2 �
∆ . Δ = sin � . sin �
�
∆ .Δ = 2
The above relation is in agreement with the uncertainty principle.
Q.11 Explain Heisenberg uncertainty principle and give elementary proof for it. (Dec 12)
Ans: Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle: According to Heisenberg‟s uncertainty principle “it is
impossible to determine simultaneously the position and momentum of any particle with any
desired accuracy, rather the product of uncertainties in the position and momentum is always
greater than or equal to h/4π, where h is Planck‟s constant.
Mathematically Δ Δ Where Δ Uncertainty in the position
4�
Δ Uncertainty in the momentum
Proof: It is possible to prove the Heisenberg‟s principle by using the fact that a moving particle
is associated by a group of waves and the group velocity equals particle velocity. Since particle
is considered as group of waves this implies that the particle cannot be considered as a localized
entity. It indicates that there is always a limit to the accuracy with which one can measure its
particle properties.
Let us consider a particle of mass m moving with the velocity v, the particle can be shown as
surrounded by de-Broglie waves as shown in the figure.
Formation of above wave packet can be explained by considering two waves of angular

Page no: 7 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

frequencies 1 and 2 and propagation constants 1 and 2 .

These waves can be represented as
1 = sin⁡( 1 − 1 ) (1)
2 = sin 2 − 2 (2)
Superposition of these two results in
= 1+ 2 (3)
= sin⁡ ( 1 − 1 ) + sin 2 − 2
+ +
As 1 ~ 2 = and 1 ~ 2 = therefore 1 2 2 = and 1 2 2 = Also 1− 2 =∆
and 1 − 2 = ∆
Hence
∆ ∆
=2 − − (4)
2 2
The resultant wave packet travels with velocity vg. The position of the particle is not certain
rather it is somewhere between one node and next node. The error in the measurement of the
position of the particle is therefore equal to the distance between these two nodes.
∆ ∆
A node is formed when − = 0.
2 2
∆ ∆ � 3� 5�
This is possible when − = , , , … … .. thus if x1 and x2 represents the position
2 2 2 2 2
of the two successive nodes, then at any instant t, we get
∆ ∆ �
− 1 = (2 + 1) (5)
2 2 2
∆ ∆ �
− = (2 + 3) (6)
2 2 2 2
On subtracting equation 5 from equation 6 we get
�
( 2 - 2) = �
2
2� 2� 2�
2 − 1 = therefore Δ = = = Δ�
� Δ Δ�
h
Δ = or Δ Δ =
Δp
More precise calculations show that Δ Δ
4�
Energy & time uncertainty relation
Δ
As we know = and Δ = (8)
1
also � = 2
or 2� = 2
on differentiating wrt to v we get
2
�
=2 �= or Δ� = Δ (9)
Using equation 8 and 9 we get
Δ
Δ�Δ Δ
Δ�Δ Δ Δ
Therefore Δ�Δ =
Q.12 What do you understand by wavefunction, discuss its physical significance? (Dec14)
Or
Discuss the concept of wavefunction associated with particle. Give examples of admissible wave
function. Why derivative of wave function should be continuous everywhere? (Jun 13)
Or
Discuss the concept of probability density. Also define the wave function ψ. (Jun 15)

Page no: 8 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

Ans: Variations of the „‟ forms the matter waves. So it converts the particle and its associated wave
statistically. The wave function or complex displacement  is a complex quantity and we cannot
measure it. The matter wave can be represented by wave function. This wave function is used to
identify the state of a particle in an atomic structure. It tells us where the particle is likely to be
not where it is. The probability of finding a particle in a particular volume element d is given
by,
P(r) d =   d
Where  is called the complex conjugate of .
Being a complex function, it does not have a direct physical meaning, but when we multiply this
with its complex conjugate, the product 2 has physical meaning. [We will speak normally
the intensity of light at a point rather than the amplitude of light at a point since intensity (square
of amplitude) is a measurable and real quantity].
A physically acceptable wave function must possess the following properties:
i) „‟ must be single valued everywhere inside a wave packet.
ii) „‟ must be finite since it tells us about the probability.
iii) „‟ must be continuous i.e. the derivative of the „‟ should not vanish at the boundaries
of wave packet. As „‟ is related to a real particle, it cannot have a discontinuity at any
boundary where potential changes.
iv) ∫∫∫2 d = 1 when the particle presence is certain in the space.  Satisfying above
requirement is said to be normalized.
Q.13 What is meant by operators? Obtain an operator for the energy “E” and momentum “P”.
(Dec 14, 15)
Ans: In quantum mechanics operators are the mathematical operations, corresponding to physical
observables. When these operators operate on a wave function then they give the Eigen value of
corresponding physical observable.
Operator of energy
Let us consider a matter wave travelling in the positive x direction it could be represented by
−( − )
( , ) = 1
Differentiating equation (1) with respect to time
−( −
=− )

As = 2�� and � = �
Therefore
2�� −( −
=− )

Page no: 9 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

2��
=−

=�
2�

Or

� = ℏ

Therefore � = ℏ is called operator of energy

Operator of momentum
Let us consider a matter wave travelling in the positive x direction it could be represented by
−( − )
( , ) = 1
Differentiating equation (1) with respect to space
−( − )
=
2�
As = and � = =
� �
Therefore
2�� −( − )
=

2��
=

− =�
2�

Or � = −ℏ
Therefore � = − ℏ is called operator of momentum.

Q.14 Derive Schrodinger‟s time independent wave equation. (Feb 10, Dec 11, 12, 13, 14 Apr 10, Jun
15, Dec 17)
Ans: A matter wave travelling in the positive x direction with angular frequency ‘�’ and wave
number ‘k’ can be represented by
−( − )
( , ) = (1)
Differentiating equation (1) with respect to space
−( − )
=
Differentiating again with respect to space
2
2 2 −( − )
2
= (2)

Page no: 10 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

2�
As = and � =
�
Therefore equation (2) can be written as
2
2
4� 2 2 2

2
= 2
Or
2 4� 2 2 2

2
+ 2
=0 (3)
Total energy of a particle can be written as
1
�=�+ 2
2
Or
2 (� − �) = 2 2
(4)
By using equations (3) and (4) we can write

2
8� 2
2
+ 2
(� − �) = 0
The equation above is known as time independent wave equation it can also be written as
2
2
+ (� − �) = 0
2 ℏ2
Q.15 Derive Schrodinger‟s time dependent wave equation.
Ans: A matter wave travelling in the positive x direction with angular frequency ‘�’ and wave
number ‘k’ can be represented by
−( − )
( , ) = (1)
The time independent wave equation for particle above can be written as

2
2
+ (� − �) = 0
2 ℏ2
Rearranging the terms in equation above
2
2
=− (� − �)
2 ℏ2
ℏ2 2
− 2
=� −�
2

ℏ2 2
− 2
+� =�
2
Using the operator of energy equation above can be written as:

ℏ2 2
− 2
+� = ℏ
2
Above form of the equation is known as time dependent Schrodinger wave equation.

Page no: 11 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

Q.16 Obtain energy level for a particle trapped in infinitely deep square potential well. (Jun 14)
Or
Find the energy Eigen values and corresponding de-Broglie‟s wavelength associated with the
lowest three energy state of particle enclosed in one dimensional infinite potential well. (Jun 13)
Or
Obtain expression of energy levels for particle trapped in one dimensional square with infinitely
deep potential well. (Dec 13)
Or
Obtain expression for Eigen function of particle in one dimensional potential well of infinite
height. (Dec 11)
OR
Obtain wave function expression for a particle trapped in infinitely deep square potential well.
(Jun 14)
Ans: Particle in One Dimensional Box
Let us consider a particle moving inside a box. The dimension of box is „L‟. The description of
potential inside the box ix
�=0 0< <
�=∞ 0�
Since potential has infinite value at 0� i.e. particle cannot exist on the boundary
of the box and also outside of the box. Therefore the waves function = 0 at the boundary of
the box.
Since the � = 0 inside the box therefore the time independent Schrödinger equation inside the
box will be
2 2
+ � =0 1
2 ℏ2
2
Or 2+ 2 =0 2

2 �
Where =
ℏ
The general solution for the above equation will be
= sin + cos 3
Using boundary conditions = 0 at = 0 we get
0= sin 0 + or =0
Equation 3 now becomes
= sin 4
= 0 At = therefore equation 4 now is
0 = sin Since ≠ 0
Therefore 0 = sin or = � here n=1, 2, 3….
Now equation 4 can be rewritten as
�
= sin 5
2 ℏ2
The energy Eigen value will be � =
2
2 � 2 ℏ2
Or � = 2
6
2

Page no: 12 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

From the equation above it is evident that the energy levels of the particle inside a box are
quantized.
Normalized Wave Function:
On applying the condition of normalization over the wave function
2
0
=1
2 2 �
0
=1
2 2�
Or 0
1 − cos =1
2
2 2
⟹ = 1 Or =
2
By placing the value of in equation 5 we get normalized wave function/Eigen function.

2 �
= sin

Q.17 Obtain energy level for a free particle.

Or
Obtain the solution of Schrodinger wave equation for a free particle.
Ans: The time independent wave equation for particle above can be written as
2 2
+ (� − �) = 0 (1)
2 ℏ2
For a free particle value of � can conveniently be considered as zero, hence the time
independent wave equation for a free particle will be
2
2 �
+ =0
2 ℏ2
Or
2
2
2 + =0 (2)
Where
2 �
= (3)
ℏ
As the particle is free therefore no boundary condition can be applied on the general solution of
the equation given by
= sin + cos
Therefore using equation (3) energy Eigen values of the free particle can be given as-
ℏ2 2
�= (4)
2
From equation above it can be seen that the energy levels of a free particle are continuous.

Page no: 13 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

 We hope you find these notes useful.
You can get previous year question papers at
[Link] .

If you have any queries or you want to submit your

study notes please write us at
[Link]@[Link]
Program : [Link]
Subject Name: Engineering Physics
Subject Code: BT-201
Year: 1st
Downloaded from [Link]

UNIT-2
WAVE OPTICS
Q.1 Explain Huygens’s wave theory of light.
Ans: According to Huygens’s principal, each point in a source of light emits waves in all directions in
hypothetical medium ether. To explain the wave theory of light Huygens proposed the concept
of wavefront which is defined as an imaginary surface in the forward direction of light
propagation at which all the points oscillates in the same phase.
Shape of wavefront depends upon the shape of light source, based on this wavefronts are divided
as
1. Spherical wavefront: If the source of light is a point source then the shape of wavefront
in such case will be spherical.
2. Cylindrical wavefront: If the source of light is a line source then the shape of wavefront
in such case will be cylindrical.
3. Plane wavefront: If the source of light is at very large distance then the shape of
wavefront in such case will be plane.
Huygens’ principle of light propagation is stated in two parts:
1. Every point on the given wavefront called 'primary wavefront' acts as a fresh source of
new disturbance, called 'secondary wavelets' that travel in all directions with the velocity
of light in the medium.
2. The envelope or the locus of these wavelets in the forward direction gives the position of
the new wavefront at any subsequent time.
Q.2 Explain the principle of superposition of light?
Ans: According to the principle of superposition when two or more than two waves are travelling in a
medium then the resultant displacement of a particle of medium is the algebraic sum of
displacements produced by individual waves. For example if ‘n’ waves are travelling in a
medium and each one of them produces displacement Y1, Y2, Y3, Y4,……Yn, then the
resultant displacement of the particle will be given as:
Y = Y1 + Y2 + Y3 + Y4 +…………..+ Yn
Q.3 Explain the term interference and give the analytical treatment of interference. (Feb 10)
Ans: Interference: When two or more than two waves travel in a medium then the modification in
the intensity distribution in the region of superposition is called as interference. At the points
where waves superpose with the same phase the intensity is maximum; and is called as
constructive interference. While the points where waves superpose with the opposite phase the
intensity is minimum; and is called as destructive interference.
Types of Interference: Interference can be classified on the basis of the way interference is
produced. The interference is classified as:
Interference by Division of wavefront: When the incident wavefront is divided into two parts
by the phenomenon of reflection refraction. When these two divided parts reunite then the
interference obtained is called interference by division of wavefront. The examples are Fresnel
bi prism, Lloyd’s mirror.
Interference by Division of amplitude: When the incident amplitude is divided into two parts
by the phenomenon of reflection refraction. When these two divided amplitudes reunite then the
interference obtained is called interference by division of amplitude. The examples are
interference in thin films, Newton’s ring, and Michelson interferometer.
Analytical treatment of interference: Let us consider two plane waves in a medium in the
same direction. The displacement of individual waves is given by y1& y2, while their amplitudes
are a1& a2, the angular frequency of these waves is ‘ω’. Mathematically the waves can be
represented as
𝑦1 = 𝑎1 sin 𝜔𝑡 1
𝑦2 = 𝑎2 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) 2
Where 𝜑 is the phase difference between two waves.

