10/7/2022

A chip log, also called common log, ship log or

just log, is a navigation tool used by mariners
to estimate the speed of a vessel through
water.
Speed Log
The name of the unit knot, for nautical mile
per hour, was derived from this method of
measurement.

chip log
Types of speed logs:
Nautical a log for determining a vessel's
speed, consisting of a wooden chip tossed
1. Impeller log.
overboard at the end of a line that is marked
2. Pito meter log.
off in lengths of 47 feet 3 inches;
3. Electromagnetic log.
4. Doppler log.
the speed is calculated by counting the
number of such intervals that pass overboard
in a 28-second interval
5. Acoustic Co-relation Log

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Impeller Log

This type of log is usually fitted in small crafts.

The standard equipment consists of the following
1. The log tube assembly
2. The amplifier
3. Speed indicator and distance counter

The sensing device is at the end of a long-tube or

probes, consisting of a small device called impeller
(the dynamic element could be either a small propeller
or a paddle or a screw) at the end of the probe, which
is lowered into the water.

The tube is set with the port (opening) facing

forward.
The water flow drives (or turns) the impeller and When speed (or distance) measurement is
the rotation of the impeller induces an electrical required, the log is lowered into the water, and
signal, which is picked up at the coils.
when not in use, is retracted inside the hull.
The output is fed to the amplifier and is used to
operate the speed indicator. Retraction of the log can be done manually or
by a remote hoisting arrangement operated
The rotating impellor's signal could also be used from the navigating bridge or engine room.
to provide a distance measurement.

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The log-tube may become blocked or obstructed by

foreign bodies such as small fish, seaweed etc.

The arrangement allows the whole tube to be withdrawn

inside the vessel for inspection and cleaning.
This type of log can give only speed
through water and is greatly affected by
In the event of the log-tube being bent by hitting an the current flowing under the ship.
underwater obstruction such as a sand bank or a large
fish or more often caused by a wire or a rope having
passed under the vessel, the log-tube must be jettison.

The Pressure type log (Pitot tube Log)

A pitot tube is a pressure measurement instrument

used to measure fluid flow velocity.
was invented by the French engineer Henri Pitot in
the early 18th century and was modified to its
modern form in the mid-19th century by French
scientist Henry Darcy.
It is widely used to determine the airspeed of an
aircraft, water speed of a boat, and to measure
liquid, air and gas velocities in industrial
applications

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Velocity measurement by a Pitot tube

For the indicated water column heights, determine
it consists of a tube with a short, right-angled the velocity at the center of the pipe.
bend, which is placed vertically in a moving fluid
with the mouth of the bent part directed
upstream;

the pressure, measured with an attached device,

depends on the fluid flow and can be used to
calculate the velocity.

The Pressure type log (Pitot tube Log)

This type of log consist of
1. Two openings outside the hull of the ship, static
tube that provides static pressure and impact or
Pitot tube that measures dynamic pressure or the
water flow of pressure
2. Controller unit (pressure differentiator)
3. Speed and distance transmitter
4. Speed and distance recorder

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Operations
The opening of the Pitot tube faces forward so that
when the vessel moves forward, the water causes a
pressure at the tube this dynamic pressure is
proportional to the speed at which the vessel moves.

The pressure differentiator measures the differential

pressure.

The Controller unit converts the pressure difference

into speed and distance units.

ELECTRO MAGNETIC LOGS

This type of log can give only speed
through water and is greatly affected by This type of log consist of
the movement of the water which would
induce an extra pressure giving rise to 1. Master Indicator
error in readings 2. Preamplifier
3. Sensor

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Operations
The sensing of speed makes use of law of
electromagnetic induction
When the ship moves, the water passing
through the hull acts as a conductor.
The magnetic field is produced by a solenoid,
installed in such a way as to allow the field to
Sensor extend into water
This produces an EMF (electromagnetic force),
which is measured and converted into the
speed of vessel through the water.

