F.E.E.E.

MICRO
NORMAL QUESTION Define: Frequency Answer: Frequency (f): Frequency is the
Give two examples of insulating material. number of complete cycles of an alternating quantity
Answer: Insulating materials resist the flow of electric (such as voltage or current) per second. It is measured in
current, preventing electrical leakage. Two examples of Hertz (Hz). f=1 / T where T is the time period of one
insulating material: Rubber and Glass. complete cycle.

What is the frequency of a D.C signal? Define: Flux density

Answer: A DC signal has a constant value and does not Answer: Flux Density (B): Flux density is the amount of
change over time, so its frequency is zero. magnetic flux (ϕ) per unit area of a surface perpendicular
to the magnetic field. It is measured in Tesla (T). B=ϕ/ A
Write the unit of resistivity. ϕ = Magnetic flux (Weber, Wb) A = Cross-sectional area (m²)
Answer: The unit of resistivity (ρ) in the International
System of Units (SI) is ohm meter Ω⋅m). Define: Form factor
Answer: Form Factor: The form factor is the ratio of the
What is the unit of inductance? RMS value to the average value of an alternating waveform.
Answer: Unit of inductance is Henry (H). 1 Henry (H) is the Weber is the unit of ________. Explanation: The unit of Form factor= RMS value/ Average value
inductance that induces 1 volt when current changes at 1 magnetic flux is Weber (Wb), which is equal to one volt- For a sinusoidal waveform, Form factor=0.707 Vm / 0.637
ampere per second. second. Answer: magnetic flux Vm =1.11

What are the types of Rectifier available? What is the unit of reactive Power? Calculate the RMS and average values of a purely
Answer: Types of Rectifiers are Half-Wave Rectifier and Answer: The unit of reactive power is VAR (Volt Ampere sinusoidal current having peak value 15A.
Full-Wave Rectifier. Rectifiers convert AC into DC. Reactive). Reactive power (Q) is the power stored and Solution: Given, peak current 𝐼𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘=15 𝐴 ∴ RMS value,
released in inductors and capacitors. 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠=𝐼𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =15 2 =10.61 𝐴 (Ans)
Define the term form factor. The average value of a pure sine wave over a full cycle is
Answer: Form factor is the ratio of the RMS value to the Define: RMS value zero, but over half cycle:
average value of an AC waveform. For a sinusoidal wave, Answer: RMS Value (Root Mean Square Value): The RMS 𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔=2𝐼𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝜋 ⇒𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔=2×15 𝜋 ≈9.55 𝐴 (Ans)
form factor = 1.11. value of an alternating current (AC) or voltage is the
equivalent DC value that produces the same heating effect
Calculate the time period of a periodic signal whose in a resistive circuit.
frequency is 60Hz.
Answer: The time period (T) is the reciprocal of frequency
(f). So T=1 f = 1 60 =0.0167 s (Ans)

A single phase 50Hz transformer has 80 turns on the Name the two input terminals of OP-AMP.
On which principle the transformer works?
primary winding & 400 turns on the secondary winding. If Answer: Two input terminals of an OP-AMP: Inverting (-)
Answer: A transformer works on the principle of
the primary winding is connected to a 240 volt, 50 Hz and Non-Inverting (+). These terminals receive input
electromagnetic induction. It transfers electrical energy
supply, determine the e.m.f induced in the secondary signals and determine the output behavior.
between circuits through mutual induction.
winding.
Solution: Given, 𝑁𝑝=80,𝑁𝑠=400,𝑉𝑝=240 𝑉 We can solve What is a dependent Source?
Define the term Semiconductor. Answer: A semiconductor
this using the transformer turns ratio formula, Answer: A dependent source is a voltage or current source
is a material that has electrical conductivity between that
whose value depends on another circuit variable. Example:
of a conductor (like copper) and an insulator (like glass). Its
A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS) depends on an
conductivity can be controlled by temperature, impurities
external current.
(doping), or an external electric field. Common
semiconductors include silicon (Si).
What is virtual ground?
Answer: Virtual Ground: Virtual ground is a concept used in
A 10 KVA, 1100/400 V, 50 Hz single phase transformer has Why is doping done on Semiconductor?
op-amp circuits, particularly in inverting configurations,
100 turns in the secondary winding. The number of turns in Answer: Doping is done on semiconductors to increase
where the voltage at the inverting terminal is
primary winding is their conductivity by adding impurities. It creates n-type
approximately 0V (ground) even though it is not physically
(electrons as majority carriers) or p type (holes as majority
connected to the ground.
carriers) semiconductors.