Page no: 1 Get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

According to the principle of superposition the resultant displacement at any point will be
𝑌 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 3
Therefore 𝑌 = 𝑎1 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑎2 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) 4
Or 𝑌 = 𝑎1 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑎2 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 + 𝑎2 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 5
𝑌 = (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑) sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 cos 𝜔𝑡 6
Let (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 7
And 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 8
The equation 6 can be rewritten as-𝑌 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 cos 𝜔𝑡
Or 𝑌 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) 9
The equation 9 represents a simple harmonic plane wave with the amplitude . The amplitude
can be calculated by squaring and adding the equations 6 & 7
𝐴2 = 𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 2𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 10
From the equation above it is evident that the resultant amplitude depends on the phase
difference between two waves. Let us consider the extremes that is the condition of constructive
and destructive interference
Condition for Maxima or constructive interference: If the𝜑 = 2𝑛𝜋 where 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3 … …
then 𝐴2 = (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 )2 if 𝑎1 = 𝑎2 = 𝑎 then 𝐴2 = 𝐼 = 4𝑎2
Condition for Minima or destructive interference: If the𝜑 = (2𝑛 + 1)𝜋 where 𝑛 =
0,1,2,3 … … then 𝐴2 = (𝑎1 − 𝑎2 )2 if 𝑎1 = 𝑎2 = 𝑎 then 𝐴2 = 𝐼 = 0
Q.4 What is interference of light? Discuss the basic conditions for obtaining sustained interference
pattern. (Dec 06, Jun 09)
Ans: Interference: When two or more than two waves travel in a medium then the modification in
the intensity distribution in the region of superposition is called as interference. At the points
where waves superpose with the same phase the intensity is maximum; and is called as
constructive interference. While the points where waves superpose with the opposite phase the
intensity is minimum; and is called as destructive interference.
Conditions for sustained interference:
1. Coherent: Waves superimposing upon each other must be coherent to produce sustained
interference i.e. the phase difference between these waves should remain constant with
respect to time.
2. Monochromatic: Waves superimposing upon each other must be monochromatic to
produce sustained interference i.e. waves superimposing upon each other should have
same frequency or same wavelength.
3. Amplitude: Waves superimposing upon each other should have same amplitude
otherwise destructive interference will have some light and it result in poor contrast.
4. State of polarization: Waves superimposing upon each other have same state of
polarization to obtain sustained interference.
Q.5 Explain Young’s double slit experiment and find the expression for the fringe width.
Or
Explain Young’s double slit experiment and show that the separation between two bright or dark
fringes is same and it does not depends upon the order of the fringe.
Or
Explain Young’s double slit experiment and show that the separation between two bright or dark
fringes is directly proportional to the wavelength of source.
Ans: Formation of fringes: Light from a narrow adjustable slit S is allowed to fall on double slit
assembly. As a result the incident wave front is divided into two parts. When these two parts
reunite it creates interference pattern as shown in the figure.
In the figure two kinds of lines represent opposite phases. Where similar lies crosses each other
constructive interference pattern and where different kind of lines crosses each other we obtain
destructive interference.

Page no: 2 Get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

Determination of fringe width in case of Interference by Young’s double slit: Let us

consider a monochromatic source of light. The light from the source is incident on Fresnel bi
prism and is divided in to two coherent sources S1 & S2. The light from these sources interferes
and an interference pattern is obtained on the screen as shown.

P Screen
S1’ x
S1
C
d
S2’
S2
D

Figure 1: Interference by two virtual sources

To find out the fringe width we proceed with the determination of condition of constructive and
destructive interference. Let us consider a point ‘P’ at the screen. The path taken by the wave
from source S1 to the point P is S1P, while the path for wave from S2 will be S2P. The path
difference at point P between two waves will be- S2P – S1P. Let the separation between two
virtual sources be d, while the distance between the sources to screen is D.
The distance of the point P form the centre of screen is x.
In ∆S1S1’P according to Pythagoras theorem
𝑆1𝑃2 = 𝑆1𝑆1′2 + 𝑆1′𝑃2 1
𝑆2𝑃2 = 𝑆2𝑆2′2 + 𝑆2′𝑃2 2
Since as shown in figure 1
𝑆1𝑆1′ = 𝑆2𝑆2′ = 𝐷

Page no: 3 Get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

𝑑 𝑑
𝑆1𝑃 = 𝑥 − 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆2𝑃 = 𝑥 + 2 Hence equations 1 and 2 can be rewritten as- 𝑆1𝑃2 = 𝐷2 +
𝑑 𝑑
(𝑥 − )2 and 𝑆2𝑃2 = 𝐷 2 + (𝑥 + )2
2 2
2 2 2𝑥𝑑
Therefore 𝑆2𝑃 − 𝑆1𝑃 = 2𝑥𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆2𝑃 − 𝑆1𝑃 =
2𝐷
The path difference between two waves reaching at point P is-
𝑥𝑑
𝑆2𝑃 − 𝑆1𝑃 =
𝐷
Condition of constructive Interference or Maxima- For constructive interference the path
𝑥𝑑
difference between two waves must be equal to integer multiple of wavelength ‘λ’ i.e. =
𝐷
𝑛𝜆𝐷 th 𝑛𝜆𝐷
nλ or 𝑥 = for n bright fringe we can say 𝑥𝑛 = where 𝑥𝑛 stands for the position of nth
𝑑 𝑑
bright fringe.
Condition of destructive Interference or Minima- For destructive interference the path
difference between two waves must be equal to odd multiple of half of wavelength (λ/2) i.e.
𝑥𝑑 λ (2𝑛+1)𝜆𝐷 (2𝑛+1)𝜆𝐷
= (2n + 1) 2 or 𝑥 = for nth bright fringe we can say 𝑥𝑛 = 2𝑑 where 𝑥𝑛 stands
𝐷 2𝑑
for the position of nth dark fringe.

Fringe width: The distance between two consecutive dark and bright fringe is denoted by 𝑋.
𝑛𝜆𝐷
The position of nth bright fringe is given as: 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑑 while the position of (n+1)th bright fringe
(𝑛+1)𝜆𝐷 (𝑛 +1)𝜆𝐷
will be given as 𝑥𝑛 +1 = the distance between two will be 𝑥𝑛+1 − 𝑥𝑛 = −
𝑑 𝑑
𝑛𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷
𝑑
= 𝑑 we can say that the distance between two bright fringes does not depends upon the
order of fringes.
(2𝑛+1)𝜆𝐷
The position of nth dark fringe is given as: 𝑥𝑛 = 2𝑑 while the position of (n+1)th dark fringe
(2𝑛+3)𝜆𝐷 (2𝑛+1)𝜆𝐷
will be given as 𝑥𝑛 = the distance between two will be 𝑥𝑛 +1 − 𝑥𝑛 = −
2𝑑 𝑑
(2𝑛 +3)𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷
2𝑑
= 𝑑 we can say that the distance between two dark fringes does not depends upon the
order of fringes.
Q.6 Explain the formation of fringes in Young’s double slit experiment. How wavelength of light
source is determined using Young’s double slit method.
Ans: Formation of fringes: Light from a narrow adjustable slit S is allowed to fall on double slit
assembly. As a result the incident wave front is divided into two parts. When these two parts
reunite it creates interference pattern as shown in the figure.
In the figure two kinds of lines represent opposite phases. Where similar lies crosses each other
constructive interference pattern and where different kind of lines crosses each other we obtain
destructive interference.

Determination of wavelength by Young’s double slit method: The monochromatic source

single slit, double slit and eye piece are arranged on the optical bench. Following Procedure is

Page no: 4 Get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

adopted for obtaining the fringes with good contrast.

 The optical bench should be made parallel using spirit level.
 Widen the slit and set the cross wire of eye-piece vertical.
Following measurements are now made:
1. Measurement of fringe width (𝛽): Adjust the vertical cross wire of eye-piece on a bright
fringe. Take reading. Then eye-piece is moved laterally so that vertical crosswire coincides
with the successive bright fringe and corresponding readings are noted. The difference of
these readings gives 𝑿.
2. Measurement of D: Take the reading of position of the slit and eyepiece. The difference
between these readings gives D.
3. Distance between two slits (d):It is measured with the help of eye-piece by illuminating two
slits one after another.
Using the formula below wave length of light source can be determined
𝛽𝑑
𝜆=
𝐷
Q.7 Explain the formation of Newton’s Ring in reflected light. Prove that in reflected light Dn α √n
and Dn’α√(2n+1) where Dn and Dn’ are diameter of dark and bright rings respectively. (Dec 14)
Or
Explain the mathematical treatment of Newton’s ring (Jun 16)
Ans: Experimental arrangement & Formation of Newton’s Rings: The experimental arrangement
is shown in the figure below. A large Plano-convex lens is placed over a glass plate with its
convex surface in contact with the glass plate. Then an air film of gradually increasing thickness
is formed between the glass plate and Plano- convex lens. The light from a monochromatic
source is allowed to fall normally over this assembly using a plane glass plate inclined at angle
of 450.
The light rays reflected from the bottom of Plano convex lens and upper surface of glass plate
superimpose on each other to produce interference pattern. The interference pattern is in the
form of concentric bright and dark circles. These concentric bright and dark circles are called as
Newton’s rings. The fringes obtained are circular because the thickness of air film is constant in
a circle around the point of contact. The obtained interference pattern is observed using a
travelling microscope. The fringes obtained are called the fringes of equal thickness.
𝜆
Theory: The path difference between two rays in case of Newton’s rings will be 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 + 2
𝜆
.The additional path difference of 2 is due to the fact that the ray reflected from the top surface
of glass plate is reflected from the denser medium. Since the medium of film is air hence𝜇 = 1.

Page no: 5 Get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

Also for normal incidence the value of 𝑟 = 0 as a consequence the effective path difference is
𝜆
given by 2𝑡 + 2
Condition of Maxima: For maxima the path difference must be an integral multiple of 𝜆 i.e.
𝜆 𝜆
2𝑡 + 2 = 𝑛𝜆or 2𝑡 = (2𝑛 − 1) 2 . Since at the point of contact the thickness of film is zero and
𝜆
the effective path difference is 2 . Therefore the centre of Newton’s rings is dark.
𝜆
Condition of Minima: For minima the path difference must be an odd multiple of i.e.
2
𝜆 𝜆
2𝑡 + 2 = (2𝑛 + 1) 2 or 2𝑡 = 𝑛𝜆
Newton’s Rings in Transmitted light: The effective path difference between to interfering rays
in the transmitted part of Newton’s rings is2𝑡 . Therefore the condition of maxima is 2𝑡 = 𝑛𝜆
𝜆
and the condition of minima is 2𝑡 = (2𝑛 + 1) 2 hence we can say that the interference pattern in
the reflected and transmitted system is complimentary to each other. The centre in the
transmitted system will be bright because the effective path difference will be zero at the point
of contact.
Diameters of dark Newton’s rings are proportional to the square root of natural numbers:
Refer to the figure below let ASB be the lens placed on the glass plate ME, the point of contact
being S. Let R be the radius of curvature of the curved surface of the lens. Let rn be the radius of
Newton’s ring where the film thickness is t. O

R-t

A B
rn
P Q
t
M S N E

In triangle OPQ, 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑅 − 𝑡 and 𝑂𝑄 = 𝑅 = 𝑂𝑆 , 𝑃𝑆 = 𝑡 = 𝑄𝑁 and 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑆𝑁 using

Pythagoras theorem for triangle OPQ 𝑂𝑄 2 = 𝑂𝑃2 + 𝑃𝑄 2

Or 𝑅 2 = (𝑅 − 𝑡)2 + 𝑟𝑛 2
𝑅 2 = 𝑅 2 + 𝑡 2 − 2𝑅𝑡 + 𝑟𝑛 2

In the above equation 𝑡 2 can be neglected because 𝑡 is very small.

Therefore 𝑟𝑛 2 = 2𝑅𝑡

For dark rings in case of Newton’s rings 2𝑡 = 𝑛𝜆 where n=0, 1, 2…

Hence 𝑟𝑛 2 = 𝑛𝜆𝑅 or 𝐷𝑛 2 = 4𝑛𝜆𝑅 where 𝐷𝑛 2 is diameter of nth dark ring. Or 𝐷𝑛 = 2 𝑛𝜆𝑅 the
diameter of dark rings is proportional to the square root f natural numbers.
Diameters of bright Newton’s rings are proportional to the square root of odd natural
numbers: Refer to the figure below let ASB be the lens placed on the glass plate ME, the point
of contact being S. Let R be the radius of curvature of the curved surface of the lens. Let rn be
the radius of Newton’s bright ring where the film thickness is t.

Page no: 6 Get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

R-t

A B
rn
P Q
t
M S N E
In triangle OPQ, 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑅 − 𝑡 and 𝑂𝑄 = 𝑅 = 𝑂𝑆 , 𝑃𝑆 = 𝑡 = 𝑄𝑁 and 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑆𝑁 using
Pythagoras theorem for triangle OPQ 𝑂𝑄 2 = 𝑂𝑃2 + 𝑃𝑄 2
𝑂𝑄 2 = 𝑂𝑃2 + 𝑃𝑄 2
Or 𝑅 2 = (𝑅 − 𝑡)2 + 𝑟𝑛 2
𝑅 2 = 𝑅 2 + 𝑡 2 − 2𝑅𝑡 + 𝑟𝑛 2
2
In the above equation 𝑡 can be neglected because 𝑡 is very small.
𝜆
Therefore 𝑟𝑛 2 = 2𝑅𝑡. For bright rings in case of Newton rings 2𝑡 = (2𝑛 + 1) 2 where n=0, 1,
2…
𝜆 𝜆
Hence 𝑟𝑛 2 = (2𝑛 + 1) 2 𝑅 or 𝐷𝑛 2 = 4(2𝑛 + 1) 2 𝑅 where 𝐷𝑛 2 is diameter of nth bright ring.
𝜆
Or 𝐷𝑛 = 2 (2𝑛 + 1) 2 𝑅 the diameter of dark rings is proportional to the square root of odd
natural numbers.
Q. 8 Describe and explain the formation of Newton “ring in reflected monochromatic light. Explain
why Newton’s rings are circular? How Wavelength of given Monochromatic light is calculated?
(Jun 08)
Or
How are the circular fringes obtained in Newton’s rings experiment? Why these fringes are
called the fringes of equal thickness? Why the central fringe is a dark spot when examined in
reflected light? (Apr 09)
Ans: Experimental arrangement: The experimental arrangement is shown in the figure below. A
large Plano-convex lens is placed over a glass plate with its convex surface in contact with the
glass plate. Then an air film of gradually increasing thickness is formed between the glass plate
and Plano- convex lens. The light from a monochromatic source is allowed to fall normally over
this assembly using a plane glass plate inclined at angle of 450.
The light rays reflected from the bottom of Plano convex lens and upper surface of glass plate
superimpose on each other to produce interference pattern. The interference pattern is in the
form of concentric bright and dark circles. These concentric bright and dark circles are called as
Newton’s rings. The fringes obtained are circular because the thickness of air film is constant in
a circle around the point of contact. The obtained interference pattern is observed using a
travelling microscope. The fringes obtained are called the fringes of equal thickness.
The path difference in the reflected part of Newton’s ring experiment is given as
𝜆
2𝑡 +
2
At the point of contact of glass plate and plano convex lens, thickness of air film is zero,
𝜆
therefore the effective path difference at the center is which satisfy the condition of
2
destructive interference. Hence the central fringe is dark in Newton’s ring experiment.
Theory & Formula: As the square of diameter of nth dark ring is 𝐷𝑛 2 = 4𝑛𝜆𝑅 and that of

