INFLUENCE OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AND SELF ESTEEM ON PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING AMONG IN

SCHOOLS ADOLESCENTS.

BY

ONIKIBE OKEOGHENE
FSS/PSY/20/61891

DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES,
AMBROSE ALLI UNIVERSITY
EKPOMA, EDO STATE.

MARCH, 2024
INFLUENCE OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AND SELF ESTEEM ON PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING AMONG IN
SCHOOLS ADOLESCENTS

BY

ONIKIBE OKEOGHENE
FSS/PSY/20/61891

BEING A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY, FACULTY OF SOCIAL

SCIENCES, AMBROSE ALLI UNIVERSITY, EKPOMA, EDO STATE IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE ([Link]) DEGREE IN PSYCHOLOGY

MARCH, 2025
CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this research work was carried out by ONIKIBE OKEOGHENE with the Matriculation
Number FSS/PSY/20/61891 in the Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, Ambrose Alli
University, Ekpoma, Edo state, under the supervision of Prof. H.O. IMHONDE.

————————————
Prof. H.O. IMHONDE
Project supervisor

————————————
Dr. E.O IDIAKHEUA
Ag. Head of Department

————————————
EXTERNAL EXAMINER
DEDICATION

This research work is dedicated to God Almighty.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My profound gratitude to GOD Almighty who gave me the strength, wisdom and courage throughout my
period of study.

My sincere appreciation goes to my uncles 𝕄𝕣 Benjamin Cosmos, 𝕄𝕣 Godowell Cosmos and 𝕄𝕣

Ezekiel Cosmos for their financial support in enabling me to pursue this degree with confidence.

My appreciation goes to my supervisor Prof. H.O. Imhonde for his scholarly effort and the attention he
granted me in order to make this work a reality. Thank you sir, and God bless you.

My unreserved thanks goes to my H.O.D Dr. E.O idiakheua , for his leadership and administrative
support .

Special gratitude to my friends for their encouragement and motivation.

My gratitude goes to my family for their unwavering support, love and sacrifices. Your prayers and
encouragement has been my greatest strength
TABLE OF CONTENT

Title Page
Certification
Dedication
Acknowledgment
Table of Content
Abstract
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 Background Information
1.2 Statement of Problems
1.3 Purpose of Study
1.4 Relevance of study
CHAPTER TWO
2.1 Theoretical Framework
2.1.1 Attachment Theory
2.1.2 Social Learning Theory
2.1.3 Rosenberg Self Esteem Theory
2.1.4 Cognitive Behavioral Theory
2.1.5 Ecological System Theory
2.2 Empirical Review of Related Studies
2.3 Operational Definition of Terms
2.4 Hypotheses
CHAPTER THREE
3.1 Design
3.2 Participants
3.3 Instruments
3.4 Procedures
3.5 Statistical Analyses
CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 Test of Hypotheses
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 Discussion
5.2 Conclusion
5.3 Recommendations
5.4 Limitation of study
References
 ABSTRACT
This study examined influence of domestic violence and self esteem on psychological well-being among
in schools adolescents. The independent variables were domestic violence and self esteem while the
dependent variable was psychological well-being. Questionnaires were distributed to 200 respondents
which includes 82 (41%) male and 118 (58%) female. Data collected were analyzed with SPSS version 22
using t-test for independent groups and regression analysis. The result showed that there was no
significant difference in psychological well-being of adolescents who experience domestic violence
(73.08±18.12) and adolescents who do not experience domestic violence (77.14±14.79), (t (196) = 1.726,
NS). There was no significant difference in the psychological well-being of adolescents with low self
esteem (73.69±17.45) and adolescent with high self-esteem (1276.46±15.78), (t(195) = -1.170,NS).
Furthermore domestic violence had a poor relationship with psychological well being (R=. 121, F=2.928,
P>.05) which accounted for 1.5% in the total variation in their psychological well-being. However, this
relationship with the inclusion of self esteem was not significant (R=.127, F=1.586, P>.05), this accounted
for 1.6% in the total variation in their psychological well-being. It was recommended that there should
be an increased attention to measure and identify adolescents' clinical distress as well as resilience in the
face of domestic violence.

CHAPTER ONE
1.1 Background of study
The home is the first social community in the life of any person or group of persons. It is from this that an
individual attach and understands the values of culture, assimilates the first social roles and acquires the
experience of social behavior. Interactions among people in home is known to be the initial and most
lasting influence that each will ever know. The experiences people have in the home forms the very basic
and core belief about who they are and how they behave. Families today are however characterized by
incessant crises, witnessing gradual disintegration of family norms, values and cohesion. The beautiful
picture of an ideal family has been threatened over time by what is termed domestic violence. If there’s
domestic violence in the family environment, no matter whether the child witnesses or experiences it, it
will have great impact on him. Domestic violence and low self esteem are pressing concerns that
profoundly impact psychological well-being of adolescents worldwide. It affects millions of adolescents,
compromising their mental health, academic performance and social relationships. The schools setting
ideally a sanctuary for learning and growth, often becomes a challenging environment for adolescents
struggling with domestic violence and self esteem. Adolescence is an important period of physical,
social, psychological, and cognitive growth (world health organization, 2023; Scott and Saginak, 2016).
Adolescence is a period of growth and development bridging childhood and adulthood. The physical and
emotional changes in this period influence behavior in that adolescent is a time of risk taking and
experimentation (Allen& Waterman, 2019). Also adolescence is a critical period of life in which abilities
to express and understand emotions, to assign meaning to emotional experience and to regulate feelings
may be particularly helpful for psychological and social adjustment (Romer, Reyna & Satterth Waite,
2017). Any adverse experiences may affect the the development of positive self perceptions (self
esteem) thereby resulting to psychological problems. Schools, as central institutions in the lives of
adolescents, provides a unique context for examing the impact of domestic violence. Beyond being
places of learning, schools offer a social environment where adolescents develop relationships, gain
social skills, and receive support from peers and educators. However, for adolescents experiencing
domestic violence, the school setting can also be a place where the adverse effects of their home
environment become evident. These adolescents may exhibit academic difficulties, behavioral issues and
social withdrawal, indicating the need for targeted support and interventions within the schools system.
Domestic violence, also called family violence is the intentional and persistent abuse of anyone in the
home in a way that causes pain, distress or injury. it refers to any abusive treatment of one family
member by another, thus violating the law of basic human rights. UNICEF (2014) sees domestic violence
as a victimization of a person with whom the abuser has or has had an intimate, romantic, spousal
relationship with. Domestic violence can also be described as the occurrence of aggressive or violent
behavior in personal relationships, marriages or other familiar context. However, when domestic
violence takes place within the context of childrens families, it profoundly impacts the children involved
and influences their well-being, self esteem and development. Adolescents who are in a critical stage of
emotional and psychological development, are particularly vulnerable to the effects of domestic
violence. This period of growth is marked by the search for identity, self esteem development, and the
establishment of social relationships. When exposed to domestic violence, adolescents may experience
challenges in these developmental tasks, ultimately affecting their psychological well-being.
Adolescents from violent homes often experience feelings of fear, helplessness, and confusion, which
can manifest in various psychological and behavioral issues, in addition to the direct impact of domestic
violence, self esteem also plays a pivotal role in determining thepsychological well-being of adolescents.
. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), domestic violence is a major public health issue
affecting millions of individuals globally, with adolescents particularly vulnerable to its effects. Domestic
Violence may include Physical Abuse: Involves the use of physical force, such as hitting, slapping, or
pushing, that results in bodily injury or harm. Emotional/Psychological Abuse: Includes behaviors that
cause emotional pain or distress, such as verbal insults, threats, or manipulation.