Principle The induced e.m.f. ‘E’ is given by the following:

The electromagnetic log is based upon the Faraday- E=FxLxV
Maxwell induction law; Figure shows the principle of Where F = the magnetic field
the log L = the length of the conductor
em f
V = the velocity of the conductor through
the magnetic field.
In the EM log a direct current through the
S
windings of a coil, generates a magnetic field.
in d u c e d c u rre n t N
If the conductors do not move relative to the
coil they do not intersect the magnetic fines of
S force and no voltage is induced in them.
N fie ld m o tio n

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In the EM log the ‘F’ and ‘L’ are maintained Should the velocity have the opposite direction, the
direction of the voltage would change too.
constants, therefore the induced e.m.f. is The electromagnetic log is based upon the Faraday-
directly proportional to the velocity ‘V’, Maxwell induction law;
which is the velocity of the vessel through A direct current through the windings of a coil,
the water. generates a magnetic field.

The direction of the voltage E depends on

the directions of the lines of force and the
direction of the velocity of the conductor
water.
According to the formula the induced
voltage is proportional to the velocity V.

Four conductors (ab, bc, cd and da) are arranged in

the form of a loop around the coil.
If the conductors do not move relative to the coil they
do not intersect the magnetic lines of force and no
voltage is induced in them.

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Speed Indicator
Alternating current through the coil
Master Unit
Switching Instead of a direct current, suppose that we
Unit
send an alternating current through the coil.
Distance
Recorder
Then the induced voltage that we will have
Bridge
would be also an, alternating voltage with
Underwater amplitude that is proportional to the velocity, V.
1A
Current Voltage proportional to
through coil speed For the electromagnetic log an alternating
voltage is preferred to a direct voltage.
Flow sensor

The speed out put from an EM log depends

upon the water flow by way of the sensors. Pitch and roll also give rise to errors
however these are reduced by having an
Thus siting of the probe is critical.
electrical time constant that is longer than
This is so since if too close to the hull then due a period of vessel motion.
to the non-linearity of the hull form the speed of
the water flow may give a wrong representation
of the vessels speed. A well-adjusted log can have an accuracy
of better than 0.1 percent of the speed
This is minimized by careful siting of the sensor range
as well as by calibrating the instrument while
installation.

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This type of log can give only speed through

DOPPLER LOG
water and is greatly affected by the current
flowing under the ship.

However if the water is stationary at an

anchorage there will be no speed shown.

In all the above logs the flow of water past and

under the hull play a major part in the accuracy
of the readings.
Doppler phenomenon with sound

Examples of the Doppler phenomenon with sound: Examples of the Doppler phenomenon with
sound:
The Doppler principle is the effect, which makes the As the train approaches a stationary listener, the
tone of a fire engine change as it passes the observer.
pitch (frequency) of the rumbling sound of the
The fire engine is continuously emitting sound waves train is higher than when the train passes by, at
but if it is moving towards the observer the wave fronts which time the pitch sounds the same as if the
arrive closer together, which is equivalent to a higher train were stationary.
frequency. As the train recedes from the listener, the pitch
As the fire engine starts to move away from the decreases.
observer, the wave fronts arrive less frequently at the
observer and the tone is of a lower frequency.
.

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If both source and listener are not moving with

Electromagnetic waves radiated by radar, as respect to each other (although both may be
well as sound waves, obey the Doppler moving at the same speed in the same
principal, although electromagnetic waves travel direction), no Doppler shift will take place.
at the speed of light and audio waves travel at
the speed of sound. If the source and listener are moving closer to
each other, the listener will perceive a higher
The Doppler effect is a frequency shift that frequency –
results from relative motion between a
frequency source and a listener. the faster the source or receiver is approaching
the higher the Doppler shift.

If the source and listener are getting farther apart, the

listener will perceive a lower frequency –

the faster the source or receiver is moving away the

lower the frequency.
The Doppler shift is directly proportional to speed
between source and listener, frequency of the source,
and the speed the wave travels.
In above figure ‘v’ is the velocity of sound, and the propagation
speed is ‘ c’, every wave is shortened due to the movement of
the source by ‘d’
This shortening is equal to the source having moved a distance
during the time required to generate the wave.

