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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents

ABOUT THIS MODULE....................................................................................................................................3

SKILLS NEEDED FOR SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS.........................................................3
EXPERIMENTAL WRITE UPS ...........................................................................................................................5
MATHEMATICAL RELATIONSHIPS (DIRECT AND INVERSE PROPORTION) .....................................................6
GRADE 9 TECHNOLOGY YEAR SUMMARY......................................................................................................7
TERM 1 - CHAPTER 1 MATTER .......................................................................................................................8
UNIT 1- CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER ...................................................................................................................... 8
MIXTURES .................................................................................................................................................................... 9
PURE SUBSTANCES: ................................................................................................................................................... 11
CHAPTER 2- ATOMS, ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS ..................................................................................13
UNIT 1- ATOMIC STRUCTURE.................................................................................................................................... 13
ATOMIC STRUCTURE .................................................................................................................................................. 14
UNIT 2: COMPOUNDS ............................................................................................................................................... 17
THE PERIODIC TABLE .................................................................................................................................................. 17
CHAPTER 3: REACTIONS OF OXYGEN WITH METALS AND NON-METALS ...................................................28
UNIT 1: REACTIONS OF OXYGEN WITH METALS .................................................................................................. 28
UNIT 2: REACTIONS OF OXYGEN WITH NON- METALS ...................................................................................... 32
CHAPTER 4- ACIDS AND BASES ....................................................................................................................35
UNIT 1- ACIDS AND BASES CHARACTERISTICS ................................................................................................... 35
MEASURING ACIDITY AND BASICITY .......................................................................................................................... 36
INDICATORS ............................................................................................................................................................... 36
UNIT 2-REACTIONS OF ACIDS AND BASES ........................................................................................................... 40
TERM 2: ENERGY AND CHANGE - CHAPTER 5 FORCES ..............................................................................60
UNIT 1- CONTACT FORCES ...................................................................................................................................... 60
FORCES; INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................... 60
CONTACT FORCES AND FIELD FORCES ....................................................................................................................... 66
CONTACT FORCES ...................................................................................................................................................... 67
UNIT 2 NON-CONTACT / FIELD FORCES ............................................................................................................... 72
MAGNETIC FORCE ...................................................................................................................................................... 77
BALANCED AND UNBALANCED FORCES..................................................................................................................... 83
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 CHAPTER 6 ENERGY SYSTEMS .....................................................................................................................87
UNIT 1 ELECTRIC CELLS AND CIRCUITS ....................................................................................................................... 87
UNIT 2 ELECTRIC CURRENT, VOLTAGE AND RESISTANCE ................................................................................ 91
UNIT 3 – SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS ......................................................................................................... 97
SERIES CIRCUITS ......................................................................................................................................................... 97
PARALLEL CIRCUITS .................................................................................................................................................. 100
UNIT 4. SAFETY WITH ELECTRICITY AND THE NATIONAL ELECTRICITY GRID ..................................... 106
Cost of electricalpower ....................................................................................................................................... 118
TERM 3: CHAPTER 7: LIGHT .......................................................................................................................124
UNIT 1: CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT ................................................................................................................... 124
Parallel Pencil of light. ....................................................................................................................................... 126
ADDENDUM A - BLOOMS TAXONOMY .................................................................................................................... 128
ADDENDUM B COMMON HAZARDS SIGNS ............................................................................................................. 128
ADDENDUM C .......................................................................................................................................................... 129
SAMPLER PAPER AND FORMATIVE ASSESSMENTS ........................................................................................... 129
REFERENCES...............................................................................................................................................135

ABOUT THIS MODULE

This module has been carefully designed to suit the IEB curriculum and requirements by
laying a strong foundation for Physical Sciences as well as general science knowledge.
Through curriculum mapping, the module prepares learners by giving them skills and content
desirable for FET. It also helps teachers to manage the GET curriculum in a more focused
way. The module explains the skills needed in carrying out investigations. Mathematical
relationships that help in analysing data and coming up with conclusions, are treated simply.