Define the term Flip Flop?

Answer: A Flip-Flop is a bistable multivibrator, which is a
digital electronic circuit used to store one bit of data. It has
two stable states (logic 0 and logic 1) and can change
states based on input signals. Flip-flops are the
Transformer cores are laminated in order to ____. fundamental building blocks of sequential logic circuits
Explanation: Laminating the transformer core reduces the and are commonly used in memory elements, registers,
circulating eddy currents, thereby minimizing the power and counters.
loss and improving efficiency. Answer: reduce eddy current
losses Name any two types of Flip-Flop.
Answer: Two types of Flip-Flops: SR Flip-Flop and D Flip
What type of DC Motor used in traction? Flop. Flip-flops store binary data and are used in memory
Answer: DC series motor is used in traction. It provides and sequential circuits.
high starting torque, making it ideal for railway
locomotives and electric vehicles.
unit 1 - POINT QUESTION
unit 1 - NORMAL QUESTION
What do you mean by capacitance of a capacitor? What is Draw the load current vs Load voltage curve of an ideal . Name the factors affecting the resistance of a conductor.
its unit? voltage source. Answer: The resistance (R) of a conductor is affected by
Answer: The capacitance of a capacitor is the ability of the Load Current vs. Load Voltage Curve of an Ideal Voltage the following factors: 1) Length of the Conductor (L):
capacitor to store electric charge per unit voltage. It is Source: An ideal voltage source maintains a constant Resistance is directly proportional to the length of the
defined as the ratio of the charge Q stored on the plates of voltage across its terminals regardless of the current conductor. R∝L
the capacitor to the voltage V applied across the plates: 𝐶 = drawn by the load. This means that even if the load current 2) Cross-Sectional Area (A): Resistance is inversely
𝑄 / 𝑉 The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F). 1 𝐹 = 1 𝐶/𝑉 increases, the voltage remains unchanged proportional to the cross-sectional area of the conductor.
Since a farad is a very large unit, practical capacitors are 𝑅∝1𝐴
often measured in Microfarad (μF) 1 𝜇𝐹 = 10−6 F 3) Resistivity of the Material (ρ): Resistance depends on
the nature of the material, represented by its resistivity.
Define ideal current source and ideal voltage source with R∝ρ
proper symbol. 4) Temperature: For most conductors, resistance increases
Answer: Ideal Current Source: An ideal current source is a with an increase in temperature due to increased collisions
two-terminal element that delivers a constant current between electrons and atoms
regardless of the voltage across it or the load connected to How can you convert a voltage source into current source
it. The output current remains unchanged even if the and vice-versa? What are active and passive components? Give examples
resistance or impedance of the connected circuit varies. Answer: Converting a Voltage Source into a Current for each.
Ideal Voltage Source: An ideal voltage source is a two- Source: A voltage source with a series resistance can be Answer: Active Components: Active components are
terminal element that maintains a fixed voltage across its converted into an equivalent current source with a parallel electronic components that can amplify signals, generate
terminals, regardless of the current drawn by the resistance. Conversion formula: 𝐼𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠/ 𝑅 power, or control current flow. They require an external
connected circuit. The voltage remains constant even if Converting a Current Source into a Voltage Source: A power source to operate and can introduce gain into a
the load resistance or impedance changes. current source with a parallel resistance can be converted circuit. Examples of Active Components:
into an equivalent voltage source with a series resistance. 1) Transistors
Conversion formula: 𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑠R 2) Diodes
Passive Components: Passive components do not require
an external power source to operate. They cannot amplify
signals but can store, dissipate, or control energy.
Examples of Passive Components:
1) Resistors
2) Capacitors
 unit 2 - NORMAL QUESTION
What do you mean by permeability?
Answer: Permeability (μ): Permeability is the property of a
material that determines its ability to allow the formation
of a magnetic field within it. It measures how easily a
material can support the passage of magnetic flux when
exposed to a magnetic field.
Mathematical Expression:
𝜇 = 𝐵 /𝐻
Where: μ = Permeability (Henry per meter, H/m)
B = Magnetic Flux Density (Tesla, T)
H = Magnetizing Force (A/m)

Define self & mutual inductance.