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The velocity of propagation of The Doppler log is based on fv = f c + v

radiowaves in free space (c) is 300 × 10⁶ m/s
measurement of the Doppler
effect.
c-v
and sound in seawater it is much slower at
It is seen that an observer, moving with a source of
approximately 1500 m/s. sound towards a reflecting plane, receives a frequency:
After a period of 1 s, one cycle of the Where fv is the received frequency, f the transmitted
transmitted acoustic wave in seawater will frequency, c the speed of sound and v the speed of the
source of sound.
occupy a distance of 1500 m.
By measuring fv and knowing f and c, the speed of a
ship with regard to the seabed can be determined.

Principle

A transmitting transducer below the ship

continuously emits a beam of sound vibrations
in the water at an angle (usually 60˚ to the
keel) in the forward direction.
A second transducer aboard receives the echo
caused by diffuse reflection from the seabed.
A Doppler log uses a higher frequency than an
echo sounder.

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Advantages: Advantages:
[Link] emitted power of the sound vibrations
[Link] resulting shorter wavelength leads to the
spreads less and thus the echo is stronger.
more diffuse reflection desired;
Every point of the seabed is hit by the beam
[Link] shorter wavelength makes possible a and causes a stronger or weaker echo in the
smaller beam-angle and so avoids the direction of the receiving transducer.
dimensions of the radiating face of the
All these points are situated at a different angle
transducer becoming too large.
to the horizontal direction

The frequencies
received aboard
Hence, though the distance between the ship
must differ for
and the seabed does not change, the received
all these points.
frequency will differ (owing to the Doppler
However, the
effect) from the transmitted frequency.
average
frequency is
approximately From the Doppler frequency-shift, which can be
that from point measured, the speed v of the vessel can be
P, at an angle found.
to the
horizontal.

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Automatic correction for changes in

speed of sound
In some types of Doppler log, c/cos. α is automatically
kept constant.
This is done by building up each transducer from a large
number (144) of electrostrictive elements.
If the elements were supplied with alternating voltages
in phase, the, resulting sound waves would also be in
phase, and the beam would be directed perpendicular to
the radiating face of the transducer, i.e. vertically.

Automatic correction for changes in speed A second transmitting transducer directs a

of sound beam in a backward direction and a second
receiving transducer receives its echoes.
However, the elements are fed with voltages that
differ in phase by 120°, so the sound waves have The speed of sound waves in the water ‘c’
the same phase difference. depends, on the temperature and (to a smaller
At all points of the line AB, however, the sound degree) on the salinity and the water pressure.
vibrations are in phase.
Such a line or plane is called a wave front; For that reason a thermistor is mounted near
propagation is always perpendicular to a wave the transducers. (A thermistor is a resistance,
front the magnitude of which depends on the,
temperature.)

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Reflections
Deviations of the sound speed ‘c’ from the
normal value are passed to the system
Both the echo sounder and the Doppler log
computer for correction of its calculations.
react to reflections of sound waves from the
seabed;
The reading of a Doppler log depends solely
on the speed of the sound waves;
The E/S measures the propagating time and

The propagation time of the pulse and its echo plays the D/L the difference of the two frequencies.
no role.

Reflections In that case the frequency of the sound

vibrations penetrating the second layer will
If the beam is propagated from one water layer also change, if the speed of the sound
into a second one of different composition or
waves in the second layer is different from
temperature, there will be reflection /refraction;
that in the first layer.
there will also be a Doppler effect if the second
layer moves relative to the first layer and if the For the echo, however, reverse frequency
beam hits this layer obliquely. change will occur and will cancel out the
first change.

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Reflections Reflections

A Doppler log measures the algebraic . If the beam hits the bottom (bottom lock) the
total frequency shift is, proportional to the
sum of all Doppler frequency shifts
speed of the ship with regard to the bottom.
experienced by the sound on its way to
the bottom (or to a reflecting layer) and If there is no bottom contact, but only reflection
back again. against a water layer, the measured Doppler
To this frequency shift must be added the shift is proportional to the speed of the ship
shift that arises at the transition of the relative to that water layer (water lock).
transducer vibrations between the ship
and the water, and vice versa.