Page no: 7 Get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

(n+p)th dark ring will be 𝐷𝑛+𝑝 2 = 4(𝑛 + 𝑝)𝜆𝑅 where p is any integer. Therefore the formula of
𝐷𝑛 +𝑝 2 −𝐷𝑛 2
wavelength will be 𝜆 = .
4𝑝𝑅

Procedure for determination of diameter of dark rings:

 The cross wire of microscope is focused, and then the crosswire is moved to extreme left
to the circular interference pattern.
 Crosswire is tangentially adjusted to any dark ring (say 15th) at its outer edge and the
reading of microscope is noted.
 Crosswire is moved towards right and the reading is recorded, when crosswire becomes
tangential to the outer edge of every alternate dark ring. The procedure is continued till
the center of interference pattern.
 On reaching the center crosswire is moved towards the right and the reading of alternate
dark rings are noted till 15th dark ring. The subtraction of the reading of the left and right
provides the diameter of the ring.
 The graph is plotted between D2 and the number of ring n. The graph is a straight line
𝐷𝑛 +𝑝 2 −𝐷𝑛 2
with the slope . The radius of curvature of lens is measured and using the
𝑝
𝐷𝑛 +𝑝 2 −𝐷𝑛 2
formula 𝜆 = the wavelength of light can be found.
4𝑝𝑅
Square of Diameter

Dn+p2-Dn2

Number of rings n

Q.9 How Newton’s ring can be used to determine the refractive index of liquid? Derive the necessary

Page no: 8 Get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

formula. (Jan 16)

Ans: 𝜆
Theory: The path difference between two rays in case of Newton’s rings will be 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 + 2
𝜆
.The additional path difference of 2 is due to the fact that the ray reflected from the top surface
of glass plate is reflected from the denser medium. Since the medium of film is air hence𝜇 = 1.

Also for normal incidence the value of 𝑟 = 0 as a consequence the effective path difference is
𝜆
given by 2𝑡 + 2
Condition of Minima in case of air film: For minima the path difference must be an odd
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆
multiple of 2 i.e. 2𝑡 + 2 = (2𝑛 + 1) 2 or 2𝑡 = 𝑛𝜆
Condition of Minima in case of liquid film: If the liquid having refractive index 𝜇 is placed
between the plano convex lens and glass plate then for minima we can write
𝜆 𝜆 𝑛𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 + = (2𝑛 + 1) Or 2𝑡 =
2 2 𝜇
Formula for refractive index of liquid:
Refer to the figure below let ASB be the lens placed on the glass plate ME, the point of contact
being S. Let R be the radius of curvature of the curved surface of the lens. Let rn be the radius of
Newton’s ring where the film thickness is t.
O

R-t

A B
rn
P Q
t
M S N E

Page no: 9 Get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

In triangle OPQ, 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑅 − 𝑡 and 𝑂𝑄 = 𝑅 = 𝑂𝑆 , 𝑃𝑆 = 𝑡 = 𝑄𝑁 and 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑆𝑁 using

Pythagoras theorem for triangle OPQ 𝑂𝑄 2 = 𝑂𝑃2 + 𝑃𝑄 2

Or 𝑅 2 = (𝑅 − 𝑡)2 + 𝑟𝑛 2
𝑅 2 = 𝑅 2 + 𝑡 2 − 2𝑅𝑡 + 𝑟𝑛 2
2
In the above equation 𝑡 can be neglected because 𝑡 is very small.
Therefore 𝑟𝑛 2 = 2𝑅𝑡 or 𝐷𝑛 2 = 4(2𝑅𝑡)
2
In case of air film we can write 2𝑡 = 𝑛𝜆 therefore 𝐷𝑛 = 4𝑛𝜆𝑅
𝑛𝜆 2 4𝑛𝜆𝑅
In case of liquid film we can write 2𝑡 = therefore 𝐷𝑛′ =
𝜇 𝜇
th
By taking the ratio of diameter of n dark ring in presence of air film and in presence of liquid
film we get refractive index of liquid

𝐷𝑛 2
=𝜇
𝐷𝑛′ 2
Q.10 Describe the construction and working of Michelson Interferometer. How it can be used for
measuring wavelength of monochromatic light. (Jul 06, Jun 08)
Ans: Michelson Interferometer: In Michelson’s interferometer light from an extended source is
divided into two coherent beams by partial reflection and partial refraction at semi-silvered glass
plate. These beams are made to reunite at the same glass plate after reflection from two
perpendicular placed mirrors.
Construction:
 The Michelson interferometer consists of two plane mirror M1 and M2 which
are held perpendicular to each other as shown in figure.
 M2 is fixed while M1 can be moved backward and forward using micrometer
screw capable of a measurement up to 10-5cms.
 The mirrors M1 and M2 are provided with spring and screw arrangement at
their backs. With the help of these screws the tilt of mirror can be adjusted.
 G1 and G2 are two identical glass plates i.e. having same thickness and the
same refractive index. These glass plates are inclined at 450 to horizontal.
 The rear surface of plate G1 is partially polished. T is the telescope which
receives the reflected light from the mirrors M1 and M2.
Working:
 A source of monochromatic light S is placed at the focus of a convex lens L,
to obtain parallel light beam.
 The light from source is incident upon semi-silvered glass plate. The part of
incident intensity is reflected towards mirror M1 and part of incident
intensity is refracted towards mirror M2.
 Since the beams are incident normally on mirror M1 and mirror M2,
therefore after reflection from the mirrors the beams retrace the same path.
 The reflected beams superpose on each other at glass plate to produce
interference pattern. The produced interference pattern is observed by
telescope T.

Page no: 10 Get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

M2’
M1 (Movable Mirror)

COMPENSATING GLASS PALTE

G1 M2 (Fixed)
G2

T
Function of Plate G2:
 In absence of plate G2 ray 1 travels through plate G1 twice while ray 2 does
not travel through glass (G1) at all.
 Hence in absence of plate G2 the path of rays 1 and are not equal in glass.
 To equalize these paths plate G2 of same thickness and material as that of
G1 is introduced in the path of ray no.2. Because of this nature plate G2 is
called compensating glass plate.
Theory: The path difference between two rays in case of Michelson interferometer depends
upon the distances of mirror M1 and M2 from the glass plate G1. The path difference can
be altered by moving the mirror M1 in axial direction. The generalized expression for the path
𝜆
difference between two interfering rays is 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 + 2
Condition of maxima: For maxima the path difference must be integral multiple of 𝝀i.e.
𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 + 2 = 𝑛𝜆
𝝀
Condition of minima: For minima the path difference must be odd multiple of i.e.
𝟐
𝜆 𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 + 2 = 2𝑛 + 1 2
Types of fringes:
Circular fringes: The path difference between two rays in case of Michelson interferometer is
𝜆
given by 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 + 2. For a given wavelength 𝜆 and for air film 𝜇 = 1, when the two mirrors
are exactly perpendicular to each other them ‘t’ is also constant. In this situation path
difference depends on the ‘r’. When both mirrors are exactly perpendicular to each other
then the image of mirror M2 will be exactly parallel to the mirror M1and the value of ‘r’
remains constant for a circular geometry; hence the circular fringes are obtained. The
fringes are called the fringes of equal inclination.

Localized fringes: When the mirrors M1 and M2 are not exactly perpendicular to each other,
then the air film between the image M2’ and M1 is wedge shape. Since light is incident on the
film at different angles, curved fringes with convexity towards the edge of wedge are
seen as shown in figure ‘a’ and ‘b’. When M1 and M2’ intersect in the middle straight
fringes are obtained as shown in figure ‘c’.

Page no: 11 Get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

M2’

M1

M1 M1
M2’ M2’

Figure: b
Figure: a

M2’
M1

Figure: c

Applications of Michelson Interferometer:

Determination of wavelength:
 The Michelson interferometer is adjusted for circular fringes.
 Vertical crosswire of telescope is adjusted at the central fringe.
 The position ′𝑥1 ′of mirror M1 is noted on the graduated scale.
 Looking through the eye-piece of the telescope, the mirror M1 is moved using
micrometer screw, and the number of fringes crossing the field of view is counted.
 When ‘N’ number of fringes crosses the field of view then the position of ′𝑥2 ′ of the
Mirror M1 is noted.
 The displacement ′𝑥′ of the mirror M1 is obtained by subtracting ′𝑥1 ′ from
′𝑥2 ′ i.e. 𝑥 = 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 .
2𝑥
 By using the formula 𝜆 = the wavelength of light is obtained.
𝑁
Q.11 What is diffraction differentiate between Fresnel and Fraunhoffer class of diffraction? (Feb 10)
Ans: Diffraction: The phenomenon of bending of light at the edges of obstacles is known as
diffraction. Diffraction is divided into two classes Fresnel diffraction and Fraunhoffer
diffraction.

Page no: 12 Get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

Difference between Fresnel and Fraunhoffer diffraction:

Fresnel diffraction Fraunhoffer diffraction
1. In the Fresnel class diffraction the distance 1. In the Fraunhoffer class diffraction the
between the source and obstacle is finite distance between the source and
2. The wavefronts can be spherical or obstacle is infinite
cylindrical. 2. The wavefronts here are plane
3. No lenses are required to produce Fresnel wavefronts only.
diffraction. 3. Lenses are required to produce
4. The image obtained at the screen is image diffraction pattern inside laboratory.
of obstacle. 4. The image obtained at the screen is
image of source.
Q.12 Explain the conditions for maxima and minim for diffraction at single slit. (Jun 10)
Or
Derive an expression for intensity distribution due to Fraunhoffer diffraction at single slit.(Jun
14)
Or
Obtain an expression for maxima and minima due to diffraction of light by single slit. (Dec 13)
Or
Show that the intensity at first maxima is 5% of the intensity at zero order maxima in case of
diffraction at single slit. (Jun 14)
Ans: Diffraction at single slit: Let us consider a narrow slit with its width ‘d’. The light from a
monochromatic source ‘S’ falls on this slit through a convex lens. The incident wavefront is
diffracted by and angle θ and is focused at screen at point P.

A θ

S C

C
B θ

Figure 1: Diffraction at single slit

The path difference between two rays of parallel wavefront from the point A and point B will be
equal to BC.
𝐵𝐶
In triangle ABC sin 𝜃 = 𝐴𝐵 or 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃 since 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑒 therefore 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑒 sin 𝜃.
2𝜋
As 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = ∗ 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 therefore the phase difference between two
𝜆
2𝜋
rays from point A and B will be ∅ = ∗ 𝑒 sin 𝜃 where ∅ = 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒.
𝜆

Page no: 13 Get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

Since between A and B there will be large number of secondary sources generating the light
wave. If we consider the ‘n’ number of sources between A to B, then the phase difference
between two consecutive sources will be
2𝜋
∅𝑛 = 𝜆 ∗ 𝑑 sin 𝜃 1
To find out the resultant amplitude at point P by ‘n’ number of sources we use the vectorial
addition by polygon method. As there are ‘n’ vectors and the phase difference between two
consecutive vectors is ∅𝑛 . We draw a polygon with its side length representing the amplitude
‘A’ of individual source. As the slit width is small therefore the amplitude of all sources can be
considered as same.
G

𝑛∅𝑛
C 2

∅𝑛
2

F D B
Figure 2: Polygon of vectors
According to polygon addition of vectors each vector subtends an angle at the centre of
polygon, equal to the angle between two vectors, as shown in figure 2.
In figure 2 𝐹𝐵 = 𝐴 the amplitude of individual vector, CD is perpendicular bisector at FB.
∅𝑛
Angle 𝐹𝐶𝐵 = ∅𝑛 and 𝐹𝐶𝐷 = 2
𝐴 𝑛∅𝑛
𝐹𝐷 = 𝐷𝐵 = 2 . Angle 𝐹𝐶𝐸 = .
2
∅𝑛 𝐹𝐷
In triangle FCD sin = or
2 𝐹𝐶
∅𝑛 𝑅
sin = 2
2 2𝐹𝐶
As FG represents resultant amplitude and 𝐹𝐺 = 𝑅 since CE is perpendicular bisector at FG
𝑅
therefore𝐹𝐸 = 𝐸𝐺 = 2
Now in triangle FCE

n∅n FE
sin =
2 FC
Or
n∅ n R
sin = 3
2 2FC

On dividing equation 3 by equation 2 we get

Page no: 14 Get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

n∅n R
sin
2 = 2FC
∅n A
sin 2FC
2
Or
n∅n
sin
2 =R
∅ A
sin n
2
Therefore
n∅n
sin
R=A 2
∅
sin n
2
by substituting the value of ∅𝑛 from equation 1 we get
π
sin( e sin θ)
R=A λ
π
sin( e sin θ)
nλ
4
π
let e sin θ = α then
λ
sin α
R=A α
sin
α
n α α
as n is very large therefore will be very small and hence sin =
n n n
The equation 4 reduces to
sin α
R = 𝑛A
α
5
The equation 5 gives the resultant amplitude at point P. The resultant intensity at point P
will be

sin α 2
I = 𝑛2 A2 ( )
α
6
sin α
Principle Maxima: As 𝛼 = 0 the term α = 1, therefore the intensityI = 𝑛2 A2 or I = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 .
As 𝛼 = 0 indicates 𝜃 = 0 i.e. the intensity is maximum at the centre of the
screen.
𝜋
Secondary Maxima: For other maxima apart from centre 𝛼 = (2𝑚 + 1) 2 where m= 1, 2, 3…
𝐼 𝐼
For first maxima m=1 and I ≅ 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ; for second maxima m=2 and I ≅ 𝑚𝑎𝑥 as we can see that
22 62
the intensity at secondary maxima decreases.
Condition of Minima: Minimum intensity is obtained when sin 𝛼 = 0 but 𝛼 ≠ 0. I.e.
sin α
𝛼 = ±𝑚𝜋 where m=1, 2, 3…. In this situation I=0 because the term α = 0,
π
As α = λ e sin θ
therefore the condition of minima can also be written as
e sin θ = ±mλ

Page no: 15 Get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

Q.13 Give the construction and theory of plane transmission grating. Obtain an expression for
resolving power of grating. (Dec 12)
Or
Obtain expression for intensity distribution of Fraunhoffer diffraction due to N slits. Also draw
the graph of intensity variation due to interference term and diffraction term. (Apr 10)
Or
Give the theory of plane transmission grating with the help of neat diagram. (Dec 11)
Ans: Diffraction due to N-slits or diffraction grating:
 A plane diffraction grating is an arrangement consisting of a large number of close,
parallel, straight, transparent and equidistant (d) slits. The slit width (e) is same for all the slits.
 A grating is made by drawing a series of very fine equidistant and parallel lines on
optically plane glass plate by means of a fine diamond pen.
Theory of Plane Transmission Grating: Let us consider ‘n’ parallel slits with slit width ‘e’
and the separation between the slits equal to ‘d’. The light from a monochromatic source ‘S’
falls on this slit assembly through a convex lens. The incident wavefront is diffracted by
an angle θ and is focused at screen at point P.