Sexual Abuse: Involves any unwanted or forced sexual activity, including rape or other forms of sexual
exploitation. Neglect: A form of abuse where the caregiver fails to provide necessary care and
protection, leading to harm.
Domestic violence has far-reaching consequences for adolescents who witness or experience abuse
within the home. Adolescents exposed to domestic violence may face immediate physical harm and
long-term emotional and psychological effects, which can influence their development and future well-
being.

Several studies have documented the negative impact of domestic violence on adolescents' mental
health and psychological well-being. Exposure to violence during this critical developmental stage can
result in emotional instability, feelings of fear, anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD).
Adolescents may also exhibit behavioral problems such as aggression, substance abuse, or delinquency
as a response to the trauma experienced in violent homes. Emotional and Behavioral Consequences.
Emotional Dysregulation: Adolescents exposed to domestic violence often have difficulty managing their
emotions. They may experience mood swings, irritability, or prolonged sadness. Depression and Anxiety.
Studies have shown that adolescents who witness domestic violence are at a higher risk of developing
depression and anxiety disorders. These adolescents often report feelings of hopelessness and
worthlessness. Trauma and PTSD: Chronic exposure to domestic violence can lead to trauma-related
disorders, including PTSD, where adolescents relive the traumatic experiences through flashbacks or
nightmares. Social Isolation: Adolescents living in violent households may withdraw from social
relationships due to shame, fear, or mistrust, further exacerbating their psychological distress.

Self-esteem refers to an individual's overall sense of self-worth or personal value. It encompasses how
adolescents perceive themselves and their abilities, which significantly influences their behavior,
motivation, and mental health. Individuals develop a sense of identity and self esteem in parallel with
the sense of identity (Harris & Orth, 2020). Self esteem reflects how an adolescent evaluate himself or
herself in domain or areas, in which he/she considers success important (Hapsari, Huang, & Kanita,
2023). In particularly, among these factors witnessing domestic violence may have a negative effects on
self esteem of adolescents by affecting their psychological development process in all areas.
During adolescence, self-esteem is a critical aspect of development, as individuals begin to form a sense
of identity and navigate complex social environments. According to Rosenberg’s theory of self-esteem, it
is composed of two key dimensions: self-worth and self-competence. Self-worth relates to the emotional
evaluation of one’s value as a person, while self-competence refers to beliefs in one's abilities to achieve
goals or succeed in various life domains. Factors Influencing Self-Esteem: Family Environment:
Adolescents develop self-esteem based on their interactions with family members. Supportive and caring
relationships promote positive self-esteem, while abusive or neglectful environments contribute to low
self-esteem. Social Comparisons: During adolescence, individuals often compare themselves with peers,
which can either boost or diminish self-esteem depending on their social standing and achievements.
Parental Influence: Parenting styles play a crucial role in shaping self-esteem. Adolescents with
authoritative, warm, and supportive parents tend to have higher self-esteem compared to those with
authoritarian or neglectful parents.

Exposure to domestic violence can have a detrimental effect on adolescents’ self-esteem. Living in an
abusive environment often leads to feelings of helplessness, guilt, and inadequacy, all of which erode
self-worth and confidence. Adolescents may internalize the negative treatment they witness or
experience, believing they are responsible for the abuse or that they are inherently unworthy of love and
respect. Research has shown that adolescents who grow up in violent households often struggle with
low self-esteem, which can manifest in various ways: Feelings of Worthlessness: Constant exposure to
abuse may lead adolescents to believe they are not valuable or deserving of care and affection, resulting
in low self-worth. Impaired Social Functioning: Adolescents with low self-esteem may have difficulty
forming and maintaining social relationships due to feelings of inadequacy or fear of rejection. Self-
Blame: Adolescents may take on the blame for the violence, believing they could have done something
to prevent it. This belief can further diminish their self-esteem.

