Literary Criticism (Greek and Roman)
Early Literary Criticism
1. Plato's Initial Concerns
- First person to systematically examine literature's effects on society
- Worried that poetry made people too emotional rather than rational
- Took a negative stance toward literature's influence
2. Aristotle's Contribution
- Student of Plato but took a different approach
- Wrote "Poetics" - created structured analysis of literature
- Focused particularly on tragedy and epic poetry
- Established foundation for Western literary criticism
3. Roman Period Developments
- Critics: Cicero, Horace, and Quintilian
- Focus on rhetoric (art of persuasive speaking/writing)
- Created specific rules for effective communication
- Longinus wrote "On the Sublime" about powerful writing
- Later influenced writers like Coleridge and Wordsworth
4. Evolution in English Literature
- Started in Elizabethan age with Philip Sidney
- Enlightenment period: emphasized reason and rules
- Romantic period: focused on emotion and imagination
- Victorian period: introduced scholarly approaches
Socrates and His Impact
1. Background and Teaching Style
- Lived in Athens around 2,400 years ago
- Never wrote down his ideas - known through others' writings
- Used questioning method (Socratic method)
- Engaged with young people, politicians, and citizens
- Goal: help people think deeply about good life and morality
2. Opposition and Trial
- Powerful Athenians opposed his methods
- Put on trial in 399 BC at age 70
- Charges: corrupting youth and disbelieving city gods
- Chose to accept punishment rather than flee
- Died by drinking hemlock poison
Literary Criticism (Greek and Roman)
4. Aristophanes' Criticism
- Famous playwright who criticized Socrates in his comedies
- Main concerns:
- Worried about youth abandoning traditional values
- Felt Socrates disrespected poets and traditional arts
- His plays ("Birds" and "Frogs") contributed to negative public opinion
- This criticism partially led to Socrates' trial and execution
5. Cultural Context
- Athens traditionally taught through poetry and literature
- Socrates challenged this by encouraging critical thinking
- Created tension between traditional and philosophical education
- This conflict reflects broader struggle between conventional wisdom and critical inquiry
Plato's Life and Influence
1. Educational Background
- Student of Socrates
- Founded the "Academy" in Athens (one of world's first universities)
- Taught Aristotle, who studied there for 20 years
2. The Republic (Written around 375 BC)
- Structure:
* Book 1: Discussion of justice
* Books 2-4: Organization of ideal city-state
* Books 5-7: Core philosophical ideas
* Books 8-9: Analysis of government types
* Book 10: Critique of poetry and art
3. Views on Government
- Criticized democracy
- Worried people would prioritize wealth over community
- Proposed philosopher-kings as leaders
- Believed philosophers should govern due to their wisdom
4. Views on Poetry and Literature
- Strongly criticized Homer's epic poems
- Main concerns:
* Heroes often displayed bad behavior
* Stories might teach wrong lessons to children
* Poetry appeals to emotions rather than reason
* Compared poetry to "junk food" - tastes good but harmful
- Interestingly, was himself a skilled writer
Literary Criticism (Greek and Roman)
The Allegory of the Cave
[Link] Setup
- People chained in dark cave since birth
- Can only see wall in front of them
- Fire behind them casts shadows
- People carrying objects create shadows on wall
2. Key Elements
- Prisoners: Only see shadows, think they're reality
- Fire: Source of limited understanding
- Shadows: Illusions/limited perception
- Outside world: True reality/knowledge
3. The Journey
- Freed prisoner experiences pain seeing real light
- Discovers true reality outside cave
- Tries to share knowledge with others
- Others resist leaving due to fear/comfort with familiar
4. Deeper Meaning
- Cave: Limited understanding/accepted beliefs
- Freedom: Education/pursuit of truth
- Light: True knowledge/wisdom
- Resistance: Fear of challenging established beliefs
5. Main Message
- Real learning requires courage
- Truth might be uncomfortable but worth pursuing
- People might resist new knowledge
- Education transforms understanding