P
A θ

B C

S C

The path difference between two rays of parallel wavefront from the point A and point B will be
equal to BC.
𝐵𝐶
In triangle ABC sin 𝜃 = 𝐴𝐵 or 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃 since 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑒 + 𝑑 Therefore
𝐵𝐶 = (𝑒 + 𝑑) sin 𝜃 1
2𝜋
As 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝜆 ∗ 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 therefore the phase difference between two
2𝜋
rays from point A and B will be ∅ = 𝜆 ∗ (𝑒 + 𝑑) sin 𝜃 2 where
∅ = 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒.
We are having ‘n’ vectors with phase difference ∅and superimposing each other at point P,
sin 𝛼
the amplitude of individual vector 𝑅 = 𝑛𝐴( 𝛼 ), here ‘n’ is number of secondary sources
within single slit and ‘A’ is amplitude of each vector within single slit.
Using the polygon addition of ‘n’ vectors, the resultant at point P can be written as
𝜙 2
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑁
𝐼𝑝 = 𝑅𝑁2 =𝑁 𝑅 2 2 2
𝜙 3
𝑁 𝑆𝑖𝑛
2
𝜙
let = 𝛽 now equation 3 can be rewritten as-
2

Page no: 16 Get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑁𝛽 2
𝐼𝑝 = 𝑅𝑁2 = 𝑁 2 𝑅 2 4
𝑁 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛽
Condition of Maxima: For intensity to be maximum 𝛽 = ±𝑛𝜋where n=1, 2, 3…… when
𝑑
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑁𝛽 2 0 𝑑𝛽
(𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑁𝛽 ) 𝑁 Cos 𝑁𝛽
𝛽 = ±𝑛𝜋; = 0 therefore by applying L-Hospitals rule 𝑑 = =1
𝑁 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛽 ( 𝑁 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛽) 𝑁 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛽
𝑑𝛽
when 𝛽 = ±𝑛𝜋 and the intensity is maximum. i.e. 𝐼𝑝 = 𝑅𝑁2 = 𝑁 2 𝑅 2 is condition of maxima.
By placing the value of 𝛽 in 𝛽 = ±𝑛𝜋 we get 𝑒 + 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = ±𝑛𝜆 this equation is known as
grating equation.
Condition of Minima: For intensity to be minimum i.e. I=0 we must have 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛽 = 0 but
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑁𝛽 ≠ 0 i.e. 𝛽 = ±𝑚𝜋 where m=1, 2, 3……N-1 . This indicates that there are
N-1 minimas between two consecutive maximas, this suggest that there must be N-2
secondary maximas between two principle maximas.
Intensity of secondary maxima: To find the intensity of secondary maxima we differentiate the
intensity with respect to 𝛽 and equate it equal to zero. i.e. differentiate the equation 4 wrt to 𝛽
𝑑𝐼 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑁𝛽 2 𝑁 sin 𝛽 𝑁 cos 𝑁𝛽 −sin 𝑁𝛽 𝑁 cos 𝛽
and equate it equal to zero. 𝑑𝛽 = 2𝑁 2 𝑅 2 =0
𝑁 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛽 𝑁 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝛽
𝑁 sin 𝛽 𝑁 cos 𝑁𝛽 −sin 𝑁𝛽 𝑁 cos 𝛽
From above we get = 0 or 𝑁 tan 𝛽 = tan 𝑁𝛽 5
𝑁 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝛽
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑁𝛽 2
To find the intensity we derive the bracket under the light of equation 5. Let us
𝑁 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛽
consider a triangle as shown below
1 + 𝑁 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝛽
𝑁𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽
𝑁𝛽
1 𝑁𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽
Now using the triangle above we can write 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑁𝛽 = or
1+𝑁 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝛽
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑁𝛽 2 𝑁 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝛽 1
=
𝑁 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛽 1 + 𝑁 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽 𝑁 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
2 2 2
On simplifying the above equation we get
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑁𝛽 2 𝑁2
=
𝑁 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛽 1 + 𝑁 2 − 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
Therefore the intensity at secondary maxima can be written as
2 2
𝑁2
𝐼𝑠 = 𝑁 𝑅
1 + 𝑁 2 − 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
𝑁2
Hence the intensity of the secondary maxima is proportional to whereas the
1+ 𝑁 2 −1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝛽
intensity ofprinciple maxima is proportional to 𝑁 2 . Therefore
𝐼𝑠 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎 1
= =
𝐼𝑝 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎 1 + 𝑁 2 − 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
This indicates that greater the value of N weaker is the intensity of secondary maxima.
Dispersive power of a Grating: The dispersive power of a grating is defined as the rate of
𝑑𝜃
change of the angle of diffraction with the wavelength of the light. It is expressed as 𝑑𝜆 . As
grating equation is 𝑒 + 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = ±𝑛𝜆 differentiating this with respect to 𝜆 we get 𝑒 +
𝑑cos𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜆=𝑛 or 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜆=𝑛𝑒+𝑑cos𝜃 the equation obtained is dispersive power of grating. This
implies that the dispersive power is
1. Directly proportional to the order of spectrum ‘n’.
2. Inversely proportional to the grating element (e + d)

Page no: 17 Get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

3. Inversely proportional to cos 𝜃 .

Angular Half Width: The 𝑛𝑡ℎ order principle maximum is obtained in the direction 𝜃𝑛 given by
𝑒 + 𝑑 sin 𝜃𝑛 = ±𝑛𝜆 1
Let the first minimum adjacent to the 𝑛𝑡ℎ maximum be obtained in the direction 𝜃𝑛 + 𝑑𝜃𝑛 where
𝑑𝜃𝑛 is called the angular half width of 𝑛𝑡ℎ maximum. The minima’s are obtained in the
directions given by
𝑁 𝑒 + 𝑑 sin 𝜃𝑛 + 𝑑𝜃𝑛 = ±𝑚𝜆 2
where𝑁= total number of slits and m= integer except 0, N, 2N,…….nN. This gives 𝑚 = 𝑛𝑁 +
1. Equation 2 now can be rewritten as
𝑁 𝑒 + 𝑑 sin(𝜃𝑛 + 𝑑𝜃𝑛 ) = ±(𝑛𝑁 + 1)𝜆
Or 𝑁 𝑒 + 𝑑 (sin 𝜃𝑛 cos 𝑑𝜃𝑛 + sin 𝑑𝜃𝑛 cos 𝜃𝑛 ) = ±(𝑛𝑁 + 1)𝜆
Since 𝑑𝜃𝑛 is small therefore sin 𝑑𝜃𝑛 = 𝑑𝜃𝑛 and cos 𝑑𝜃𝑛 = 1
The equation above reduces to
𝑁 𝑒 + 𝑑 sin 𝜃𝑛 + 𝑁 𝑒 + 𝑑 (𝑑𝜃𝑛 cos 𝜃𝑛 ) = ±(𝑛𝑁𝜆 + 𝜆) 3
using equation 1, equation 3 can be rearranged as –
𝜆
𝑑𝜃𝑛 =
𝑁 𝑒 + 𝑑 cos 𝜃𝑛
Using equation 1, above equation can be rearranged as
𝜆
𝑑𝜃𝑛 =
𝑁𝑛 cot 𝜃𝑛
The expression above is known as angular half width.
Resolving power of Optical Instruments The ability of an optical instrument to resolve the
images of two nearby points is termed as its resolving power.
Rayleigh’s Criterion of Resolution:
Two spectral lines of equal intensities are said to be resolved if the principle maximum of
diffraction pattern of one falls on the first minimum of the diffraction pattern of the other.
Suppose two wavelengths 𝜆 and 𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆 are incident on an optical instrument then they will be
said to resolved just if the diffraction pattern is as shown below.

Resolving Power of Diffraction Grating

The resolving power of a diffraction grating represents its ability to form separate lines for
𝜆
wavelengths very close together. It is given by 𝑑𝜆 . Let a parallel beam of wavelength 𝜆 and
𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆 is incident normally on a diffraction grating. The 𝑛𝑡ℎ principal maximum is formed in
the direction 𝜃𝑛 then 𝑒 + 𝑑 sin 𝜃𝑛 = 𝑛𝜆
1
𝑡ℎ
The first minimum adjacent to 𝑛 principal maximum be formed in the direction 𝜃𝑛 + 𝑑𝜃𝑛 , then
𝜆
we have- 𝑒 + 𝑑 sin(𝜃𝑛 + 𝑑𝜃𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝜆 + 𝑁 2
Because there are (𝑁 − 1) minimas between two principal maximas. According to Rayleigh’s
criterion the 𝑛𝑡ℎ maxima due to wavelength 𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆 must be formed in the direction 𝜃𝑛 + 𝑑𝜃𝑛

Page no: 18 Get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

i.e we have
𝑒 + 𝑑 sin(𝜃𝑛 + 𝑑𝜃𝑛 ) = 𝑛(𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆) 3
𝜆 𝜆
By equations 2 & 3 we can write 𝑛 𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆 = 𝑛𝜆 + 𝑁 Or𝑑𝜆 = 𝑛𝑁this is the desired expression
for resolving power of [Link] the resolving power of grating is equal to the product of
total number of rulings on the grating and the order of spectrum.

Page no: 19 Get real-time updates from RGPV

 We hope you find these notes useful.
You can get previous year question papers at
[Link] .

If you have any queries or you want to submit your

study notes please write us at
[Link]@[Link]
Program : [Link]
Subject Name: Engineering Physics
Subject Code: BT-201
Semester: 2nd
Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

Notes Introduction to Solids

Q.1 Give the free electron model of solids and explain its limitations. (April10)
Ans: Free Electron Model of Metals
1. Loosely bound electrons in a metal are free to roam around
2. These conduction electrons can be treated as a perfect gas obeying FD statistics.
3. We neglect interactions with atomic ions and self-interactions, but the electrons are still
bound to the solid
Free electron model successfully predicts temperature dependence of electrical conductivity of
metals.
Derivation for Conductivity of Metal: Mean kinetic energy electron gas at temperature T is
given as
1 3
( )2 =
2 2
2 3
Hence =
3
or = (1)
Let us consider a metallic cylinder of length l an electric field is applied across the length of
cylinder

If ‘R’ is the resistance of metallic cylinder considered then according to ohms law
�= (2)
Also
= (3)

Therefore �= Or �=

�
=

= (4)

As the electric field intensity is E, therefore the force experienced by the electron of material

Page no: 1 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

=
Hence acceleration produced in the electron will be

=
It implies that the drift velocity of electron will be � = �, where � is mean free time between
two successive collisions when electron is accelerated under the influence of applied filed.

� = �
Mean free time � can be given as � =
Hence

� = (5)
As we know that = � (6)
Using equation (1) (4) (5) and (6) we can write

2
=
3
or
3
= 2
Q.2 Calculate the density of states in the energy range E and E+dE using free electron model.
Ans: If N is the total number of states between the energy states E and E + dE , then the density of
states will be given as

=
Allowed states of energy according to the solution of Schrodinger equation
(nx 2 + ny 2 + nz 2 )π2 ℏ2
=
2mL2
Or
2 2 2
2mL2
nx + ny + nz = 2 2
π ℏ
Equation above represents a sphere in n-space with radius

2mL2
R=
π2 ℏ2

As nx , ny and nz can have only positive integer non zero values, therefore allowed states of

Page no: 2 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

energy will be only one octant of sphere Therefore

3
1 4 2mL 2 2
=
8 3 π 2 ℏ2
3
L3 2m 2 3
Or = 2
6π 2 ℏ2
3
3 V 2m 2 3
In the equation above L = V, hence = 2
6π 2 ℏ2
As each states can accommodate two electrons one with spin up and other with spin down,
therefore total number of states will be
3
V 2m 2 3
= 2 2
3π ℏ2
The equation above gives the total available states of energy for electron in volume V.
Q.3 Explain the band theory of solids.
Or
Differentiate insulator, conductor and semiconductors on the basis of band theory of solids.
Ans: Band Theory of Solids
The material in atomic state possesses discrete energy levels as in gaseous state. In gaseous state
the atoms are much far away from each other and they do not influence the energy levels of the
other atom. When two atoms are brought closer than their valance electrons interact with each
other and significant changes in the energy levels of valance electron is observed. In a solid a
large number electrons are very close packed together and the outer most energy level of
individual is splitted into various energy levels very closely spaced, these closely spaced energy
levels forms a virtual continuum and is called as band of energy. The electrons can occupy these
bands obeying Pauli’s exclusion principle and as consequence some of energy states cannot be
occupied by the electrons resulting in the formation of forbidden energy band. The lower band of
energy is called as valance band while the upper energy band is called conduction band.
The formation of bands is illustrated in the following diagrams. In the figure ‘a’ individual atom
is shown. In the figure ‘b’ the energy levels of the individual atom is shown on graph. The length
of horizontal lines parallel to x- axis indicates the circumference of the energy level. While the
position of horizontal line on y-axis gives the energy value of an energy level.
0 x-axis

y-axis

Figure: a Figure: b
In the figure c two atoms are shown closer and the overlapping of valence energy levels is
observed.