Psychological Well-Being Psychological well-being refers to an individual’s overall mental health and
includes factors such as life satisfaction, emotional stability, and the ability to cope with stress. Positive
psychological well-being promotes resilience, life satisfaction, and academic success, while negative
psychological well-being increases the risk of mental health problems and decreased academic
performance.
Ryff's model of psychological well-being identifies six key components: Self-Acceptance: A positive
attitude towards oneself, acknowledging both strengths and weaknesses. Positive Relations with Others:
The ability to form meaningful, supportive relationships. Autonomy: A sense of independence and
control over one’s life. Environmental Mastery: The capacity to manage life’s circumstances and
challenges. Purpose in Life: Having goals and a sense of direction in life. Personal Growth: The ability to
develop and improve oneself over time. Adolescents exposed to domestic violence often exhibit lower
levels of psychological well-being. Their ability to experience positive emotions, maintain healthy
relationships, and cope with stress is significantly impaired due to the trauma of living in a violent

Domestic violence exposure can Erode self-esteem through constant criticism, belittling, or emotional
abuse
Increase self-blame and shame, exacerbating low self-esteem
Domestic violence can erode self esteem, leaving adolescents feeling powerless, worthless, and insecure.
Consequently, low self esteem can further exacerbate the negative effects of domestic violence on their
psychological health, creating a vicious cycle of emotional instability and mental health challenges.
Understanding the influence of domestic violence and self esteem on adolescents psychological well-
being is essential for developing effective interventions and prevention strategies. This study therefore,
seeks to explore the relationship between domestic violence, self esteem and psychological well-being
among in schools adolescents aiming to provide valuable insights into how these factors interact and
affect the mental health of adolescents.

1.2 Statement of problems:

Domestic violence is a widespread issue that affects millions of families globally, with adolescents being
one of the most vulnerable groups. Despite extensive research on the physical consequences of
domestic violence, the psychological impact on adolescents remains underexplored, particularly in the
context of their self-esteem and overall psychological well-being. Adolescence is a crucial developmental
phase where individuals form their identity, establish self-worth, and learn how to manage emotions.
Exposure to domestic violence during this critical period can disrupt these developmental processes,
leading to serious mental health issues. While numerous studies have focused on the immediate effects
of domestic violence, such as anxiety, depression, and behavioral problems, there is a significant gap in
understanding how domestic violence influences adolescents' self-esteem and how this, in turn, affects
their long-term psychological well-being. Self-esteem, a key determinant of mental health, is often
eroded in adolescents who witness or experience violence at home. However, limited research has
explored the complex relationship between domestic violence, self-esteem, and psychological well-
being, leaving a critical gap in knowledge about how these factors interact. Additionally, most studies on
domestic violence tend to focus on adult victims, leaving the adolescent population relatively
understudied. The long-term mental health effects on adolescents exposed to domestic violence and the
role of self-esteem as a potential moderating factor are crucial areas that need further investigation.
Understanding these dynamics is vital for developing effective intervention programs that can support
adolescents, boost their self-esteem, and improve their psychological well-being. This study is important
because it addresses the gap in existing literature by examining how domestic violence influences self-
esteem and the psychological well-being of adolescents. It will provide insights into the unique
challenges faced by adolescents exposed to domestic violence and highlight the need for targeted
interventions to mitigate the negative impact on their mental health. By exploring this relationship, the
study aims to contribute valuable knowledge that can inform mental health professionals, educators,
and policymakers in developing effective strategies to support adolescents in violent homes, ultimately
improving their quality of life and long-term outcomes.

1.3Purpose of Study
The primary purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of domestic violence and self esteem on
the psychological well-being on in school adolescents, while the following are the specific purpose.
1. Assess the psychological well-being of these adolescents.
2. Investigate the relationship between domestic violence, self esteem and psychological well-
being to understand how these factors interact and influence each other.
3. Develop recommendation for interventions and support mechanisms to enhance the
psychological well-being of in school adolescents affected by domestic violence.

1.4 Relevant of Study

This study holds significant relevance for several reasons.
1. Enhance understanding: by investigating the interplay between domestic violence, self esteem,
and psychological well-being, this study contributes to a more nuanced understanding of the factors
influencing adolescents mental health. This enhance understanding can inform future research and
theory development in the fields of psychology, education, and social work.
2. Informing intervention: The findings of this research can inform the development of targeted
interventions aimed at mitigating the adverse effects of domestic violence on adolescents. Educators,
counselors and mental health professionals can utilize these insights to create supportive environments
that foster resilience and recovery.
3. Promoting Awareness: Raising awareness about the impact of domestic violence on adolescents
self esteem and psychological well-being can lead to increased advocacy and community support. This
awareness is essential for creating safe and nurturing environments where adolescents can thrive. Public
awareness campaigns and educational programs can disseminate the study’s findings to a broader
audience, fostering a more informed and supportive community.
4. Academic contribution: this study adds to the existing body of literature on adolescents
development, mental health, and effects of domestic violence. It provides a foundation for future
research and encourages further exploration of these critical issues. By contributing new knowledge to
the academic community, this study can inspire subsequent studies that continue to unravel the complex
interactions between domestic violence, self esteem and psychological well-being.
5. Lastly, improving mental health outcomes: ultimately, the goal of this research is to improve
mental health outcomes for adolescents who experience domestic violence. By identifying the factors
that influence their self esteem and psychological well-being, this study aims to contribute to the
development of strategies and interventions that promote mental health and resilience among this
vulnerable group.
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Theoretical Framework And Empirical Literature

