Class 12 Calculus Formula Sheet
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sahoorudramadhab2007Class 12 Calculus Formula Sheet
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Powered by AIThe first derivative test identifies local extrema by analyzing changes in the sign of f'(x). A change from positive to negative indicates a local maximum, and negative to positive indicates a local minimum. The second derivative test provides further confirmation: if f'(a) = 0 and f''(a) > 0, there is a local minimum; if f''(a) < 0, there is a local maximum. For f(x) = x³ - 3x² + 2, f'(x) = 3x² - 6x = 3x(x-2). Critical points are x = 0 and x = 2. f''(x) = 6x - 6 determines that f''(0) = -6 < 0 (local max), and f''(2) = 6 > 0 (local min).
The chain rule is used to differentiate composite functions, where one function is inside another, by multiplying the derivative of the outer function by the derivative of the inner function. If we have a function y = f(g(x)), then the derivative, dy/dx, is found by multiplying dy/du by du/dx where u = g(x). For example, if y = sin(x²), we set u = x², then dy/du = cos(u) and du/dx = 2x. Thus, dy/dx = cos(x²) * 2x = 2x*cos(x²).
To determine if a function is increasing or decreasing, examine the sign of its first derivative: if f'(x) > 0, the function is increasing; if f'(x) < 0, it is decreasing. For example, consider f(x) = x³. The derivative f'(x) = 3x². Since 3x² is always non-negative and equals zero only at x = 0, the function is increasing on intervals where x ≠ 0 .
Solving a first-order linear differential equation, dy/dx + P(x)y = Q(x), involves using an integrating factor, IF = e^∫P(x) dx. Multiply through by IF to make the left side a product derivative dy/dx (IF·y) = IF·Q(x). Integrate both sides to find the solution. For dy/dx + y = eˣ, IF = e^∫1 dx = eˣ. The equation becomes dy/dx (eˣ·y) = e²ˣ. Integrating gives eˣ·y = (e²ˣ)/2 + C, thus y = eˣ/2 + Ce⁻ˣ .
The product rule is important for differentiating functions that are the product of two or more functions. It states that the derivative of uv is u'v + uv'. For y = x²eˣ, take u = x² and v = eˣ, then u' = 2x and v' = eˣ. Applying the product rule, dy/dx = (2x)(eˣ) + (x²)(eˣ) = eˣ(2x + x²).
The differentiation rule for an inverse trigonometric function such as f(x) = tan⁻¹(x) is d/dx(tan⁻¹(x)) = 1/(1 + x²). It results in a straightforward application: if f(x) = tan⁻¹(x), then f'(x) = 1/(1 + x²).
The area under a curve from x = a to x = b is determined by the definite integral ∫ₐᵇ f(x) dx. For example, to find the area under y = x² from x = 0 to x = 2, calculate ∫₀² x² dx = [x³/3]₀² = (8/3) - 0 = 8/3 .
Substitution simplifies integrals by changing variables to match recognizable integral forms. For ∫2x*x² dx, set u = x², then du = 2x dx, and the integral becomes ∫u du = u²/2 + C = (x⁴)/2 + C. Integration by parts, based on ∫udv = uv - ∫vdu, is used when integrals are products of functions. For ∫x eˣ dx, set u = x, dv = eˣdx, then du = dx, v = eˣ, leading to xeˣ - ∫eˣ dx = xeˣ - eˣ + C .
Variables in a separable differential equation are rearranged such that all y terms are on one side and x terms on the other, allowing direct integration. For dy/dx = x/y, rewrite as y dy = x dx, leading to ∫y dy = ∫x dx. Integrate both sides: y²/2 = x²/2 + C, giving y² = x² + C .
The second derivative indicates the concavity of a function: if f''(x) > 0, the function is concave up; if f''(x) < 0, concave down. Inflection points occur where f''(x) changes sign. For f(x) = x³ - 3x, f''(x) = 6x, so the sign changes at x = 0 (inflection point). Here, f(x) changes from concave down to up .