Page no: 3 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

0 x-axis 0

y-axis y-axis

Figure: c
In the last figure n numbers of atoms are shown closer and the formation of bands is also shown

0 x-axis 0 0 0 0

Conduction
Valance y- y- y-
Band
Band axi axi axi

Figure: d
In the figure‘d’ formation of bands for a solid is depicted. In these bands where electron can
freely move is known as conduction band, valance electrons attached to the atom forms valance
band, whereas energy bands which cannot be occupied by electrons is known as forbidden
energy band.
On the basis of band theory conductors are the solids in which valance band and conduction
bands overlap each other, whereas in insulators separation between valance and conduction band
is large and is typically of the order of 7 eV. Semiconductors are the solids who have a moderate
energy gap between valance and conduction band typically of the order of 1 eV.
Energy band diagram for conductor, insulator and semiconductor is shown in the figures below.

Conduction Band Conduction Band Conduction Band

7 eV 1 eV
Valance Band
Valance Band
Valance Band

Conductor Insulator Semiconductor

Q. 4 Define semiconductor. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor. ( (Feb10)

Page no: 4 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

Or
Define n-type and p-type extrinsic semiconductors. (Jun15)
Ans: Intrinsic Semiconductors
The intrinsic semiconductors are the semiconductors are elemental semiconductors or also called
as pure semiconductors. These semiconductors are made up of one kind of atoms only. The
examples of intrinsic semiconductors are Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge). The intrinsic
semiconductors have several limitations when practical applications are considered, because in
intrinsic semiconductors the energy gap cannot be changed as per requirement.
At T=0 K the intrinsic semiconductor behaves as insulators. Because no electron exists in the
conduction band. But at ordinary temperatures due to thermal agitations the covalent bonds are
broken and some electrons move to conduction band. The number of electrons and holes are
equal inside an intrinsic semiconductor. The Fermi energy level inside an intrinsic semiconductor
lies in the middle of energy gap. The energy band diagram for intrinsic semiconductor is shown
below.

CONDUCTION BAND

Fermi Energy Level Forbidden Energy gap Eg

VALANCE BAND

Extrinsic Semiconductors
The energy gap and conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors cannot be tailored as per the
requirement of application. This problem can be overcome by doping suitable impurity in the
intrinsic semiconductors. Thus obtained semiconductors are called as extrinsic semiconductors.
Depending upon the type of impurity added the extrinsic semiconductors can be classified as N-
type and P-type semiconductors.
N-type Semiconductors
When intrinsic semiconductors either Si or Ge are doped with pentavalent material, then the
obtained semiconductor material is called N-type semiconductor. The Si or Ge are tetravalent
materials hence the four electrons in the outer shell of these materials forms the covalent bond
with another Si or Ge atoms to complete their octet. When a pentavalent impurity Like Arsenic
(As) is added to the Si or Ge then the four out of five valance electrons are shared by the host
atoms(Si or Ge) while the fifth electrons of the impurity is loosely bound to its parent atom.
These loosely bound electrons give rise to new energy levels which exists in the energy gap just
below the conduction band and are called as donor levels. At ordinary temperature all the
electrons of the donor level move to the conduction band. Thus the electrons become majority
charge carriers as compared holes. Since the number of carriers are more in conduction band as
compared to holes in valance band the Fermi level in N-type semiconductor shifts towards
conduction band. The band diagram for N-type semiconductor is shown in figure below

Page no: 5 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

CONDUCTION BAND
Donor Energy Level
Fermi Energy Level
Forbidden Energy gap Eg

VALANCE BAND

Band diagram of N-type semiconductor

P-type Semiconductors
When intrinsic semiconductors either Si or Ge are doped with trivalent material, then the
obtained semiconductor material is called P-type semiconductor. The Si or Ge are tetravalent
materials hence the four electrons in the outer shell of these materials forms the covalent bond
with another Si or Ge atoms to complete their octet. When a trivalent impurity Like Arsenic (Al)
is added to the Si or Ge then the three valance electrons of impurity atom is shared by the host
atoms (Si or Ge) and one of the electrons of host atom remain unshared. This result in the
deficiency of an electron which tries to capture the electron from nearby covalent bond. Thus
electron deficiency exists in valance band which give rise to new energy levels which exists in
the energy gap just above the conduction band and are called as acceptor levels. Thus the holes
become majority charge carriers as compared electrons. Since the numbers of carriers are more in
valance band as compared to electrons in conduction band the Fermi level in P-type
semiconductor shifts towards valance band. The band diagram for P-type semiconductor is
shown in figure below

CONDUCTION BAND

Forbidden Energy gap Eg

Fermi Energy Level

VALANCE BAND Acceptor Energy Level

Band diagram of P-type semiconductor

Q.5 What is Fermi energy level?

Or
Explain the effect of temperature on Fermi Dirac distribution function. (Jun14)
Ans: Fermi Dirac distribution function & Fermi energy level

Page no: 6 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

The Fermi Dirac distribution function gives the probability of finding an electron in energy state
E for a given temperature t. mathematically it is expressed as
1
= −
+1
Where is Fermi energy level and is Boltzmann’s constant.
Let = 0 � and > then the value of Fermi Dirac distribution function will be
= 0. This implies that all the energy levels above the Fermi energy levels are empty at
=0 � .
If = 0 � and < then the value of Fermi Dirac distribution function will be =
1. This implies that all the energy levels below the Fermi energy levels are completely occupied
by electrons at = 0 � or we can say that Fermi energy level is the highest possible level
of energy for electron at =0 � .
For the temperature above 0 � and = the value of Fermi Dirac distribution function
1
will be = i.e. we can say that for the temperatures above 0
2
� the Fermi level is the
1
level of energy for which the probability of occupancy of electron is .
2
Variation of Fermi Dirac function with temperature is shown in figure below. This figure clearly
indicates that conduction band is completely empty at T=0K whereas with the increase in the
temperature more energy states in the conduction band is occupied indicated by the increased
value of F(E).

Variation of Fermi Function with Temperature

Q.6 What is P-N junction diode? Explain the characteristics of P-N junction diode under reverse and
forward bias. (Dec10, 11)
Ans: PN Junction diode When a slab of intrinsic semiconducting material is doped with trivalent
impurity at one end while other end of the slab is doped with pentavalent impurity then a PN
junction diode is formed.
PN Junction under no bias When the junction is formed the flow of electrons starts across the
junction due to concentration gradient. As the density of electron is more on N-side as compared
to P-side. The electrons and holes recombine across the junction; as a result the ions are
uncovered on both P and N-side in a small region around the junction. On N-side +ve ions are
uncovered while on P-side –ve ions are uncovered these uncovered ions sets a potential barrier
across the junction and prevents the flow of electrons and holes. Hence no current flows across
the junction under no bias condition. Figure below represents the diagram of PN junction.

Page no: 7 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

N P

Immobile positive and negative ions

The symbol of PN junction diode is shown in the diagram below.

Forward biased PN junction When a PN diode is connected in a circuit such that its P side is
connected to the positive terminal of battery and N side is connected to negative of battery. Then
the diode is said to be under forward bias.

The negative potential at the N side forces the electrons to cross the junction. Initially when the
value of applied potential is less than the potential barrier no current flows across the junction as
the potential applied becomes greater than potential barrier electrons starts to cross the junction
further increase in applied potential forces more electrons to cross the junction and a current in
the circuit increases rapidly while the voltage across the diode does not change significantly as
shown in the curve below.
Current I

Figure: Forward Biased Diode

Characteristics

Voltage V
Reverse biased PN junction When a PN diode is connected in a circuit such that its P side is
connected to the negative terminal of battery and N side is connected to positive of battery. Then

Page no: 8 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

the diode is said to be under forward bias.

The positive potential at the N side forces the electrons to move away from the junction.
Similarly holes also moves away from the junction as consequence majority charge carriers do
not contribute to the current in the circuit. But the minority electrons from P side and minority
holes from N side moves towards junction and a small current flows across the junction due
small number of charge carriers. Further increase in the applied potential does not result in the
increase of current. The current is called as reverse saturation current and it depends upon the
junction temperature rather than applied potential.
Voltage V
Current I

Reverse saturation Current

Figure: Reverse Biased Diode
Characteristics

Reverse bias and Breakdown When a diode is connected in the reverse bias then the majority
charge carriers moves away from the junction and the immobile ions on P and N side gets
uncovered resulting in the widening of depletion layer and minority charge carriers contribute to
small current. When the applied potential is increased it leads to abrupt increase of reverse
current this is called as breakdown. Two kind of mechanism are responsible for the abrupt
current change
1. Avalanche breakdown This kind of break down occurs when the impurity concentration
is lower. The increase in the reverse applied potential does not leads to increase in the
current but increase in the potential results in the increase in the kinetic energy of

Page no: 9 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

electron, when electron acquires the kinetic energy of the order of the strength of
covalent bond then this electron breaks the covalent bond of the atom resulting in the
electron hole pair. Thus produced electrons get accelerated and break another covalent
bond and the process continues in the generation of large number of current carriers and
large current starts to flow across the junction. The avalanche breakdown results in the
damage of diode. The breakdown curve in this case is gradual near breakdown voltage.
2. Zener breakdown This kind of break down occurs when the impurity concentration is
higher. The increase in the reverse applied potential does not leads to increase in the
current but increase in the potential results in the widening of depletion layer. Thus a
large electric field is set across junction, when the strength of internal field is of the order
of the strength of covalent bond then this field breaks the covalent bond of the atoms
resulting in the generation of large number of electron hole pairs and large current starts
to flow across the junction. The zener breakdown does not damage the diode. When
reverse potential is removed then the diode acquires its original state. The breakdown
curve in this case is sharp near breakdown voltage.
Q.7 What is Zener diode? Draw the equivalent circuit of an ideal and actual Zener diode. What are its
uses? (Jun 12, 14, 15)
Ans: Zener Diode: Zener diode is made by heavily doped P and N type semiconductors and the
surface are of the junction is also increased to avoid the increase in junction temperature in case
of break down. When the break down occurs then the zener curve suggests that the voltage
becomes constant and increase in the applied potential results in the increase in the reverse
current. This property of the zener diode is used for the voltage regulator applications. The
symbol of zener diode is shown in the figure below.

Equivalent circuit for ideal and actual zener diode

+
V

- (a) (b)
Reverse biased zener diode Equivalent circuit (a) Ideal (b) Actual

For an ideal zener diode in the reverse bias the voltage across the diode will remain constant
irrespective of the current through the diode, however for practical applications it is limited by
zener impedance.
A zener diode can be used as voltage regulator, voltage clipper, wave shaper and rectifier.
(Note that V-I characteristics of zener diode are similar to P-N junction diode

Page no: 10 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

except in the reverse bias where zener breakdown takes place unlike avalanche
break down in P-N junction diode)
Q.8 Discuss the basic operation and characteristics of a solar cell with necessary diagram. (Dec13)
or
Explain V-I characteristics of a photovoltaic cell. (Jun16)
Or
Write a short note on solar cell (Jun13,10)
Or
Describe with the diagram the basic operation and characteristics of a solar cell including the
short circuit current and open circuit voltage. Derive the expression for the maximum power
delivered to the load, fill factor and efficiency of the solar cell.
Ans: Solar cell: A solar cell converts the optical energy into the electrical energy it is a PN junction
diode. When the light is incident on the PN junction the flow of electron and hole pair results in
the photocurrent. The equivalent circuit for solar cell is given in the diagram below

RL

The construction of solar cell is given in the diagram below

Glass

+
P
vcc N

Working; when a photon collides with the valance electron either in P-type material or N-type
material, it imparts sufficient energy to the electron to leave its parent atom. As a result, free
electrons and holes are generated on each side of junction. In P-type material electrons are

Page no: 11 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

minority carriers and similarly holes are minority in N-type materials. These holes and electrons
move towards junction without applied bias. The result is increase in minority carriers flow.
Characteristics of solar cell: Let us consider a solar cell with a resistive load R. when the light
is incident on the PN junction it produces photocurrent IL. This current produces a voltage drop
across the solar cell and the PN junction becomes effectively forward bias. The current IF due to
forward bias is into opposite direction to photocurrent IL. Therefore the net current is given by
�
= − = − −1 1
Where is reverse saturation current.
Under open circuit condition I=0. Therefore,
�
0= − = − −1
Or
�
= −1
�
+1=
�
On taking log +1 =
Or � = +1
�
The power delivered to load will be = �= �− −1 �
� �
For maximum power
�
=0= − −1 − � −1

�
+
� = 2
1+
Using equation 1 for maximum current we get
�
= − −1
Or
�
=( + )− 3
Using equation 2 and 3 we get

�
=( + )
� +
Hence the maximum power delivered by solar cell will be

�2
=� =( + )
� +
Fill Factor: the ratio of maximum obtainable power to the product of the open-circuit voltage
and short-circuit current

Page no: 12 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

Q.9 What is Kronig-Penny model of solids and show that it leads to energy band structure of solids.
(Dec10)
Or
Discuss the salient features of Kronig-Penny model. (Jun11)
Or
Draw periodic potential observed by an electron, moving in one dimensional crystal lattice.
Discuss Kronig-Penny model proposed for periodic potential. Write Schrodinger wave equation
for such potential and discuss its solution. (Dec12)
Or
Describe the behavior of electron in periodic potential using final expression of Kronig-Penny
model. (Dec13)
Or
Describe the behavior of electron in periodic potential using final expression of Kronig-Penny
model and explain the formation of energy bands. (Jun14)
Or
Find the effective mass of electron on the basis of Kronig-Penny Model. (Dec15)
Ans: Kronig Penny Model
The Kronig Peny model considers that electrons inside solid moves in a periodic potential due to
rest electrons and ion cores. An approximate picture inside solid is shown in the figure below.