2.1THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The theoretical framework for this study integrates several key theories that help explain the relationship
between domestic violence, self-esteem, and psychological well-being in adolescents. These theories
provide a lens through which we can understand how experiences of domestic violence may shape self-
esteem and, in turn, influence psychological well-being.
2.1.1 Attachment Theory
Attachment theory looks at the importance of the developing brain on emotions and behaviors
throughout the lifespan of a person. One of the pioneers of attachment theory is John Bowlby. His
contributions, are rooted in psychodynamic thought, and include his works in attachment (1969),
separation (1973), and loss (1980) Bowlby emphasized that attachment behavior is regarded as a class
of social behavior of an importance equivalent to that of mating behavior and parental behavior.
Attachment Theory emphasizes the importance of early emotional bonds between children and their
primary caregivers in shaping emotional regulation and mental health throughout life. Bowlby proposed
that secure attachments lead to positive emotional and psychological development, while insecure
attachments often a result of neglect or abuse can lead to emotional instability, poor self-concept, and
mental health difficulties.
Adolescents who are exposed to domestic violence may experience disrupted attachments with their
caregivers, which can undermine their sense of security and self-worth. This lack of secure attachment
may result in poor emotional regulation, low self-esteem, and higher vulnerability to psychological issues
such as depression or anxiety.
The absence of attachment can lead to symptoms of serious developmental problems.
2.1.2 Social Learning Theory
This theory was developed by Albert Bandura, 1977. Social Learning Theory suggests that behaviors are
learned through observing others, especially those who are in close proximity, such as parents or
caregivers. In the context of domestic violence, adolescents who witness or experience abuse at home
may learn maladaptive coping mechanisms, such as aggression, fear, or withdrawal, as well as distorted
views of relationships and self-worth. Bandura argued that children and adolescents are particularly
vulnerable to modeling behavior from significant adults, and these learned behaviors can contribute to
psychological distress.
Adolescents exposed to domestic violence might internalize violent behaviors or dysfunctional
relationship patterns, leading to low self-esteem and poor psychological well-being. Additionally, these
adolescents may come to view violence as an acceptable way of interacting in relationships, which can
perpetuate the cycle of violence and emotional instability in future relationships.
2.1.3 Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Theory
Rosenberg’s (1965) Self-Esteem Theory suggests that an individual’s perception of their self-worth is an
important determinant of psychological well-being. High self-esteem is associated with positive mental
health outcomes, while low self-esteem is linked to higher rates of depression, anxiety, and other
emotional disorders. Adolescents with low self-esteem may feel unworthy of love, support, or success,
which can negatively affect their psychological well-being. Exposure to domestic violence can
significantly reduce an adolescent’s self-esteem, as they may internalize feelings of guilt, shame, or fear.
Low self-esteem can then make it more difficult for these adolescents to cope with stressors and
challenges, leading to a higher risk of developing psychological disorders such as depression and anxiety.
Furthermore, adolescents with low self-esteem may have fewer resources or strategies for building
supportive relationships, which can exacerbate feelings of isolation and emotional distress.

2.1.4 Cognitive-Behavioral Theory (CBT)

This theory was developed by Aaron Beck 1960 which posits that maladaptive thoughts lead to negative
emotions and behaviors, and that changing dysfunctional thinking patterns can lead to improved
psychological outcomes. Adolescents exposed to domestic violence may develop cognitive distortions
such as beliefs that they are to blame for the abuse or that violence is normal in relationships that
undermine their self-esteem and mental health. CBT suggests that addressing these distorted beliefs can
improve emotional regulation and mental well-being.
Adolescents who have witnessed or experienced domestic violence may internalize negative beliefs
about themselves (e.g., “I am not worthy of love” or “This is what relationships are like”) that contribute
to low self-esteem and poor psychological well-being. By understanding and challenging these cognitive
distortions, adolescents may be able to improve their self-esteem and overall mental health.

2.1.5 Ecological Systems Theory

Ecological Systems Theory by Bronfenbrenner, 1979 emphasizes the role of various environmental
systems in shaping an individual’s development. Bronfenbrenner’s theory identifies several levels of
influence, ranging from the immediate microsystem (family, peers, school) to broader societal factors
(e.g., cultural attitudes, social policies). According to this theory, adolescents are affected not only by
their immediate family environment (which may involve domestic violence) but also by the interactions
between their family and other systems (e.g., school, community). Adolescents exposed to domestic
violence may face negative impacts not just within the family system, but also in their interactions with
peers and school environments. These interactions can affect their self-esteem and psychological well-
being. For example, adolescents who are socially isolated due to their home environment may
experience bullying or exclusion at school, further reducing their self-esteem. At the same time,
supportive teachers, peers, and counselors may serve as protective factors that help mitigate the
negative effects of domestic violence on self-esteem and mental health.

2.2 Review of Related Studies

The influence of domestic violence and self esteem on psychological well-being among adolescents have
been studied for many reasons.
Adolescents have often be referred to as ‘silent victims’ of domestic violence (Bair-Merritt et al, 2006)
yet adolescents are subjected to aggression at home in many ways that are not limited to seeing or
hearing the violence. Holden (2003) identified ten discreet categorise on forms of exposure to domestic
violence. Some of these included: victims, where the child is physically assaulted intentionally during an
incident; witness, where the adolescents is present and directly observes the assault; victim and witness,
where the adolescent is both a victim and witness to the assault.
One of the seminar studies on effects of adolescents witness to domestic violence was by Edleson
(1999). In his research, the author reviewed 31 research articles with primary focus of understanding
how domestic violence is defined and how it affects children. According to the researcher, witnessing
domestic violence can be construed to be a eyewitness account of the violent events. Adolescents also
witness violence by hearing violent event or as victims where they are used as part of the violence.
According to Edleson (1999). Adolescents were exposed to high rates of assault incidences most of which
took place in their presence. However, the reviewed studies pointed out to discrepancies on prevalence
of adolescents exposure. This was because of over reliance on parents reports as the main source of
information and yet parents reports underestimated the adolescent exposure occurrences. A similar
analysis by Tsavoussis et al., (2014). Discussed the negative impact that witnessing domestic violence
poses on adolescents. The researchers indicated that an encounter with domestic hostility can lead to
changes in a child’s brain development and functioning, leading to Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
which affects their mental health and academic achievement.
Separately, Pingley (2017) assessed how adolescents as witness of intimate partner violence (IPV) at
home are affected by exposure to violence, using a systematic review, the author synthesized and
analysed existing literature on experiences of adolescents who witness IPV and it’s effects on their
behavior. It was found that being a witness of IPV is a precursor of emotional cognitive and psychological
challenges. Additionally, the challenges affected adolescents across all developmental stages.