Answer: Self-Inductance: Self-inductance is the property
of a coil (or circuit) by which it opposes any change in its
own current by inducing a voltage (emf) in itself.
Example: An inductor in a DC circuit resisting sudden
changes in current.
Mutual Inductance: Mutual inductance is the property
where a change in current in one coil induces an emf in a
nearby coil due to magnetic coupling.
Example: Transformer, where the primary coil induces
voltage in the secondary coil

State Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction.

Answer: Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction: First
law: It states that whenever there is a change in magnetic
flux associated with a coil, EMF is induced in that coil.
Second law: It states that the magnitude of EMF induced in
the coil is directly proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic flux associated with that coil.

Define Magnetic Flux Density and MMF. Draw and explain hysteresis loop for magnetic material.
Answer: Magnetic Flux Density (B): Magnetic Flux Density State Fleming's left hand rule and its application. Answer: A hysteresis loop represents the relationship
is defined as the amount of magnetic flux passing through Answer: Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule: Fleming’s Left-Hand between the magnetic field strength (H) and the magnetic
a unit area perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic Rule is used to determine the direction of force acting on a flux density (B) of a magnetic material. It demonstrates
field. It represents the strength and direction of the current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field. how the material retains magnetism even after the external
magnetic field in a given region. Formula: 𝐵 = 𝜙 /A Application of Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule: magnetic field is removed. This phenomenon is called
1) Electric Motors: It helps in determining the direction of magnetic hysteresis.
Magnetomotive Force (MMF): Magnetomotive Force (MMF) motion of the rotor in motors like DC motors, where Hysteresis Loop Explanation:
is the force that drives magnetic flux through a magnetic current-carrying conductors experience a force due to a  Point A (Saturation): The material reaches its maximum
circuit. It is analogous to the electromotive force (EMF) in magnetic field. magnetization when all magnetic domains align.
2) Magnetic Levitation: Used to find the force direction  Point B (Retentivity): After removing the external field, the material
electrical circuits. Formula: 𝐹𝑚 = 𝑁𝐼 𝑁 = Number of turns in
retains some magnetism, called residual magnetism or retentivity.
the coil 𝐼 = Current flowing through the coil (A) acting on current-carrying coils, which helps in levitation.  Point C (Coercivity): A reverse magnetic field is applied to reduce the
3) Loudspeakers: The movement of the diaphragm in magnetic flux to zero. The required field strength is called coercive
Define Lenz's Law? loudspeakers is determined using this rule, where an force.
Answer: Lenz's Law states that the direction of an induced alternating current interacts with a magnetic field  Point D (Negative Saturation): Applying a stronger reverse field
aligns the domains in the opposite direction, causing negative
electromotive force (emf) or current in a conductor is
saturation.
always such that it opposes the change in magnetic flux Discuss the causes of hysteresis loss.
 Energy Loss: The area within the loop represents hysteresis loss due
that caused it. This law is a consequence of the law of Answer: Causes of Hysteresis Loss: to the energy used in reversing magnetic domains.
conservation of energy and is fundamental in 1) Domain Realignment: Energy is used to rotate and  Narrow Loop → Low energy loss (e.g., soft iron for transformers)
electromagnetic induction. reorient magnetic domains during magnetization and  Wide Loop → High energy retention (e.g., steel for permanent
demagnetization. magnets)
Mathematically, it is expressed as: 𝑒 = −𝑁* 𝑑𝜙/ 𝑑t.
2) Internal Friction: Domain movement faces resistance,
Write down the similarities between magnetic & electric causing energy loss as heat.
circuit. 3) Defects and Impurities: Structural imperfections hinder
Answer: Similarities between magnetic & electric circuit: domain motion, increasing energy loss.
1) Both circuits have a driving force: Voltage in electric 4) Domain Wall Pinning: Domain walls get stuck at
circuits and Magnetomotive Force (MMF) in magnetic impurities, requiring extra energy to move.
circuits.
2) Both involve a flow: Electric current in an electric circuit
and Magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit.
3) Both face opposition to flow: Resistance in electric
circuits and Reluctance in magnetic circuits.
4) Both follow similar mathematical laws: Ohm’s Law

