NITI Aayog and the Planning Commission differ fundamentally in structure and function. The Planning Commission, established in 1950, was a centralized authority responsible for five-year plans focused on resource allocation and developing a command economy. In contrast, NITI Aayog, formed in 2015, is a flexible think tank focusing on policy formulation, fostering cooperative federalism, and facilitating state participation in policy-making. It emphasizes outcome-oriented planning and real-time monitoring of developmental projects. NITI Aayog's decentralized approach aims to boost inclusive growth and innovation, enhancing India's development process compared to the Planning Commission's top-down model .

COVID-19 had a profound global impact, challenging international cooperation and preparedness. Initially, it exposed vulnerabilities in global health systems and supply chain dependencies. Despite early challenges, it spurred unprecedented global collaboration in vaccine development, resource sharing, and scientific research. Organizations like WHO played crucial roles in coordinating pandemic responses. However, it also highlighted disparities in vaccine distribution and access, underscoring the need for more equitable global health frameworks. The pandemic prompted a reevaluation of international preparedness strategies, emphasizing the importance of resilience and cooperation to address future global health crises effectively .

Brexit, the UK's withdrawal from the European Union (EU), has significant implications for future EU integration efforts. It prompted the EU to reevaluate its governance structures, institutional cohesion, and integration policies. Brexit underscored challenges such as nationalism and economic disparities, highlighting the need for reforms in EU governance and democratic processes. The departure serves as a cautionary tale against complacency in addressing member states' grievances, pushing for deeper integration measures to ensure stability. It may inspire other members to seek renegotiations or assert sovereignty, complicating future integration efforts and emphasizing coherence and inclusivity within the EU's framework .

The disintegration of the USSR was influenced by several factors including economic stagnation, nationalistic movements among republics, and the inability to reform the centralized control economy. Mikhail Gorbachev's policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) aimed to modernize the Soviet economy and political system but inadvertently weakened the Communist Party's control and led to a surge of independence movements within the union. His reduction in censorship allowed public criticism and nationalistic fervors to grow, while economic reforms failed to improve living conditions, leading to political and social unrest that accelerated the Soviet collapse by 1991 .

India's nuclear policy is characterized by a commitment to a 'no-first-use' stance and credible minimum deterrence. The policy aims at deterring aggression, ensuring national security while retaining nuclear capability. It is pivotal in maintaining regional stability, especially in the context of nuclear-armed neighbors like Pakistan and China. India's policy supports global nuclear disarmament and self-defense without pursuing aggressive nuclear proliferation. Its adherence to a restrained nuclear posture promotes strategic stability and discourages potential nuclear escalation in South Asia, positioning India as a responsible nuclear state .

The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) was established in 1961 during the Cold War to represent countries not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc. Initially, its purpose was to ensure member states' national independence, sovereignty, and territorial integrity. Over time, NAM's evolution was marked by its focus on issues such as economic development, the global South's collective economic interests, and resistance to colonization and neo-colonial practices. In the post-Cold War era, NAM faces challenges like geopolitical relevance and globalisation, requiring adaptation to remain pertinent, including addressing new global concerns such as terrorism, environmental change, and sustainable development .

The Partition of India in 1947 has a lasting legacy on South Asian geopolitics, deeply influencing India-Pakistan relations. It resulted in significant demographic shifts, communal tensions, and political divides that persist today. The resulting geopolitical landscape includes contentious issues like border disputes in Kashmir and recurring conflicts, shaping regional security dynamics. The Partition's legacy also affects socio-cultural relations, prompting diaspora impacts and refugee contributions to economic and social fabrics. South Asian politics remains shaped by partition-era decisions and unresolved historical grievances, affecting diplomacy and bilateral relations .

The Arab Spring, beginning in 2010, was a series of anti-government protests and uprisings that spread across the Middle East. It significantly impacted political structures by toppling long-standing regimes in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, and Yemen, leading to attempts at democratic reform. However, the outcomes were varied; some countries descended into civil wars, such as Syria and Libya, while others increased authoritarian controls or experienced minor reforms. The Arab Spring's impact included increased political activism and a challenge to the status quo, but also illustrated the region's complexities in transitioning to stable democracies and achieving political reforms .

India and Russia's relationship has been multifaceted, with several positive aspects, notably defense collaboration, energy partnerships, and shared geopolitical interests. Russia supplies the majority of India's military hardware, fostering continued military cooperation. They are also partners in energy, collaborating on nuclear power and hydrocarbons. On the negative side, Russia's increasing ties with China and India's growing closeness with the United States have introduced strategic complexities. Additionally, trade ties remain below potential levels, and there are occasional policy divergences on global issues, posing bilateral relationship challenges .

The Berlin Wall was constructed in 1961 to prevent East Germans from fleeing to West Berlin, symbolizing the Cold War's physical and ideological divide. Its construction fortified the separation of East and West Germany, politically and socially, disrupting relationships and communication. The Wall's dismantling in 1989 marked the beginning of Germany's reunification, signaling a significant political shift as the collapse of Communist regimes in Eastern Europe led to democratic governance and economic integration with the West. It facilitated Germany’s reunification formally in 1990, representing a pivotal turning point in overcoming decades-long division and fostering a single national identity .