According to Williamson et al. (2018), adolescents witnessing domestic violence are more likely than
adolescents from intact homes to have less intimate relationship with their parents. Sometimes they also
drop out of school because of lack of concentration; they could become sexually active at an earlier age
because there may not be proper monitoring of their behaviour. Apart from this, they sometimes may
result to drugs and associate with anti-social peers and this may lead to having lower self-concept.

According to Batool and Lewis (2020), the family needs to be intact for adolescents to experience the
warmth and nurture of a loving family. Emotional and behavioural problems may stem from parental
conflict before and after divorce, as well as from the separation itself. In the view of Stiller, Neubert and
Krieg (2021), a smooth functioning family can provide support and nurture to an adolescent during times
of stress and crises. Moreover, children or adolescents witnessing domestic violence emotionally
habitually develop guilt and disordered behavior, such in many cases, experience gender-based violence
and abuse as acceptable behaviour (Fanslow & Kelly, 2016). Adolescents who repeatedly witness
violence can emulate the aggressive behaviour by adopting such violence behavior - commonly in males
(Anderson, Kinsey & Smith, 2017).
Socio-economic status has been identified as an influential factor in exacerbating or mitigating the
complexities of being exposed to domestic violence for adolescents. Those from lower socio-economic
backgrounds may face increased challenges due to limited access to resources and housing instability,
worsening the impact of domestic violence. Ahmad, Ishtiaq and Mustafa (2017) highlighted the role of
socio-economic factors in the adoption of coping strategies among adolescents experiencing domestic
violence. Their study revealed that age, gender, parents education and family income were major factors
thatinfluencedhowwelltheseadolescentswereabletodealwiththeseincidences. Socio- economic status
may also influence educational opportunities, affecting an adolescent's ability to cope and succeed
academically (Osagiobare & Ebohon, 2020).
Age-related factors, including developmental stages and coping strategies, also influence how
adolescents process and respond to these incidents (Adebayo, 2014). Younger adolescents may
experience confusion and fear, while the older ones grapple with emotional distress. Whereas
witnessing domestic violence impacts both genders significantly regardless of age, girls were found to be
more exposed to domestic violence running the risk of being victims in adulthood (Asagba, Noibi and
Ogueji, 2021), whereas boys were more likely to repeat the patterns of abuse witnessed from their
fathers (Hamby, S., Finkelhor, D., Turner, H., & Ormrod, R. (2011). which goes to show that adolescents
who go through these experiences will not feel good about themselves Idemudia and Makhubela (2011)
highlighted the impact of these exposures on the emotional wellbeing of adolescents, with differential
impacts observed as boys tend to externalize emotions through aggression, while girls may internalize
emotions, leading to symptoms such as depression.
As young people attain adolescence, their responses to living with domestic violence are more likely to
attract a mental health diagnosis or a label of delinquency (Selph, Bougatsos, Blazina & Nelson, 2013).
Surveys showed that long-term exposure to domestic violence during childhood or adolescence is
related to an individual's experience of psychological issues and lowered sense of satisfaction with life,
during adulthood (Miller-Graff, Cater, Howell & Graham-Bermann, 2016; Pang & Thomas, 2019). In their
study, Jackson, Jones, Semenza and Testa (2023) reported that experience of domestic violence is also
associated with delinquency in adolescence.
Pang and Thomas (2019) identified violence as a threat to adolescents' well-being. The adolescent may
become socialized in violent behaviour. He or she may become confused and angry. An adolescent who
has undergone or witnessed violence may become withdrawn, anxious or depressed on one hand; on
the other hand, the adolescent may become aggressive and exert control over younger siblings or other
people's children. They may become aggressive, becoming troublesome at home and at school. They
may also become withdrawn, isolating themselves from others and may underachieve, academically.
These adolescents may develop low self-concept, finding it difficult to trust others. Adolescent victims
may also exhibit harmful health behaviour like excessive smoking, alcohol abuse, use of drugs and
engaging in risky sexual activity.
A wide range of adolescent adjustment problems were found to be associated with exposure to marital
conflict. These included externalized problems such as conduct disorder, delinquency, antisocial behavior
and aggression as well as internalized problems such as depression, anxiety, and withdrawal (Menon,
Cohen, Shorey & Temple, 2018). Both boys and girls were affected. Adolescents who live in households
with domestic violence are said to be at higher risk for maladjustment than are adolescents who do not
live with such violence.
Exposure to domestic violence can have serious negative effects on adolescents. Such effects may
include low self-concept, behavioural problems such as aggression, phobias, insomnia and depression,
low level of social competence, poor academic performance and low level of problem-solving skills
(Williamson et al., 2018). Exposure to chronic or extreme domestic violence may result in symptoms
consistent with post-traumatic stress disorder; such symptoms include emotional numbing, increased
arousal, and avoidance of any reminders of violent events. Because witnessing domestic violence can
terrorize adolescents and significantly disrupt adolescents' socialization.
Adolescents may, for example, become involved in the violence when trying to intervene during attacks.
There is also debate about how to refer to adolescents who are affected by domestic violence and there
has been a move away from viewing such adolescents as 'passive victims' or 'silent witnesses' towards
recognizing their capacity to think, engage and respond.
Imhonde and Onwuka (2015), posited that variables such as fear, distress, outing out, anxiety, depression
and aggressive behavior were associated with children who are direct victims of community violence.
Witnessing domestic violence does not necessarily mean that the child is in visible range of the violence
(Meltzer, Doos, Vostanis, Ford, & Goodman, 2009). According to McGee (1997) many adolescents can
describe very traumatic events that they heard, but have never seen the actual act of violence. One
study showed that the psychosocialoutcomes of adolescent exposed to domestic violence had
significantly worse outcomes compared to those who had not experienced any form of domestic
violence (Meltzer et al., 2009). The impact of witnessing domestic violence can vary for all individuals.
The impact of witnessing domestic violence can have many developmental impacts on adolescent, and
those can start as early as conception and carry on through adulthood depending on the severity of the
trauma (Curran, 2013). research shows the impact can begin before the child is born because of the
distress the mother of the child experiences (Howell, Barnes, Miller, & Graham-Bermann, 2016). Social
and emotional development is what affects our mind and our behavioral regulations, such as intellectual
abilities, mental activities, and behaviors. Physiological and physical development is what affects our
body, such as structural differences in the brain or body, sexual orientation, and aging (Robbins,
Chatterjee, Canda, 2012). In a study of young adolescent from Scheeringa and Zeanah (1995), it was
reported that adolescents who even sensed a perceived threat to their caregiver were more likely to
have negative behavioral and emotional outcomes than other types of childhood stressors. In those
adolescent the most common symptoms were hyper arousal, fearfulness, and increased aggression
toward peers, compared to adolescents who had not experienced this type of exposure.
Adolescent often look to their caregiver for basic needs such as safety and modeling for self-regulation.
Research shows that a risk in one of those areas can impact the development of the other, and the need
for consistent caregiving in a non-violent environment is crucial for development (Howell et al, 2016).
The relationship of a caregiver has traditionally been one of love, support, and nurturance, unfortunately
the effects of domestic violence can interrupt that bond, and damage the relationship.
Adolescents witnesses of domestic violence are more likely to experience health problems (Chamberlain,
2001). Previous studies have shown general behavioral, cognitive, and emotional implications when
adolescents are exposed to DV or IPV including; irritability, sleep problems, fear of being alone,
immaturity, language development, poor concentration, aggressiveness, antisocial behaviors, anxiety,
depression, violence behaviors, low frustration tolerance, problems eating, and being passive or
withdrawn (McGee, 2000; Elderson, 1999; Holt, 2015). Infants tend to also have sleeping and feeding
disorders which can lead to poor weight gain (McFarlane et al., 2003).
In a noted study, it was found that adolescents whose parents reported partner violence performed on
average 12.2 percentile points lower than adolescents whose parents reported no IPV in the home
(Peek-Asa, Maxwell, Stromquist, Whitten, Limbos & Merchant, 2007). In boys, the effects of witnessing
domestic violence can be seen through externalized behaviors such as aggressiveness or disobedience,
where girls tend to show more internalized behaviors such as anxiety and depression (Meltzer et al.,
2009).
Imhonde, Aluede and Oboite (2009) studied how domestic violence affects adolescents psychological
functioning. The psychological variables covered in the study were self esteem, depression, aggressive-
disruptive behavior and authoritarianism-rebellion tendencies. The study hypothesized that adolescents
who witness domestic violence would report low self esteem, score high on aggression scale, and report
high authoritarianism-rebellion tendencies.
Adolescents exhibit an array of emotions when it comes to coping with witnessing domestic violence.
These emotions included sadness, anxiety, and fear. Other adolescents chose coping strategies that
varied from these emotions (Allen, Wolf, Bybee, & Sullivan, 2003). It is critical to understand the coping
skills adolescent respond with so there is an understanding for the varied experiences that adolescents
face and how these relate to their well-being. There appears to be a variation in coping methods used by
adolescents: problem-focused or emotion-focused. Problem focused meaning the coping is focused on
problem solving and emotions focused meaning acting in a way to alter the level of stress being
experienced or attempting to manage the emotional distress associated with the violence (Allen et al.,
2003).
Though adolescents may not be physically feeling the effects of the domestic violence, research has
shown the adolescent and caregiver relationship can be greatly impacted by the exposure to this
violence. Beyond the psychological effects, children who witness domestic abuse often are physically
abused (Antle et al., 2010). According to Judith Herman (1997), “trauma inevitably brings loss”. She
continues to describe how for those who are lucky enough to escape physical abuse, they lose
psychological structures. Those that are physically abused lose a sense of themselves and their body
integrity (p. 188).
When discussing the traumatic events with an adolescent victim, it inevitably causes the adolescent to
experience profound grief (Herman, 1997). The loss and grief experienced by adolescents can lead to
them having to change homes often. Schools, friends, and people that they have learned to trust and can
rely on therefore change often. The instability that domestic violence causes to the adolescent can be
extremely high with multiple factors that affect the adolescent; which furthers the need for services
(Chen & Scannapieco, 2006).