unit 3 - NORMAL QUESTION

 What is power factor? Write the value of power factor for
purely resistive circuit.
Answer: Power Factor: The power factor (PF) is the cosine
of the phase angle between the voltage and the current in
an AC circuit. It indicates how effectively the electrical
power is being converted into useful work. It is given by:
Power Factor = Real Power (P)/ Apparent Power
(S) = VI cos 𝜙 /VI = 𝜙
where 𝜙 is the phase angle between voltage and current.
In a purely resistive circuit, voltage and current are in
phase (𝜙 = 0°), so power factor = cos 0° = 1

. Define active power and reactive power.

Answer: Active Power (Real Power) P: Active power is the
actual power consumed by a circuit to perform useful
work, such as producing heat, motion, or light. It is
measured in watts (W) and is given by: 𝑃 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos𝜙
Reactive Power Q: Reactive power is the power that
oscillates between the source and reactive elements
(inductors and capacitors) without being converted into
useful work. It is measured in volt-amperes reactive (VAR)
and is given by: 𝑄 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 sin𝜙

unit 4 - NORMAL QUESTION Derive the emf equation of a transformer. Write four main parts of DC motor.
What do you mean by voltage transformation ratio of a Answer: Answer: The four main parts of a DC motor are:
transformer? Answer: The voltage transformation ratio 1) Stator: The stationary part of the motor that provides a
(also called the turns ratio) of a transformer is the ratio of constant magnetic field using either permanent magnets or
the voltage in the secondary winding to the voltage in the field windings.
primary winding. It is given by the formula: 2) Rotor (Armature): The rotating part of the motor,
consisting of coils of wire that carry current and interact
with the magnetic field to produce motion.
3) Commutator: A split-ring device attached to the rotor
that reverses the direction of current flow in the armature
windings, ensuring continuous rotation.
4) Brushes: Conductive carbon or graphite blocks that
maintain electrical contact between the external circuit
and the rotating commutator.

Give the applications of DC series motor.

Applications of DC Series Motor:
1) Electric Locomotives: Used in trains and trams where
high torque is needed for starting and acceleration.
2) Cranes and Hoists: Ideal for lifting heavy loads due to
their strong torque characteristics.
3) Electric Vehicles (EVs): Used in older electric cars,
forklifts, and trolleys for efficient torque handling.
4) Elevators and Lifts: Provides smooth and powerful
operation in vertical transportation systems. 5) Conveyor
Systems: Used in industries for moving heavy materials
efficiently.
 Write down the working principle of two winding
transformer.
The working principle of a two-winding transformer is
based on Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. It
operates on the principle of mutual induction between two
windings (primary and secondary) to transfer electrical
energy from one circuit to another. Working Principle:
1) AC Supply to Primary Winding: When an alternating
voltage is applied to the primary winding, an alternating
current flows through it, producing a time-varying
magnetic flux in the transformer core.
2) Magnetic Flux Linkage: The changing magnetic flux
created by the primary winding is linked to the secondary
winding through the magnetic core.
3) Electromagnetic Induction in Secondary Winding:
According to Faraday’s Law, this changing magnetic flux
induces an electromotive force (EMF) in the secondary
winding.
4) Energy Transfer: If the secondary winding is connected
to a load, a current flows through it, transferring electrical
energy from the primary to the secondary circuit. 5)
Voltage Transformation: The ratio of the primary to
secondary voltage is determined by the turns ratio of the
transformer: 𝑉𝑠/ 𝑉𝑝 = 𝑁𝑠 /𝑁𝑝