The picture above is one-dimensional periodic potential of electron inside solid. Even though the
model is one-dimensional, it is the periodicity of the potential that is the crucial property that
yields electronic band structure. The mathematical form of the repeating unit of the potential is
� � = �0 − <�<0

Page no: 13 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

� � = 0 0<�<
As shown in figure 1 the potentail has a period of = + . The Schrodinger equation for this
model will be
2� 2
+ �=0 0<�< 1
�2 ℏ2
2� 2 ( −�0 )
+ �=0 − <�<0 2
�2 ℏ2
The solution satisfying above equations will be obtained by using Bloch Theorem and will be
sin �
�
+ cos � = cos 3
Where
�0
=
ℏ2
and
2
�=
ℏ2
In equation 3 there are two variables � and . The right hand side of equation can have values
only between +1 and -1. This implies that the equation 3 will be valid only when left hand side of
equation will have values between +1 and -1. To find the allowed values of � we plot left hand
side of the equation with respect to � . In the plot below we have drawn two lines parallel to the
x-axis at y-values +1 and -1.
7

0
b
-1
e
-2

-3

In the above plot the thick line from point ‘b’ to ‘c’ shows the allowed values of energy for
sin �
electrons. Because the term + cos � is between +1 to -1, hence the continuous allowed
�
values indicate the formation of band. While the values of � between points ‘c’ to ‘f’ indicates
sin �
the forbidden band because the term + cos � having the values less than -1.
 The solution also suggests that the width of allowed band increases with increase in the
�

Page no: 14 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

value of � .
 For P=0 the width of forbidden band becomes zero and the electron is a free electro.
 For = ∞ the energy band reduces to the energy levels.
 At = ± where n= 1, 2, 3…..the energy curve shows the discontinuity.
 The region between to − is called the first Brillouin zone.
Effective Mass of electron
2
As = 2 also = ℏ by de-Broglie’s hypothesis.
ℏ2 2
Therefore = , thus electron energy is parabolic, with wave vector k. the electron mass is
2
2 ℏ2
inversely related to the curvature (second derivative) of the E-k relationship, since 2
= ∗
2 −1
∗
= ℏ2 2
∗
From the equation above it is evident that the effective mass is inversely proportional to the
2
. Following is concluded for the effective mass
 If the curvature E vs k is large the value of effective mass ∗ will be small.
2

 If the curvature E vs k is small the value of effective mass ∗ will be larger.

Q.11 What is Hall effect? Give an elementary theory of Hall effect. (Dec11, 12, Jun 12, Jan16)
Or
What are the potential applications of Hall effect? (Jun11)
Or
Show that Hall coefficient is independent of the applied magnetic field and is inversely
proportional to density of electronic charge. (Jun12, 14)
Or
Describe the Hall effect and Hall coefficient in detail. (Jun10)
Or
Deduce an expression for Hall effect of a solid and describe a method for its determination
experimentally. What important information are obtained from its measurement? (Dec12)
Ans: Hall Effect:
When a specimen (metal or semiconductor) carrying current I is placed in transverse magnetic
field. Then a potential is induced in the specimen in the perpendicular direction to both the
current and the magnetic field. This phenomenon is called as Hall Effect.
Derivation
Let us consider an n-type material placed in an electric field in positive x-direction and a
magnetic field is applied normal to the field in z-direction. Then the transverse magnetic field
will exert Lorentz force on the electrons and electrons will accumulate at one side of specimen
giving rise to potential.
t
Iz
d

Hz

Page no: 15 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

When the value of force due to generated field equals the Lorentz force then the induced
potential acquires the equilibrium in this condition.
Hall force = Lorentz force
=
− = �� �
Where �� is drift velocity of electrons.
Or
= −�� �
�
As � = �� we get � = − =−
� �
� �
Or � =− �
=−
�
Since t is thickness � =− �
The expression above is called as hall voltage. The value of Hall field per unit magnetic field
and per unit current density is called as hall coefficient and is denoted by .
�

=− =−
� � � �
1
=−
In terms of Hall coefficient the Hall voltage is given by

�
� =
�
Since the electron mobility is given as = therefore
=
The direction of Hall field is the direction the net field in the semiconductor. The net field in the
semiconductor is the vector sum of applied field � and Hall field as shown in figure below

Ex
θH

�
�
tan � = as = = �
also � =
� EH�
�
Therefore tan � = or tan � = �
Since = therefore tan � = �
−1
Hence � = � � this is known as direction of Hall field.

Page no: 16 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

Applications:
1. Hall effect can be used for the measurement of the strength of magnetic field
2. It is used for the determination of carrier concentration of semiconductors
3. The sign of Hall coefficient tells about the predominant charge carriers in a semiconductor
4. Hall effect can be used for the amplification of weak signals

Page no: 17 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

 We hope you find these notes useful.
You can get previous year question papers at
[Link] .

If you have any queries or you want to submit your

study notes please write us at
[Link]@[Link]
Program : [Link]
Subject Name: Engineering Physics
Subject Code: BT-201
Semester: 2nd
Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT
UNIT-4
LASERS
Q.1 What is a Laser? Give major properties of laser light. (Jun 16)
Or
Explain in brief the characteristics of a laser beam. (Jun 15, Dec 12)
Or
How does laser differs from ordinary light? (Dec 12)
Ans: Laser Characteristics
The word LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. In a
laser light amplification occur due to stimulated emission. Laser light differs from ordinary light
sources in following respects
1. Coherent: Laser posses’ high degree of coherence in comparison to ordinary light sources. In
other words the phase relationship remains constant temporally and spatially for longer span of
time and space.
2. Monochromatic: Lasers posses’ high degree of monochromaticity i.e. the line width for a
laser is very less in comparison to ordinary light source. In ordinary light source the value of
∆� ranges from 100 to 1000 0 while for a laser the value of ∆� remains within few
angstroms
3. Intensity: The intensity of laser beam is extremely high in comparison to ordinary light.
4. Directionality: Lasers are highly directional and show least divergence upon travelling
distances. This occurs because of photon selection by optical resonator.
Q.2 What are Einstein’s coefficients? Derive Einstein’s relation. (Jun 13)
Or
Obtain the relation between the transition probabilities of Einstein’s A and B coefficients. (Dec 10
& 13)
Or
Establish the relationship between Einstein’s coefficients A and B. (Jun 10)
Or
Explain the three quantum processes of interaction of radiation with the matter and derive the
relationship between Einstein’s coefficients.
Ans: Einstein coefficients are mathematical quantities which are a measure of the probability of
absorption or emission of light by an atom or molecule. The Einstein A coefficient is related to the
rate of spontaneous emission of light and the Einstein B coefficients are related to the absorption
and stimulated emission of light.
Interaction of radiation with matter and Einstein’s Coefficients
Three quantum processes when light interacts with matter are
1. Absorption: Consider an atomic system with energy levels E1 and E2. Electron is present in the
ground state. The schematic of absorption process is presented in the figure 1
�2

ℎ� = �2 − �1

�1
Figure 1: Electron gets excited by absorption of incident photon
When a photon having energy equal to ℎ� = �2 − �1 is incident on such a system then electron
absorbs this photon and gets excited to upper energy level.
The number of photons absorbed can be expressed as-
�� = 12 �1 (�) (1)
Here �� - No. of photons absorbed, B12 Einstein’s coefficient, N1 is the number of electrons in the

Page no: 1 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT
energy state E1 and (�) is the density of electromagnetic radiation.
2. Spontaneous Emission: Consider an atomic system with energy levels E1 and E2. Electron is
present in the excited state. The schematic of spontaneous emission is presented in the figure 2
�2

ℎ� = �2 − �1

�1
Figure 2: Electron making downward transition spontaneously

In this system the electron is in the excited state. This electron makes a downward transition when
its life time is completed in the excited state. In this process it emits a photon of energy
ℎ� = �2 − �1 . The number of photons emitted by the process of spontaneous emission can be
expressed as
� � = 21 �2 (2)
Here � � - No. of photons emitted spontaneously, A21 Einstein’s coefficient, N2 is the number of
electrons in the energy state E2.
3. Stimulated Emission: Consider an atomic system with two energy levels E1 and E2 as shown in
the figure 2. In this system the electron is in the excited state and a photon is incident on such a
system having energy equal to ℎ� = �2 − �1 . Thus electron is forced for a premature downward
transition. In this process two photons are obtained incident and emitted. These photons are
identical in all respects.

�2
Incident photon Emitted photon

ℎ� = �2 − �1 ℎ� = �2 − �1
�1
Figure 3: Electron making downward transition under the influence of incident photon

The number of photons emitted by the process of stimulated emission can be expressed as
� = 21 �2 (�) (3)

Here � - No. of photons emitted by stimulated emission, B21 Einstein’s coefficient, N2 is the
number of electrons in the energy state E2 and (�) is the density of electromagnetic radiation.
To make the process of stimulated emission dominant the number of electrons in the excited state
should be more than in the lower lasing energy level. The density of electromagnetic radiation
should also be higher. Both facts are established by the ration of equation 3 to the equation 1.
Under the condition of equilibrium the number of photons must equal the number of photons
emitted. We can write
Number of photons absorbed= Number of photons emitted by spontaneous emission + Number of
photons emitted by stimulated emission
Thus
12 �1 � = 21 �2 + 21 �2 (�) (4)
Upon rearranging the terms we can write

Page no: 2 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

� 12 �1 − 21 �2 = 21 �2
Or
21 �2
� =
12 �1 − 21 �2

21 1
� =
12 �1
21 −1
21 �2
Under the condition of equilibrium it can be shown that
12 = 21
ℎ�
1 �1
Hence � = 21
�1 ; As = ��
21 −1 �2
�2
1
Therefore � = 21
ℎ�
21 �� −1
According to the theory of black body radiation the density of electromagnetic radiation is given as
8�ℎ � 3 1
� = 3 ℎ� �
�� −1
Therefore the relation between the Einstein’s coefficient can be written as
8�ℎ � 3
21
= 3
�
21
It shows that the probability of spontaneous emission increases with the energy difference between
two states.
Q.3 What is meant by stimulated emission? Explain the basic condition in which stimulated condition
dominates. ( Dec 14)
Or
What do you understand by spontaneous and stimulated emission? (Dec 15)
Ans: 1. Spontaneous Emission: Consider an atomic system with energy levels E1 and E2. Electron is
present in the excited state. The schematic of spontaneous emission is presented in the figure 2
�2

ℎ� = �2 − �1

�1
Figure 2: Electron making downward transition spontaneously

In this system the electron is in the excited state. This electron makes a downward transition when
its life time is completed in the excited state. In this process it emits a photon of energy
ℎ� = �2 − �1 . The number of photons emitted by the process of spontaneous emission can be
expressed as
� � = 21 �2 (2)
Here � � - No. of photons emitted spontaneously, A21 Einstein’s coefficient, N2 is the number of
electrons in the energy state E2.
2. Stimulated Emission: Consider an atomic system with two energy levels E1 and E2 as shown in
the figure 2. In this system the electron is in the excited state and a photon is incident on such a
system having energy equal to ℎ� = �2 − �1 . Thus electron is forced for a premature downward

Page no: 3 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT
transition. In this process two photons are obtained incident and emitted. These photons are
identical in all respects.

�2
Incident photon Emitted photon

ℎ� = �2 − �1 ℎ� = �2 − �1
�1
Figure 3: Electron making downward transition under the influence of incident photon

The number of photons emitted by the process of stimulated emission can be expressed as
� = 21 �2 (�) (3)

Here � - No. of photons emitted by stimulated emission, B21 Einstein’s coefficient, N2 is the
number of electrons in the energy state E2 and (�) is the density of electromagnetic radiation.
Stimulated emission will dominate spontaneous emission when N2> N1.
Q.4 What is population inversion in lasers and how it is achieved? (Jun 11 Dec 11 & 15)
Or
State necessary condition for strong stimulated emission. (Jun 13)
Or
Define population inversion and show that it is necessary for amplification of light in active
medium. (Apr 10 Jan 16)
Ans: Population inversion: The number of atoms per unit volume occupying a certain energy state is
called population. In any atomic system ordinarily the number of electrons in the lower energy state
(N1) is more in comparison to the population of excited state (N2). For achieving the light
amplification an artificial situation is created in which the number of electrons at the excited state is
more than the number of electrons in lower energy state. This situation is called as population
inversion.
In any atomic system number of photons absorbed may be written as:

�� = 12 �1 (�)
It means absorption is proportional to the N1, whereas number of photons emitted by stimulated
emission may be written as:
� = 21 �2 (�)

Equation above indicates that stimulated emission is directly proportional to the N2 i.e. the
population of excited state. It clearly establishes that if the number of electrons at excited state N2
is more than the number of electrons at ground state N1, then probability of stimulated emission
will be more in comparison to the absorption and the light amplification will take place.
Q.5 What are the principle pumping schemes? (Dec 11 & 15)
Or
Explain three and four level pumping scheme and give reason which one is more efficient.
Ans: Three level pumping schemes in laser essentially refer to the lasing mechanism in which
population inversion is achieved between an excited and the ground energy state. Since population
inversion in such system is achieved between excited and the ground energy state therefore more
pumping energy is required as naturally more number of electrons stay in the ground energy state.
The schematic diagram of a three level energy system is shown in the figure below.