Chronic stress in young adolescent can lead to physiological responses that can lead to stress-related
symptoms (Herman-Smith, 2013). Adolescents with insecure attachment can be avoidant to caregivers
and could also be ambivalent by being withdrawn or avoidant (Herman- Smith, 2013). Caregivers that
are chronically unavailable to younger adolescents increases their risk of having stressful experiences in
their lives and difficulty in attachment and being able to self- soothe to deal with stressful times
(Herman-Smith, 2013). Prenatal care can affect the heightened risk of premature birth, low birth weight,
development, and attachment of a newborn child (Howell et al., 2016). One of the major tasks for infants
as they develop, is the ability to learn how to self-soothe. The infants who experience continuous stress
are more likely to be highly sensitive and do not learn self-soothing behavior as they develop (Herman-
Smith, 2013).
Adolescents that witness domestic violence have been shown to exhibit behavioral, affective, and
cognitive coping responses and their experience of fear was evident (Joseph, et al., 2006). Adolescents
look to their caregivers for their safety and self-regulation, and the need for consistency within their
caregiving is critical in development (Howell et al., 2016). The impact of witnessing domestic violence
can affect the entire emotional, social, physiological, and physical development of a child and can
continue to affect adolescents into their future relationships.
According to the attachment theory, in the parent- child relationship, the parent’s role is to provide
protection. When parents are unable to protect themselves, this causes distress for the parent-child
relationship, and strains the attachment. According to Belsky (1999) there is differences between the
attachment patterns and parenting styles of secure mothers in secure relationships versus those in non-
secure relationships. Adolescents who experience abusive or unattached caregiving are likely to develop
negative reactions to their caregiver, because an absence of attachment or increased anger and that can
cause negative reactions of themselves (Waldman-Levi et al., 2013).
There has been a proven correlation between adolescents that have been exposed to domestic violence
and those that go on to abuse their own families or when in other relationships (Nixon et al., 2013).
Mounting evidence has linked an exposure to family violence and perpetration of teen dating violence
(Temple, Shorey, Tortolero, & Wolfe, 2013). This is a major safety concern and reports show that
generally 10-20% of adolescents have experienced dating violence (Temple et al., 2013). Social learning
theory explains that adolescents exposed to parental violence are more likely to experience violence
themselves, and go on to violent acts towards others. We also know that not all of these adolescents will
go on to perpetrate (Temple et al., 2013).
Research shows that witnessing domestic violence as a boy can be related to men’s perpetration of
domestic violence (Adams, 2007; Hines & Malley-Morrison, 2005; Payne & Triplett, 2009). Many female
victims of domestic violence come from homes where they witnessed domestic violence between their
parents (Payne & Gainey, 2009; Whitfield et al., 2003). Learning theory would explain that boys “learn”
how to become abusers and girls “learn” about victimization (Payne & Gainey, 2009). Dutton (2000)
contends that domestic violence disrupts an adolescence emotional attachments, which goes on to
affect their abilities throughout their lives, particularly in their intimate relationships. These attachment
issues can become a factor in their intimate relationships where jealousy and fear can lead to increased
aggression and violence (McKee & Payne, 2014).