- Philosophy helps see beyond "shadows" of limited perception
6. The allegory teaches that seeking truth requires:
- Willingness to question accepted beliefs
- Courage to face uncomfortable realities
- Persistence despite others' resistance
- Understanding that real knowledge goes beyond surface appearances
Literary Criticism (Greek and Roman)
Aristotle
Plato's Theory of Mimesis & Forms
1. Theory of Forms
- Everything exists first as perfect ideas/forms in the mind
- Physical world contains imperfect copies of these forms
- Example of three levels:
Level 1: Perfect idea of chair (most real)
Level 2: Carpenter's chair (physical copy)
Level 3: Painting of chair (copy of copy)
2. Key Concepts
- Art is "twice removed from reality"
- Perfect forms exist only in ideas
- Physical objects are imperfect copies
- Artistic representations are even further from truth
- Only philosophers can truly understand perfect forms
Aristotle's Views on Art
1. Contrast with Plato
- Disagreed with Plato's view of art as mere imitation
- Believed art serves a special purpose
- Artists select and arrange meaningful elements
- Example: Photographer capturing sunset's essential moments
2. Defense of Art
- Art shouldn't be judged by standards of other fields
- Each discipline has its own purpose
- Poetry shouldn't be criticized for not being philosophy
- Art helps understand human experience uniquely
Aristotle's Poetics
1. Definition of Tragedy
- "Imitation of serious, complete action of magnitude"
- Components:
Serious action: Life-changing decisions
Complete: Clear beginning, middle, end
Magnitude: Appropriate length and importance
Literary Criticism (Greek and Roman)
2. Six Elements of Tragedy (in order of importance)
- Plot ("soul of tragedy"): Most important element
How events create meaning
- Character: Must be consistent in behavior
Should match their role
- Thought: How characters reason and express ideas
- Diction: Language and dialogue delivery
- Spectacle: Visual elements (costumes, sets)
- Song: Musical elements, especially for Greek chorus
3. Key Principles
- All elements must work together
- Plot is fundamental to success
- Good production values can't save poor story
- Characters must maintain consistency
Aristotle's Three Unities
1. Unity of Action
- Focus on single main conflict
- Secondary events must connect to main theme
- Example: Macbeth
Central theme: Desire for power
All events (including Lady Macbeth's breakdown) connect to power theme
Shows consequences of power-seeking
2. Unity of Time
- All events occur within 24 hours
- Creates intensity and urgency
- Example: Oedipus Rex
Story unfolds in single day
Morning: Begins investigation
Evening: Discovers terrible truth
3. Unity of Place
- Entire play happens in one location
- Prevents audience distraction
- Example: Waiting for Godot
Single country road with tree
Characters cannot leave
Location reinforces theme of waiting/emptiness
Literary Criticism (Greek and Roman)
Aristotle's Poetics
1. Definition of Tragedy
- "Imitation of serious, complete action of magnitude"
- Components:
* Serious action: Life-changing decisions
* Complete: Clear beginning, middle, end
* Magnitude: Appropriate length and importance
2. Six Elements of Tragedy (in order of importance)
- Plot ("soul of tragedy")
* Most important element
* How events create meaning
- Character
* Must be consistent in behaviour
* Should match their role
- Thought
* How characters reason and express ideas
- Diction
* Language and dialogue delivery
- Spectacle
* Visual elements (costumes, sets)
- Song
* Musical elements, especially for Greek chorus
3. Key Principles
- All elements must work together
- Plot is fundamental to success
- Good production values can't save poor story
- Characters must maintain consistency
Literary Criticism (Greek and Roman)
Aristotle's Three Unities
1. Unity of Action
- Focus on single main conflict
- Secondary events must connect to main theme
- Example: Macbeth
* Central theme: Desire for power
* All events (including Lady Macbeth's breakdown) connect to power theme
* Shows consequences of power-seeking
2. Unity of Time
- All events occur within 24 hours
- Creates intensity and urgency
- Example: Oedipus Rex
* Story unfolds in single day
* Morning: Begins investigation
* Evening: Discovers terrible truth
3. Unity of Place