Janus configuration
Janus configuration is a term describing
orientations of the beams of acoustic or
electromagnetic energy employed with Doppler
navigation systems.

The placing of the two transmitting transducers,

to produce forward and backward beams is
called a Janus configuration.
Due to the Janus configuration a linear
relationship exists between the speed of the
vessel and the measured frequency shift.

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Janus configuration

A further advantage is that vertical movements

of the ship cause equal changes to the Doppler For measuring the athwart ship speed, a
shifts in the forward and backward beams, so similar Janus configuration is mounted at an
the difference remains the same. angle of 90 deg. along with the ships
transducers;
Vertical movements of the ship do not therefore
influence the Doppler shift.

The distance from the bridge of a large

tanker to the bows may be 250
metres, so special information about
the athwart ships speed both fore and
aft is required when mooring.

In that case athwart ships transmitting

and receiving transducers are
mounted both fore and aft.

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The Janus configuration normally used .

with Doppler sonar speed logs, and These speeds are measured as Doppler
docking aids employs four beams of frequency shifts in the reflected beams.
ultrasonic energy, displaced laterally 90°
from each other and each directed Certain errors in data extracted from one
obliquely (30° from the vertical) from the beam tend to cancel the errors associated
ship’s bottom. with the opposite directed beam.

This is to obtain true ground speed in the

fore and aft and athwart ship directions.

Pitching and rolling

From the figure we see that the speed for the
dotted position of the ship, and for the forward-
directed beam increases to V1’; for the
backward-directed beam V1 decreases to V1’’.

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Continuous-wave and pulse, systems

Results are obtained by taking the difference of
the Doppler shifts for the forward beam and for The transmitting transducers generate
the backward beam. vibrations continuously, thus making it
necessary for each beam to have a
In the horizontal position of the ship when this
separate transmitting and receiving
vector becomes smaller other vector becomes
greater, or vice versa, so the sum of the two transducer.
vectors is approximately 2v,.
This is called a continuous-wave (c.w.)
Hence the Doppler measurement of the speed system.
is not, in practice, influenced by pitching. Transmitting and receiving transducers
The same applies to the two athwartships are of identical construction.
beams during rolling

pulse systems a transducer generates In the continuous-wave system the reception of

pulses and the same transducer receives the echo can be disturbed by the continuously
emitted vibrations of the transmitting transducer
the echo between the transmissions.
going directly from transmitting to receiving
transducer (cross-noise or feedback).
Therefore a pulse system needs only half
as many transducers as a continuous- With pulse systems this cannot occur, since a
wave system. pulse is transmitted only after the echo of the
preceding pulse has been received, and the
receiver is blocked during the transmission.
The majority of Doppler logs in use are pulse
systems

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Transducers
Usually the transducers are inserted in a 'sea
The angle of the along ships beams is about 3 deg., that of the
athwart ships beam is about 8 degrees. chest' or 'sea well’, permitting their removal for
repairs or replacement without the ship
The frequency used is 100 to 600 kHz – newer models have a
transmission frequency of maybe 2 MHz. requiring dry-docking.

The surface area of each transducer need then be only about The diameter of the hole required in the hull
10 cm2.
The high frequency and the concave shape of the surface also plates is about 350 mm.
lead to a small beam angle.
The higher frequency influences the reflection and the
absorption but not the speed of propagation.

The transducers are of the electrostrictive type.

Measurement of ship's speed relative to bottom or Measurement of ship's speed relative to bottom or
to water to water
Owing to absorption by particles in the water at a
depth of 200 to 400 metres, ie, the deep Apart from the effect of the Deep Scattering
scattering layer (DSL), a Doppler log may only Layer, the water at 10 to 30 metres below the
function, down to about 200 metres. keel also causes an echo and Doppler effect by
volume-reverberation.
The set may be equipped to work in the layer of This is called 'water track' (as opposed to
10-30 metres below the surface. 'bottom track').
When reflections are received from this layer the
speed of the ship relative to that layer, and not
relative to the bottom, is obtained.
Thus uncertainty and confusion may occur.