2.3 Operational Definition of Term

Domestic Violence: For the purpose of this study, domestic violence refers to any act of physical,
emotional, or psychological abuse that occurs within the family environment. This includes direct abuse
of the adolescent or witnessing abuse between family members (parents or caregivers).

Self-Esteem: Self-esteem is operationalized as the individual’s subjective evaluation of their own worth,
which is measured using standardized self-report instruments such as the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale
(Rosenberg, 1965). High self-esteem refers to a positive self-image, while low self-esteem indicates a
negative self-image or feelings of inadequacy.

Psychological Well-Being: Psychological well-being in this study refers to the overall emotional and
mental health of an adolescent, which includes factors like emotional stability, self-acceptance,
autonomy, positive relationships, and personal growth. This is typically measured using established
psychological scales, such as the Psychological Well-Being Scale by Ryff (1989).

In schools Adolescent: An adolescent is an individual in the transitional stage of development between

childhood and adulthood, typically between the ages of 10 and 19, characterized by physical, emotional,
cognitive, and social changes. In-school adolescents therefore are students who are currently enrolled in
middle or high school and actively participating in a formal educational setting.

2.4 Hypotheses
In trying to find out the likely influence of domestic violence and self esteem on psychological well-being
among in schools adolescents, the following hypotheses have be formulated

1. Adolescents who experience domestic violence will report lower levels of psychological well-
being compared to those who do not experience domestic violence.
2. Adolescents with lower self-esteem will report lower levels of psychological well-being
compared to those with higher self-esteem.
3 Self-esteem will mediate the relationship between exposure to domestic violence and psychological
well-being, such that adolescents exposed to domestic violence will have lower self-esteem, which will,
in turn, result in lower psychological well-being.
CHAPTER THREE

METHODS

3.1 Design
The ex post facto design was used for this study because the researcher did not manipulate the variables
of interest. The independent variables were domestic violence and self esteem and the dependent
variable was psychological well-being.

3.2 Participants
A sample of 200 participants drawn from Ambrose Alli university secondary school ihumudumu, and
Ujoelen grammar school, Ujoelen both in Esan west local government area Edo state. The demographic
distribution showed that 82 (41%) were male and 118 (58%) were female. Their religion affiliation
showed 184 (92%) were Christian, 16 (8%) were Muslim, marital status of respondents showed 193
(96.5%) were single and 7 (3.5%) as others. Class categories of respondents showed Jss1=51 (25.5%), Jss2
=39 (19.5%), Jss 3=28 (14%), Ss1=21 (10.5%), Ss2=27 (13.5%), and Ss3=33 (16.5%).

3.3 Instruments
The instruments used to elicit information in this study was a questionnaire comprising four sections.
Section A: Tapped demographic variables of participants such as sex, marital status, religion and class.
Section B dealt with statements concerning self esteem. It consists of 10 items with 4 point Likert format
response ranging from Strongly agree (4), Agree (3), Disagree (2), Strongly disagree (1). The scale was
developed by Dr. Morris Rosenberg, (1965) with test retest reliability of coefficients .88 and Cronbach’s
Alpha 0.77.
Section C measures domestic violence, it consists of 42 items with 5 point Likert format response ranging
from Never (0), Almost never (1), sometimes (3), often(4), Almost Always (5). Child exposure to
domestic violence scale (CEDV) was developed by Jeffrey L. Edleson (2007) with test retest reliability
coefficient .70 and cronbach’s alpha of 0.86.
Section D is a 18 items psychological well-being scale with a 7 point Likert format response ranging from
strongly agree (1), somewhat agree (2), a little agree (3) never agree or disagree (4), a little agree (5),
somewhat disagree (6), strongly disagree (7). The scale was developed by Ryff, & Keyes (1995) with a
reliability of 0.75.

3.4 Procedure

A letter of introduction was obtained from the Head of Department of Psychology, Ambrose Alli
University, Ekpoma, Edo State to introduce the researcher and purpose of the study to the schools
principal for approval. The research questionnaire was administered by the researcher to the
respondents in Ambrose ALLI University secondary school and Ujoelen Grammer school (adolescents in
jss1 to ss3). The researcher was responsible for the collation of completed questionnaire in course of the
study. Clear instructions on how to fill out the questionnaire were provided, assistance was given to
some students who could not understand the statement properly. A guarantee of confidentiality of
information and appreciation of the participants were also expressed.

3.5 Statistical Analysis

Hypothesis one and two was tested using t-test for independent measure, while hypothesis three was
tested with the simple regression analysis.

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULT
4.1 Test of Hypotheses

This study which examined the influence of domestic violence and self-esteem on psychological

well-being among in schools adolescents had three stated hypotheses.