unit 5 - NORMAL QUESTION Distinguish between an intrinsic and extrinsic

With respect to Energy band diagram differentiate semiconductor material.
between Conductors, Semiconductor & Insulator.
Insulators : (i) In case of insulators, the energy gap
between the conduction and valence bands is very large
and the conduction band is practically empty. (ii) When an
electric field is applied to such kind of material, the
conduction band remains to be empty. That is why no
current flows through insulators.
Semiconductors: (i) In case of semiconductor, the energy
band structure is similar to insulator but in this case, the
size of forbidden energy gap is quite smaller than that of
the insulators. (ii) When an electric field is applied to a
semiconductor, the electrons in the valence band find it
relatively easier to jump to the conduction band. So, the
conductivity of semiconductors lies between the
conductivity of conductors and insulators.
Conductors: (i) In the case of a conductor there is no
forbidden gap, and the valence and conduction energy
bands overlap. For this reason, very large numbers of
electrons are available for conduction. (ii) Even when a
small current is applied, conductors can conduct
electricity.

Why is transistor termed as current controlled device?

Answer: A transistor is termed a current-controlled device
because the output current (collector current, 𝐼𝐶) is
controlled by the input current (base current, 𝐼𝐵). In a
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT): 𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽.𝐼𝐵 Where: 𝐼𝐶 =
collector current (output) 𝐼𝐵 = base current (input) β =
current gain of the transistor This means a small base
current controls a much larger collector current, hence it's
called current controlled.
Explain with diagram the principle of operation of an NPN Draw and explain the forward and reverse biased unit 6 - NORMAL QUESTION
transistor. characteristics of P-N junction diode.
Answer: Working Principle: Forward Bias Characteristics:
1) When the emitter-base junction is forward biased, 1) The depletion region narrows.
electrons (majority carriers in the N type emitter) are 2) The built-in potential barrier is reduced.
injected into the base. 3) Electrons from the N-side and holes from the P side start
2) The base is very thin and lightly doped, so only a few moving toward the junction.
electrons recombine with holes. 4) At a certain voltage (threshold voltage), a large current
3) The majority of electrons pass through the base and starts flowing
reach the collector, which is reverse-biased and attracts Reverse Bias Characteristics: .
them. 1) The depletion region widens.
2) The potential barrier increases.
3) Only a very small leakage current flows due to minority
carriers.
4) At a high voltage (breakdown voltage), a large reverse
current suddenly flows, leading to diode breakdown.
 Explain the op-amp acts as a adder circuit. Draw the circuit diagram of a non inverting amplifier with
feedback using op-amp & derive the expression of gain.
Answer:
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = input voltage, 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = out voltage 𝑅1 = resistor
connected to ground from inverting input 𝑅2 = feedback
resistor Since the op-amp has very high gain, the voltage at
the inverting terminal 𝑉− is equal to the voltage at the non-
inverting terminal 𝑉+ . 𝑉− = 𝑉+ = 𝑉𝑖𝑛
The current through 𝑅1 is the same as the current through
𝑅2 because of Kirchhoff’s Current Law. Applying Ohm’s
Law: The current through 𝑅1 is:
Answer: Working Principle of Op-Amp Adder: The inverting
terminal (-) is at virtual ground (due to the high gain of the
Op-Amp). Since no current flows into the Op-Amp, all input
currents sum up and pass through the feedback resistor Rf
. By Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) at the inverting terminal:

∴ Voltage gain 𝐴𝑣 = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 /𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 1 + 𝑅2 /𝑅1

For equal resistors

𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 𝑅 ⇒ V out = − Rf /R* (V1 + V2 + V3)
The output is inverted (negative sign).

unit 7 - NORMAL QUESTION

What are the characteristics of an ideal OP-AMP?
Answer: Characteristics of an Ideal Op-Amp: An ideal
operational amplifier (Op-Amp) is a theoretical device with
perfect performance characteristics.
Its key features include:
1) Infinite Open-Loop Gain 𝐀𝐯 : The voltage gain without
feedback is infinite, meaning even a tiny input voltage
difference produces a large output.
2) Infinite Input Impedance 𝐙𝐢𝐧 : The input resistance is
infinite, ensuring that no current flows into the input
terminals.
3) Zero Output Impedance 𝐙𝐨𝐮𝐭 : The output resistance is
zero, allowing the Op-Amp to deliver maximum current to
the load without voltage drop.
4) Infinite Bandwidth: The Op-Amp can amplify signals of
any frequency without loss, meaning it has infinite gain at
all frequencies.
5) Infinite Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR): An ideal
Op-Amp completely rejects common mode signal.