- Entire play happens in one location
- Prevents audience distraction
- Example: Waiting for Godot
* Single country road with tree
* Characters cannot leave
* Location reinforces theme of waiting/emptiness
Key Dramatic Concepts
1. Catharsis
-Emotional cleansing/purification
- Two main emotions:
* Pity (for characters)
* Fear (that same could happen to us)
- Helps release held emotions
Literary Criticism (Greek and Roman)
2. Hamartia (Tragic Flaw)
- Series of mistakes leading to downfall
- Can happen to good people
- Example: Oedipus's hasty decisions
3. Peripeteia
- Sudden reversal of fortune
- Turning point from good to bad
- Example: Oedipus discovering he's the murderer
4. Anagnorisis
- Discovery of truth
- Change from ignorance to knowledge
- Example: Oedipus learning about his true identity
Tragedy vs. Epic
1. Why Tragedy is Superior (According to Aristotle)
- More focused storytelling
- Direct audience impact through live performance
- Maintains three unities
- Additional elements:
* Music
* Spectacle
* Present-tense action
- Creates stronger emotional engagement
2. Advantages Over Epic
- More concentrated impact
- Tighter script structure
- Immediate audience involvement
- Visual and auditory elements enhance experience
Literary Criticism (Greek and Roman)
Romans
Roman Literary Critics
1. Key Characteristics
- Practical approach vs. Greek abstract thinking
- Focus on specific writing improvements
- Connected good writing to moral character
- Emphasized citizenship and practical wisdom
Horace (65 BC - 8 BC)
1. Ars Poetica
- 476-line letter to friends about writing
- Divided into three sections:
* Poesis (Art of Poetry): Basic rules and organization
* Poema (The Poem): Different poetry types and styles
* Poeta (The Poet): What makes a good poet
2. Core Principle: "Dulce et Utile" (Sweet and Useful)
- Writing should both teach and delight
- Must combine:
* Entertainment value
* Moral/practical lessons
* Beautiful language
* Valuable wisdom
3. Writing Guidelines
- Multiple revisions necessary
- Perfect word choice important
- Remove unnecessary elements
- Seek knowledgeable feedback
- Let work "rest" before publishing
* Famous "nine years" advice (symbolic)
* Modern example: Stephen King's six-week waiting period
Literary Criticism (Greek and Roman)
4. Key Concepts
_ in medias res": Start story in middle of action
- "ab ovo": Avoid starting from very beginning
- "quandoque bonus dormitat Homerus": Even great writers make mistakes
- "ut pictura poesis": Poetry should create vivid mental images
5. Requirements for Good Poetry
- Natural talent plus practice
- Broad knowledge (history, philosophy, human nature)
- Willingness to accept criticism
- Careful planning and organization
- Understanding of different poetry types
- Appropriate word choice for subject matter
Longinus & Quintilian
Longinus (Pseudo-Longinus)
1. Background
- Authorship uncertain (hence "Pseudo-Longinus")
- Wrote "On the Sublime"
- Influenced Romantic poets like Dryden and Pope
2. Views on Democracy and Writing
- Connected political freedom to great literature
- Believed democracy produced better writers because:
* Freedom of speech
* Competition among writers
* Freedom to express bold ideas
* No fear of censorship
3. Five Sources of Sublime Writing
- Deep thoughts and important ideas
- Strong emotions and feelings
- Special writing techniques (metaphors, similes)
- Careful word choice and arrangement
- Integration of all elements
Literary Criticism (Greek and Roman)
4. Purpose of Writing
- Should do more than just delight
- Must create personal change in readers
- Should move emotions and lift spirits
Quintilian
1. Background
- Roman teacher and critic
- Wrote "Institutio Oratoria" (12 books)
- Focus on education and rhetoric
2. Educational Philosophy
- Education should start from birth
- Learning should be enjoyable
- Children learn from everything they hear
- Favored public education over private
- Small group learning is more effective
3. Key Principles
- "A good man speaking well"
- Praise better than punishment
- Strong moral character essential
- Broad knowledge required
- Regular practice necessary
4. Structure of "Institutio Oratoria"
- Book 1: Early childhood education
- Book 2: Introduction to rhetoric
- Other books: Speaking, writing, moral life