Page no: 4 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

E3
Spontaneous Transition
Metastable state E2

Inducing Photons
Stimulated Transition
Figure : Three level energy system E1
Mechanism: In three level systems initially electrons are excited to the energy level E3 by means
of pumping. Energy level E3 is ordinary excited state and electrons rapidly decay to energy level E2
which is Metastable state. Here electrons stay longer than usual and situation of population
inversion is achieved between ground state (E1) and energy level E2.
Now photons having energy equal to ℎ� = �2 − �1 is incident over this system to initiate
stimulated emission and light amplification.
Four level pumping schemes in laser essentially refer to the lasing mechanism in which population
inversion is achieved between two excited states. Since population inversion in such system is
achieved between two excited states therefore less pumping energy is required as naturally more
number of electrons stay in the ground energy state.
The schematic diagram of a four level energy system is shown in the figure below.
E4

Spontaneous Transition

Metastable state E3

Inducing Photons Lasing Transition

E2

E1
Figure: Four level energy system

Mechanism: In four level system initially electrons are excited to the higher levels of energy by
means of pumping. This higher level of energy level is ordinary excited state and electrons rapidly
decay to lower excited energy level E3 which is Metastable state. Here electrons stay longer than
usual and situation of population inversion is achieved between upper excited state (E 3) and lower
excited state (E2).
Now photons having energy equal to ℎ� = �3 − �2 are incident over this system to initiate
stimulated emission and light amplification.
Since in four level energy system population inversion is achieved between two excited states,
therefore it requires less pumping. Whereas in three energy level system lower lasing level is
ground state, therefore more than 50% of electrons need to be excited. As a result more pumping is
required for three energy level systems in comparison to four level energy systems. Hence four
energy level laser systems are better.
Q.6 Explain the different components of laser.
Or
Write short note on optical resonators. (Jun 10)
Ans: Components of Laser
Active Medium: The active medium is a collection of atoms or molecules, which can be excited to
achieve population inversion situation for amplification of light by stimulated emission. The active
medium can be in any state of matter: solid, liquid, gas or plasma. The active medium determines

Page no: 5 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT
the emitted wavelengths possible by lasing transition.
Pumping: Pumping is an energy source working on an active medium for achieving population
inversion. Various pumping mechanisms are:
i. Optical Pumping
ii. Electric Discharge
iii. Inelastic Atomic Collisions
iv. Direct Conversion
v. Chemical reaction
Optical Resonator: Optical resonator is a pair of mirror facing each other. The active medium is
enclosed in this cavity. In optical resonator one of the mirrors is partially polished while other
mirror is completely polished. Optical cavity ensures the availability of photons for stimulated
emission and contributes for light amplification by optical feedback. A schematic diagram of
optical resonator is given in the figure below.

Fully Partially
reflective reflective

Active Medium

Figure : Active medium enclosed by optical resonator cavity

Action of Optical resonator: In the above figure an active medium enclosed between two parallel
mirrors is shown. In the active medium hollow spheres present electrons in the ground state while
filled sphere presents electrons in the excited state.
Step1: Some of the electrons from the excited makes down ward transition spontaneously resulting
in the emission of photons.
Step2: Out of the emitted photons, The photons traveling in the axial direction is reflected back
into active medium.
Step3: These reflected photons initiates the process of stimulated emission into active medium and
more photons are obtained.
Step4: After multiple reflections a strong laser beam emerges out from partially reflective end of
the optical resonator.
Q.7 Describe the construction and working of one laser with help of diagram. (Jun10)
Or
Describe the construction and working of ruby laser with help of a necessary diagram. (Jun12
Dec15)
Or

Page no: 6 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT
Explain the construction and working of ruby laser with necessary energy level diagram. (Jun13
Dec14)
Or
Explain how the population inversion and pumping scheme processes are realized in Ruby laser?
(Dec11)
Or
Describe the construction and working of a solid state laser with help of a necessary diagram.
Or
Describe the construction and working of a three energy level laser with help of a necessary
diagram.
Ans: Construction: Ruby laser is three energy level laser. It consists of a cylindrical ruby rod. The ends
of ruby rod are polished to act as optical resonator. This ruby rod is wrapped with helical shaped
xenon lamp.
Xenon lamp acts as optical pumping source. The active medium in ruby laser is Cr+ ions in the host
material Al2O3. Construction of Ruby laser is shown in the figure 1.

Fully polished Partially polished

surface surface

Ruby rod Xenon flash lamp

Figure 1: Ruby Laser

Working: The energy level diagram for Cr+ ion is shown in figure 2. Initially most of the electrons
occupy ground state. When the light from xenon lamp falls on ruby rod then the electron absorbs
the wavelength of 5500 A0 and gets excited to the energy level E3.
E3
E2
6943 A0
5500 A0 E2
E1

Energy level E3 is an ordinary excited state and the electrons from this excited state rapidly decay
to the Metastable energy state E2. As E2 is Metastable state electrons start to accumulate at this
level and a situation of population inversion is achieved between the E2 and ground state. Photons
emitted due to spontaneous decay and reflected back by polished ends initiates the stimulated
emission. Thus emitted photons reflect back and forth between two polished ends and when the
beam of photons become sufficiently large it emerges out from the partially polished end in the
form of pulse of wavelength 6943 A0.
Limitations: Ruby laser is a three level laser and has very low efficiency. The output is in the form
of pulse. As xenon flash lamp is used for optical pumping and only small fraction of spectrum is
used for excitation.
Applications: Ruby laser is used in creating 3-D images using holography it is also used in
medical filed for tattoo removal.
Q.8 Explain with the help of a neat diagram the principle and working of He-Ne laser. (Jan 16)
Or
Explain construction and working of He-Ne laser with neat diagrams. (Dec12 & 13)
Or
Explain construction and working of He-Ne laser with the help of energy level diagrams. (Feb10,
Apr10,Jun11, 14 & 16)

Page no: 7 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT
Or
Explain construction and working of any gaseous laser.
Or
Explain construction and working of any four level laser.
Ans: Helium Neon laser is a four level gas laser. In this laser lasing transition occur between energy
levels of Neon atom.
Construction: The schematic diagram of He-Ne laser is shown in the figure 1. It consists of a long
discharge tube with diameter 1 cm and length about 50 cm. Discharge tube is filled with mixture of
Helium and Neon in ratio of 10:1. Both ends of discharge tube is equipped with mirrors to act as
optical resonator.
Laser Beam

6328 A0
He-Ne Mixture

Perfect Reflector RF Partial Reflector

Generator

Working: The energy level diagram for Helium and Neon is shown in the figure 2. When the
current is passed through the mixture of He and Ne. The helium atoms are excited to the nearest
excited state. When these excited helium atoms collides with the neon atoms then they transfer
their energy to neon atoms. Thus neon atoms are raised to energy level E5.

Meta stable State Meta stable State

R. F. Generator E3 E5’
Meta stable Meta stable
State E2 State E4’ Laser Transition

E3’
Spontaneous
emission
E2’
De-excitation

E1 E1’
Ground State He atom Ground State Ne atom

As a result population inversion is achieved between E5’ and E3’. The transition between two emits
light of wavelength 6328 A0. Helium Neon laser operates in CW mode. The energy level E2’ is
depopulated by collision with the walls of discharge tube, so that laser operation continues without
interruption.
Q.9 Explain with the help of a neat diagram the principle and working of CO2 laser.
Or
Explain construction and working of CO2 laser with neat diagrams.
Or

Page no: 8 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT
Explain construction and working of CO2 laser with the help of energy level diagrams.
Or
Explain construction and working of any gaseous laser.
Or
Explain construction and working of any four level laser.
Ans: Construction:CO2 is a four level molecular laser, which depends upon the transition between the different
vibrational states of CO2 molecule. Different vibrational states of CO2 molecule are presented in the figure
1.

Stretch Mode

Bending Mode

Rotational Mode
Asymmetry Mode
In the figure 1 we can see the carbon atom at the center and two oxygen atoms are attached at both sides of
carbon atom. Hence carbon dioxide molecule can possess three independent modes of vibration namely:
Stretch, asymmetric and bending mode.
Figure 2 shows schematic diagram of CO2 laser. It consists of a discharge tube having cross sectional area
about 1.5 mm2 and length about 260 mm. The discharge tube is filled with CO2, N2 and He in the ration
1:2:3. CO2 molecules serves as the active medium for lasing transition.
A high voltage DC source is connected across discharge tube.
Water in

Water out

Working: Different vibrational states of CO2 molecule and lowest excited state of N2 is shown in the figure
3.

When current is passed through discharge tube, Nitrogen gets excited to the first excited state. Now Nitrogen
transfers its energy to CO2 molecules through inelastic collisions. Thus CO2 atoms are raised to the energy
level E5, which is a metastable state. As a result situation of population inversion is achieved between E5 and
E4, also between E5 and E3.
Initial spontaneous transition initiates stimulated emission and light amplification occur by multiple
oscillation between optical resonator. The lasing transition corresponds to the wavelengths 9.6 µm and 10.6
µm.

Page no: 9 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

Energy Transfer Through

Inelastic Collisions E5
10.6 µm
E4
9.6 µm
E3

E2

E1
Nitrogen Carbon Dioxide
Applications: carbon dioxide laser is used in industry for cutting and welding, it also used in surgery to seal
small blood vessels.
Q.10 Describe construction and working of Ruby laser with the help of necessary diagrams.
Or
Explain the working of any solid state laser
Or
Explain the working of four level solid state laser
Ans: Nd: YAG laser is a four level solid state laser. Here Nd stands for Neodymium and YAG stands for Yttrium
aluminum garnet (Y3Al5O15). In this laser Neodymium ions acts as active medium.
Construction: Construction of Nd: YAG laser is shown in the figure 1. In this laser Nd: YAG rod and
krypton arc lamp are placed in an elliptical cavity. Krypton lamp provides the optical pumping for excitation
of Neodymium ions. Elliptical cavity ensures that all emitted radiations form Krypton lamp falls on Nd:
YAG rod. Thus optical pumping efficiency of Nd: YAG laser is far better than Ruby laser.
Nd: YAG rod

Kr flash
Lamp

Elliptical cavity
3+
Working: Energy levels of Nd ions are shown in the figure 2.

When the light from Kr lamp falls on Nd: YAG rod. Then electrons of Nd3+ ions absorbs the energy
spectrum 5500 A0 to 8000 A0 and gets excited to the upper energy bands. From these energy bands electrons
rapidly decays to energy levels E3 which is a meta stable state. As a result population inversion is achieved
between E3 and E2. Transition between E3 and E2 emits light in the infrared region having wavelength 10640
A0. Energy level in Nd3+ ions is far above from ground state and hence can’t be populated by thermal
excitations. Nd: YAG laser can be operated in CW and pulsed mode

Page no: 10 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

Upper excited bands

Upper laser level

E3
Meta stable state

10640 A0

E2 Lower laser level

.

E1 Ground level

Page no: 11 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

UNIT-4
Fiber Optics
Q.11 What is an optical fiber? (Jun12, Dec10, Jan16)
Or
Describe the structure of a typical optical fiber used in practice. (Dec10)
Or
Describe the construction of an optical fiber. (Feb10, Apr10, Dec14)
Ans: An optical fiber is thin transparent wire made up of glass or plastic and is used to guide the light
waves by means of total internal reflection with minimum losses.
Construction: Typical structure of an optical fiber is shown in figure below. Optical fiber consists
of three sections. Innermost part of an optical fiber is called as core its refractive index is shown as
n1. Outer layer surrounding the core is called as cladding its refractive index is shown by n2.
Outermost layer of an optical fiber is a protective layer of plastic which is termed as sheath and it
protects the core and cladding of optical fiber. For an Optical Fiber n1> n2.
Cladding Sheath

Core

Q.12 Explain the principle of propagation of light waves in the optical fiber. What are acceptance angle,
acceptance cone and numerical aperture? (Feb10, Apr10,Jun10, Dec14)
Or
With the help of Ray diagram show how optical fibers can guide light waves? Derive an expression
for acceptance angle of optical fiber. What is meant by acceptance cone? (Jun13)
Or
Derive expression for numerical aperture of a step index fiber. (Jun11,16,Dec14)
Or
Define acceptance angle and acceptance cone in fiber optics. Derive expression for acceptance
angle. (Dec10,11)
Or
Explain how glass fiber guides light from one end to other. Define acceptance angle of an optical
fiber. (Jun12)
Ans: Light ray travel the length of optical fiber by phenomenon of total internal reflection. When a light
ray travels from denser to the rarer medium then it moves away from the normal. When the angle
of incidence in the denser medium is greater than a particular value then total light is reflected back
into the denser medium. This angle of incidence is known as critical angle and the phenomenon is
known as total internal reflection. In an optical fiber refractive index of core (n1) is greater than the
refractive index of cladding (n2). Maximum value of the launching angle for the light in an optical
fiber which satisfies the condition of total internal reflection is known as acceptance angle. Three
dimensional structure around the fiber launch end made by acceptance angle is termed as
acceptance cone.
Derivation of Acceptance angle: A ray of light incident from the outer medium of refractive index
n0 at the launching end of the fiber (core of RI n1)by making an angle θi with the axis of the fiber

Page no: 12 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

which refract through angle θr. Angle made by refracted ray at the core-cladding interface is ϕ .

n2 B
ϕ
θr
θi A C
n0 n1

For outer medium (n0) and core (n1) interface

According to Snell’s law
n0 Sinθi = n1 Sinθr
Or Sinθi = (n1/ n0) Sinθr (1)
→ Sinθi = (n1/ n0) Sin(90-ϕ)
Sinθi = (n1/n0) Cosϕ (2)
When θi=θmax Then ϕ= ϕc
Therefore equation (2) can be rewritten as
Sinθmax = (n1/n0) Cosϕc (3)
According to the Condition of Total Internal Reflection
Sinϕc= (n2/n1) (4)
Using equations (3) and (4) we can write
2
1 2
� = 1− 2
0 1

This is known as numerical aperture (N.A.) of the fiber and θmax is called the acceptance angle of
the fiber. Acceptance angle is the maximum angle made by incident ray with the axis of fiber
� −�
within which light ray can propagate through [Link] N.A. =
�
� −�
−
Acceptance angle � �� = �� �
If outer medium is air or vacuum than n0 ≈1
N.A. = � −�

−
Acceptance angle � �� = �� ( � −� )

Page no: 13 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

Q.13 Explain the types of fibers and their index profiles. (Jan16,Jun11,15,Dec15)
Ans: Modes of Propagation: In an optical fiber light travels through total internal reflection. During the
travel light can take different paths inside the optical fibers. These different paths are known as the
modes of propagation.
Based on the differences in the structure of core and the modes of propagation, optical fibers are
classified into three categories:
1. Single mode step index optical fiber: As the name suggests this type of fiber supports only
one mode of propagation and the refractive index of the core remains uniform. In Single
mode fibers intermodal dispersion does not take place, however at the same time it has
difficulty of coupling of the light into the fiber.
2. Multimode step index optical fiber: As the name suggests this type of fiber can support
multiple modes of propagation and the refractive index of the core remains uniform. In
these fibers intermodal dispersion occurs and may cause signal distortion.
3. Multimode graded index optical fiber: As the name suggests this type of fiber can
support multiple modes of propagation and the refractive index of the core gradually
decreases from the center of the core towards the outer of the core. In these fibers
intermodal dispersion does occur, however it is less in comparison to the Multimode step
index optical fiber.
Index profiles for step index and graded index fibers is shown in the figures 1 and
respectively
n1 n1

n2 n2

Fig 1: Index Profile of Step Fig 2: Index Profile of Graded

Index Fiber Index Fiber

Figure below represents the modes of propagation in three types of the fibers.