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Measurement of ship's speed relative to bottom or Suppose that the receiver has bottom contact,
to water with the window occurring a short time after,
transmission.
In deep water there is a considerable difference If the Doppler log then loses bottom contact, the
between the time of propagation for bottom window is automatically shifted to occur
reflection and that for reflection from the mass of immediately after pulse transmission.
water at a depth of 10 to 30 metres.
As a result, the receiver reacts only to reflections
Receivers can be made operative for only a from the 10-30-metre water layer.
short period (a certain 'window' of time) either
immediately after or a short time after each pulse When this happens, 'bottom track' indicator is
transmission. replaced by 'water track'.

When sufficiently low frequencies are used, Uses of the Doppler log
echoes may still arrive from a rocky bottom at a
depth of 600 metres and more.
A tanker of 200 000 tonnes with a residual
In some Doppler log, for depths less than 600 speed when tying up of 0.2 knots (0.1
metres it is possible to switch manually to the m/s), the energy to be absorbed by a pier
water track mode.
or dolphin together with the ship's side is:
1/2mv2 = 1000 000 joules.

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Uses of the Doppler log

5. Acoustic Co-relation Log
The Doppler log can measure the speed to the
nearest 0.01 knot or 5 mm/s;
Acoustic Doppler logs have proven attractive,
unfortunately, it sometimes does not function affordable and reasonably accurate solutions
correctly during docking if the screws of tugs where the vessel remains less than 200 m or
cause air bubbles (which reflect sound waves) so from the sea bed.
to pass through the beams (aeration). Speed errors of less than 1% can readily be
achieved,
Since the sound waves are reflected off by the with some users reporting errors of 0.1% after
water – air barrier the Doppler may give wrong
careful calibration
readings

The Doppler technique itself is part of the problem.

It requires three or four narrow beams (typically 3°) In the correlation system, two identical
which, at the sub-100 kHz frequencies needed for 1 signals separated by a known
km+ range, results in large and heavy acoustic time interval are transmitted and then to
transducers. search for a separation vector and a time
To counter these disadvantages - enter acoustic delay for which the correlation (of the
correlation logs - instruments that use received signal) is a maximum’.
a single wide beam (about 20°) thereby requiring
smaller, lighter transducers yet operating at low
frequencies (20 - 40 kHz) to provide bottom-tracking
ranges of well over 1000 m.

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Aeration.
Environmental factors affecting the Aerated water bubbles beneath the transducer face
accuracy of speed logs may reflect acoustic energy of sufficient strength to
be interpreted erroneously as sea bottom returns
Water clarity.
producing inaccurate depth indications and
In exceptional cases the purity of the seawater may
reduced speed accuracy.
lead to insufficient scattering of the acoustic energy
Proper siting of the transducer, away from bow
and prevent an adequate signal return.
thrusters, for instance, will reduce this error factor.
Vessel trim and list.
It is not likely to be a significant factor because
A change in the vessel’s trim from the calibrated
most seawater holds the suspended particles and
normal will affect fore/aft
micro-organisms that adequately scatter
speed indication and an excessive list will affect
an acoustic beam.
athwartship speed. A Janus configuration
transducer reduces this error.

Vessel trim and list.

Ocean current profile.
A change in the vessel’s trim from the calibrated
normal will affect fore/aft speed indication and an This effect is prevalent in areas with strong tides
excessive list will affect athwartship speed. or ocean currents.
In the water track mode, a speed log measures
A Janus configuration transducer reduces this error. velocity relative to multiple thermocline layers
several feet down in the water.
If these layers are moving in opposite directions
to the surface water, an error may be introduced.

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Ocean eddy currents.

Temperature profile.
Whilst most ocean currents produce eddies their
effect is minimal. This problem is more likely to be The temperature of the seawater affects the
found in restricted waters with big tidal changes or velocity of the propagated acoustic wave .
in river mouths. Temperature sensors are included in the
Sea state. transducer to produce corrective data that is
interfaced with the electronics unit.
Following seas may result in a change in the speed
indication in the fore/aft and/or port/
starboard line depending upon the vector sum of
the approaching sea relative to the ship’s axis.

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