The first hypothesis which stated that adolescents who experience domestic violence will report

lower levels of psychological well-being compared to those who do not experience domestic

violence was tested using t-test for independent sample, the result is presented as follows:

Table 4.1: T-test for independent group showing Mean difference in psychological well-

being between adolescents who experience domestic violence and those who do not

experience domestic violence

Dependent Variable Domestic violence Mean SD t Df Sig

Psychological well-being Experience 73.08 18.12 1.726 196 >.05

No experience 77.14 14.79

Result from table 4.1 shows that there was no significant difference in the psychological

well-being of adolescents who experience domestic violence (73.08±18.12) and

adolescents who do not experience domestic violence (77.14±14.79), (t (196) = 1.726, NS)

The second hypothesis which stated that adolescents with lower self-esteem will report

lower levels of psychological well-being compared to those with higher self-esteem was

tested using t-test for independent sample, the result is presented as follows:
 Table 4.2: T-test for independent group showing Mean difference in psychological well-

being between adolescents with lower self-esteem and adolescent with high self-esteem

Dependent Variable Self-esteem Mean SD t Df Sig

Psychological well-being Low 73.69 17.45 -1.170 195 >..05

High 76.46 15.78

Result from table 4.2 shows that there was no significant difference in the psychological

well-being of adolescents with lower self-esteem (73.69±17.45) and adolescent with high

self-esteem (1276.46±15.78), (t (195) = -1.170, NS).

The third hypothesis which stated that self-esteem will mediate the relationship between

exposure to domestic violence and psychological well-being, such that adolescents exposed to

domestic violence will have lower self-esteem, which will, in turn, result in lower

psychological well-being was tested using multiple regression the result is presented as follows:

Table 4.3: Multiple regression table showing self-esteem mediating the relationship

between exposure to domestic violence and psychological well-being.

Mode Source R R2 F Sig B t P

1 Domestic violence .121 .015 2.928 .089 -.121 -1.711 >.05

2 Domestic violence +Self-esteem .127 .016 1.586 .207 -.117 -1.645 >.05

Self-esteem 0.36 .506 >.05

Result from table 4.3 show that self-esteem will mediate the relationship between exposure to

domestic violence and psychological well-being; domestic violence had a poor relationship with

psychological well (R=.121, F=2.928, P>.05) which accounted for 1.5% in the total variation in

their psychological well-being. However, this relationship with the inclusion of self-esteem was
not significant (R=.127, F=1.586, P>.05), this accounted for 1.6% in the total variation in their

psychological well-being.
5.1 Discussion

The focus of this study was to examine the influence of domestic violence and self-esteem on the
psychological well-being of in schools adolescents.

The first hypothesis which stated that adolescents who experience domestic violence will report lower
levels of psychological well-being compared to those who do not experience domestic violence was not
significant and therefore rejected. This study was at variance with Anderson & Danis, 2006; Izaguirre &
Calvete, 2015; Yoon et al., 2020. They found inconsistent results and claimed that despite growing up in
a violent home environment, some children showed resilience and were able to use adaptive coping
skills. Another study by Wolfe, 2003, found that although adolescents exposed to domestic violence
were at risk for poor psychological outcomes, the severity of the violence and the social support
available to the adolescents played a large role in mediating these effects. Some children exposed to
domestic violence show no greater problems than those who have not been exposed (Edleson, 2004)

Hypothesis two which stated that adolescents with lower self-esteem will report lower levels of
psychological well-being compared to those with higher self-esteem was not significant and therefore
was rejected. This findings was at variance with Holt et al. (2008) whose result indicated that domestic
violence enhances high self-esteem. They posited that those children who live in IPV-affected families
and have higher self-esteem in one domain, such as academics, may choose to focus on that area of
their life in order to obtain an effective distraction from their violent family context (Holt, Buckeley, &
Whelan, 2008).

Hypothesis three which stated that Self-esteem will mediate the relationship between exposure to
domestic violence and psychological well-being was not significant and therefore was rejected. This
findings was at variance with Hughes et al., 2017. They explored how self-esteem could mediate the
relationship between adverse childhood experiences including domestic violence and depression. They
found partial support for self-esteem as a mediator, but the effect was relatively weak. Another studies
by Cummings et al., 2010 also indicated that self-esteem had some mediating effects but that the nature
of the relationship was more complex. In particular, they noted that self-esteem’s impact was conditional
on the intensity of exposure to violence and the individual’s social support systems.

5.2 Conclusion

This study aimed to investigate the influence of domestic violence and self-esteem on the psychological
well-being of adolescents in schools. The findings indicate that there was no significant difference in
psychological well-being between adolescents exposed to domestic violence and those not exposed, nor
was there a significant difference in well-being between adolescents with low self-esteem and those
with high self-esteem. Furthermore, self-esteem did not mediate the relationship between domestic
violence and psychological well-being. These results suggest that the relationship between domestic
violence, self-esteem, and psychological well-being in adolescents is more complex than initially
hypothesized, and other factors not examined in this study may be contributing to adolescent mental
health.

5.3 Recommendations
There should be an increased attention to measure and identify adolescents' clinical distress as well as
resilience in the face of domestic violence. It is expected that not all children exposed to domestic
violence show maladjustment. However, the absence of serious adjustment problems does not
necessarily mean that adolescents exposed are unaffected by the violence, because adolescents may
experience sub clinical distress or other mild problems that may later put them at greater risk for
psychological or interpersonal problems. In addition, there is strong need to create awareness about
effect of domestic violence at the family and community level. Domestic violence leads to the imbalance
in the child's personality.

5.4 Limitation of Study

The findings of this study are limited within the study objectives as well within the population
understudied. Therefore the result of this study are restricted to address the area which the study
focuses and the subject on which the study was carried out. Besides these notable limitation other
specific limitations are:
1. Limitation due to time constraints in covering more participant and other logistics which affected
the study.
2. The difficulties involved in gathering information from students in the study area also stands as
limitation to the study.
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