Page no: 14 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

Q.14 What is V-number or normalized frequency of an optical fiber? (Jun10, Dec12)

Ans: V-number or normalized frequency gives the idea about the cutoff frequency and the number of
modes supported by an optical fiber. V-number for an optical fiber is given as:
2�
1 − 2
2 2
=
�
Where
1−
2 −
−�
�−
If the value of V<2.405 then the fiber is said single mode optical fiber whereas for V>2.405 multi
mode optical fiber.
2
� � = 2
2
� = 4
Q.15 What is attenuation of signal in an optical fiber?
Ans: Attenuation is the rate at which the signal light decreases in intensity during the transmission of
light through optical fiber. Attenuation coefficient α is given as :

Page no: 15 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

 We hope you find these notes useful.
You can get previous year question papers at
[Link] .

If you have any queries or you want to submit your

study notes please write us at
[Link]@[Link]
Program : [Link]
Subject Name: Engineering Physics
Subject Code: BT-201
Semester: 2nd
Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

ELECTROSTATISTICS IN VACUUM
Q.1 Explain the Coulomb’s law of Electro statistics.
Ans: Coulomb proposed the laws for interaction between static electric charges. Which are as:
First Law: Like Charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other
Second Law: Magnitude of the force exerted by the charges on each other is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them and is directly proportional of the
product of their charges
1
∝ 2
and ∝ 1 2
1 2
= 2
1
=
4 0
� =1
Q.2 Explain the terms: Electric Field Intensity, Electric Lines of Forces and Electric Flux.
Ans: Electric Force experienced by unit positive charge in the electric filed is known as Electric Field
Intensity and is denoted by E. Expression for electric filed intensity is
1
=
4 0 2
Path along which a unit positive charge tend to move when free to do so in the electric filed is
known as Electric Lines of Forces.
Number of electric lines of forces through a specified area I called as Electric Flux it is denoted
by Greek letter ϕ. Mathematically electric flux through a surface S is given as
�= .
Q.3 Calculate the electric field intensity due to an infinite line charge.
Ans: Let us consider a line of infinite length having charge per unit length λ. Now we consider a point
P at Y distance from line and consider a small length element dx having charge dq=λdx, which is
at a distance r from point P as shown in the figure
dEy
dE
θ
dEx P
θ

r
y

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
x dx
The x and y component of the force dE will be =− � �� = �
As x components at P will cancel out each other therefore net filed will be due to only y-
component.

Page no: 1 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

Therefore
=+∞ =+∞
= = �
=−∞ =−∞

=+∞
Or = =0
2 �
=+∞ 2 �
= =0 2 (1)
4 0

As =� therefore

=+∞
2� �
= 2
=0 4 0
Or
� ∞
= 2 � (2)
2 0 0
From the figure above we can write

= � � (3)
Or
= 2
� � (4)
Also
2 2 2
= + (5)
2
Placing the value of dx and r in equation (2) we get
� 2� �
= 2
0 2+ 2
� (6)
2 0
Using equation (3), above equation can be rewritten as
� 2 � � 2
= �
2 0 0
2 � 2� + 2
Or
� 2 2
� � �
= 2 2�
2 0 0
� 2 �
= �
2 0 0
�
= � � 2
0
2 0
�
=
2 0

Page no: 2 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

Q.4 Calculate the electric field intensity due to a dipole at axial position.
Ans: Let us consider a dipole of separated by length 2a. Now we consider a point P at x distance from
the center of dipole as shown in the figure

x
+q -q
2a E1 E2

Charge at P will experience two forces E1 and E2 in opposite directions. Where

1 = and 2 =
4 0 ( −�)2 4 0( +�)2
The resultant electric field intensity will be
= 1 − 2
Or = −
4 0( −�) 2 4 0( +�)2

1 1
= −
0 ( −�)
4 2 ( +�)2


( +�) −( −� )2
2
=
4 ( −�)2 ×( +�)2

0
4 �
=
4 0 ( 2 −� 2 )2
4 �
If x>>a then = 4


4 0
4 �
= 3


4 0
2×2 � 2
= 3
or = 3
4 0 4 0
Q.5 Calculate the electric field intensity due to a dipole at perpendicular bisector of dipole.
Ans: Let us consider a dipole of separated by length 2a. Now we consider a point P at y distance from
the center of dipole as shown in the figure
E2
2θ
E1
x

θ θ
+q -q
2a

Page no: 3 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

Electric filed at point P will be E1 and E2 at an angle 2θ, The magnitude of both the forces are
equal i.e. we can write

1 = 2 = 2 +� 2
4 0
therefore the resultant electric filed intensity can be resolved as
2 2 2
2
= + +2 2�
4 0
2 + �2 4 0
2 + �2 4 0
2 + �2
2
2
=2 1+ 2�
4 0
2 + �2
2
2
=2 1+2 2
�−1
4 0
2 + �2
2
2
=4 2
�
4 0
2 + �2
=2 �
4 0
2 + �2
�
�=
2 + �2
Therefore
�
=2
2 + �2 4 0
2 + �2
2�
= 3
4 0
2 + �2 2

= 3
4 0
2 + �2 2
Q.6 Define the term Dielectrics, Dielectric Constant, Electric Polarization (P) and Displacement
Current (D), also derive the relation between D, E and P.
Ans: Dielectrics materials are basically non conducting materials, used for storage of static charge.
These materials does not allow the flow of electricity through them when placed in the electric
field, but they tend to change the electric field.
Applied Field
+ - + - + -
+ - + - + -
+ - + - + -
+ - + - + -
- + - + - + - +
+ - + - + -
+ - + - + -
+ - + - + -
Internal Field

Page no: 4 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

Dielectric Constant or Relative Permitivity

The dielectric constant is the ratio of the permittivity of a substance to the permittivity of free
space
=
0
Dielectric constant can also be expressed as ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor with an
insulating material between its plates, to its capacitance in case of vacuum between its plates.

=
0
Electric Polarization
It is defined as induced dipole moment per unit volume and is denoted by P. By definition we
can write

=
or

= =
Equation above suggests that electric polarization numerically equals to the induced surface
charge density.
Relation between D , E and P
As shown in the figure above when a dielectric is subjected to an external field then an internal
filed is produced in the dielectric which is in the opposite direction of the applied field.
Therefore the net electric field E can be given as
= � −
Where Ea is applied external field and Ei is induced internal electric field.
= −
0 0
Where σ and σp are free and induced surface charge densities respectively.
0 = −
or
0 = −
Here D is called Displacement Vector its magnitude equals to the surface density of free
charges σ. Idea of displacement current is introduced to justify the flow of electric current in
capacitive circuit between the plates of capacitor where no charges are present.
Q.7 Explain the terms gradient, divergence and curl. Also give their physical significance.
Ans: Gradient: Gradient of a scalar filed is a vector quantity, whose magnitude gives the maximum
space rate variation of that scalar quantity at that point. It tends to point in the direction of
greatest change of scalar field. Mathematically it can be represented as
� = + + =∇

Page no: 5 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

Here ∇= + +
Physical significance: Gradient of potential field gives the electric field intensity i.e.
=
Divergence: The divergence of a vector field at a point is a scalar quantity of magnitude equal to
the flux of that vector field diverging out per unit volume. It tells us about the presence of source
and sink within the volume under consideration. It is mathematically represented as
div A = ∇ .
div A = + +
Physical Significance: If div (A) = 0; then no source or sink is present in the volume under
consideration it is also said as solenoid vector function. When div (A) >0 it indicates the
presence of source and in case div (A) < 0 it indicates the presence of sink.
Here ∇= + +
Curl: Curl of a vector field at point is a vector quantity whose magnitude is equal to the
maximum value of line integral of that vector per unit area along the boundary of a small
elementary area around that point. It is given as
=∇ ×

Physical Significance: Curl of a vector field tells about the rotation of the vector field. If for a
vector A value of curl A=▼ x A = 0 then the vector is said to be irrotational.
Q.8 Explain the Gauss’ divergence theorem and Stokes’ theorem.
Ans: Gauss’s divergence theorem: This theorem states that the flux of a vector field over any
closed surface S is equal to the volume integral of the divergence of vector field over the volume
enclosed by the surface S i.e.
. �= = ∇.
Divergence of any vector filed is defined as flux per unit volume. Mathematically we can write
divergence of any vector field as
. �
=

Hence
. �=
Stokes’ theorem.
Stokes’ theorem states that the net circulation of vector over some open surface � equals to
the line integral of along the closed contour C which bounds � thus
∇ × . �= .
In a conservative field

Page no: 6 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

. =0
By Stokes’ theorem we can write
∇ × . �=0
Or
∇ × =0
Thus curl of a conservative filed is zero.

Q.9 Give the continuity equation of current densities. Explain its physical significance.
Ans Continuity equation
Let us consider a volume V bounded by a surface S. A net charge Q exists within this region. If a
net current I flows across the surface out of this region, from the principle of conservation of
charge this current can be equated to the time rate of decrease of charge within this volume.
Similarly, if a net current flows into the region, the charge in the volume must increase at a rate
equal to the current. Thus we can write

=−

. =− .
On Applying Gauss’ divergence theorem we can write,

∇. =− .

∇. + =0
Equation above is known as equation of continuity.
Physical Significance
Current is the movement of charge. The continuity equation says that if charge is moving out of
a differential volume (i.e. divergence of current density is positive) then the amount of charge
within that volume is going to decrease, so the rate of change of charge density is negative.
Q.10 Derive the Maxwell’s equation for free space.
Ans: Maxwell’s first equation
Consider a surface S bounding total charge q. Then using Gauss’ law the amount of flux from
the surface S can be written as
. �=
0
Or
0 . �=
Or
. �=
Or
. �=

Page no: 7 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

Using Gauss’s divergence theorem

∇. =
On comparing both sides we can write
∇. =
The expression above is Maxwell’s first equation.
Maxwell’s second equation
As we know that isolated magnetic poles does not exist. They always exist in pairs. As a
consequence magnetic lines of forces entering any arbitrary closed surface are exactly the same
as leaving it. Thus flux of magnetic induction B across any closed surface is always zero.

. �=0
By Gauss’s divergence theorem
∇. =0
Or
∇. =0
Equation above is Maxwell’s second equation.
Maxwell’s third equation
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the induced emf in a closed loop
equals negative rate of change of magnetic flux
�
=−
As �= . �
Hence we can write
=− . �
By definition of emf it said that emf equals the work done in carrying a unit charge around a
closed loop therefore
= .
Or
. =− . �
Using Stoke’s theorem
∇× . � =− . �
Or
∇× . �+ . �=0

∇× + =0
Or

Page no: 8 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

∇× =−
This is Maxwell’s third equation.
Maxwell’s fourth equation
According to Ampere’s law
. =
As

= .
Therefore

. = .
Using Stokes, Theorem

∇× . � = .
 ∇ × −j=0
Taking the divergence of the above equation
∇. ∇ × − ∇. = 0
Since divergence of curl of any vector is always zero

Therefore ∇. = 0
This is the case for steady fields, so equation above need to be changed for general cases.
According to Gauss’ Law
∇. =
0
Differentiating the equation wrt Time

∇. 0 =
Adding ∇. to both sides of above equation we get

∇. J + ∇. 0 = ∇. J +
RHS of the above equation is continuity equation. Therefore

∇. J + ∇. =0
Here 0 =
So the ∇. ∇ × − ∇. = 0 will be rewritten as
∇. ∇ × − ∇. J + ∇. =0
Or

∇ × =J+
Equation above is Maxwell’s fourth equation.

Page no: 9 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from [Link]

VIJAY BHAT

Q.11 Write Maxwell’s equations in integral form.

Ans: Maxwell’s equation in integral form.
1. Maxwell’s first equation in integral form
∇. =
Integrating above over an arbitrary volume
∇. =
Using Gauss’s divergence theorem
. �=
Physical significance: It signifies that the net outward flux of electric displacement
vector equals total charge within the volume
2. Maxwell’s second equation in integral form
∇. = 0
Integrating above over an arbitrary volume
∇. =0
Using Gauss’s divergence theorem
. �=0
Physical significance: It signifies that the magnetic induction flux through any closed
surface is equal to zero.
3. Maxwell’s third equation in integral form
∇× =−
Integrating over a surface S bounded by a curve C

∇× . �= − . �
Using Stokes’ theorem
. = − . �
The value of emf around a closed loop equals to negative rate of change of magnetic flux
linked with the path.
4. Maxwell’s fourth equation in integral form
∇ × = +
Integrating over a surface S bounded by a curve C
∇× . �= + . �
Using Stokes’ theorem
. = + . �
5. The value of mmf around a closed loop equals to conduction current plus of total
displacement current linked with the path.

Page no: 10 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

 We hope you find these notes useful.
You can get previous year question papers at
[Link] .

If you have any queries or you want to submit your

study notes please write us at
[Link]@[Link]