SKILLS NEEDED FOR SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS AND

EXPERIMENTS
Before carrying out investigations we need to understand the factors involved and their
relationships. These factors are variables. This is what leads to the investigation hence we
create the hypothesis. Three types of variables must be identified

Controlled variable. A physical factor that must be kept constant. This is to make the
experiment fair and the results valid.

Independent variable (cause) is the variable that is being changed or manipulated by the
investigator. This determines the output.

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 Dependent variable (effect) is the variable that is the output. It is the factor that is measured
by the investigator.

[Link]
HZN_enZA946ZA947&oq=IMages+showing+variables+in+an+experiment&aqs=chrome..69i5
7j33i160.23574j0j9&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8#imgrc=8SPdsn7MyKib9M

❖ Identify an answerable question (Investigative question). This question leads to the

research.

It is a question that:

✓ Shows the relationship between the dependent and independent variables

✓ Must not have a Yes or NO answer
✓ Starts with an inquisitive word such as ‘what’, ‘how’ and ends with a question mark.
✓ Example
How will a change in the number of cells connected in series affect the brightness of a
lamp?
❖ Formulate a hypothesis (this guides the research)
It is a prediction or guess of how the independent variable will affect the dependent variable
❖ Design a simple experiment including appropriate controls
▪ Your design must be a set of instructions to be followed step by step
▪ Include variables
▪ Write safety precautions
❖ Perform and understand laboratory procedures
▪ Repeat the procedures a few times to ensure accuracy of results
▪ Select tools and technology to collect precise and accurate quantitative data
Correctly read measuring instruments such as a thermometer, balance, pipette
❖ Record observations and data
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 ▪ Note any physical changes during and after the procedure such as smell, colour change,
liberation of a gas bubbles, heat release
▪ Export data into appropriate form of data presentation such as table
❖ Analyse information
▪ Treat data in various ways such as calculating averages, checking trends

EXPERIMENTAL WRITE UPS

▪ Aim. Why are you doing the experiment
▪ Hypothesis. Prediction based on knowledge of the topic. Show the relationship between
the independent and dependent variables.
▪ Variables
Controlled
Independent
Dependent
▪ Apparatus and chemicals
▪ Method. A step-by-step instruction on how to do the experiment
▪ Precautions. Things to note for safety
▪ Observations and results
▪ Analysis of results
▪ Conclusion

VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY

▪ Validity refers to experimental procedure

Were all the controlled variables kept the same
Was the investigation testing one variable at a time?
▪ Reliability refers to the results
If the experiment is repeated will the results be the same?

ACTIVITY 1 Experimental skills - Series circuit.

A group of grade 9 learners wanted to find out the relationship between the number of
lamps connected in series and the brightness of the lamps.
1. Write a possible investigative question for the experiment.
2. State an appropriate hypothesis
3. Identify
a) Controlled variables
b) Dependent variable
c) Independent variable

4. Suggest a list of apparatus for the experiment.

Mathematical skills

Conversion of Units

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 • Identify common conversion factors in mass, length, volume, temperature, and pressure

Recognise and convert various metric scales of measurement

• Translate data into the correct units and dimensions using conversion factors and
scientific notation.

Activity 2 Conversion units

a. Convert the following into metres.

i.87cm
ii.2456 mm
iii.6,78km
iv.56dm
b. Write the following in scientific notation.
i.2500m
ii.0,378m
iii.783000m
iv.3,67m
c. Convert the following into kilograms
i.650g
ii.8963g
iii.0,7g

MATHEMATICAL RELATIONSHIPS (DIRECT AND INVERSE

PROPORTION)

Describe and recognise certain relationships between two variables:

- y is directly proportional to x (y/x = constant)

- y is inversely proportional to x (yx = constant)

• Organise observations in a data table, analyse the data for trends or patterns, and
interpret the trends or patterns, using scientific concepts

• Interpret a graph constructed from experimentally obtained data to identify relationships:

- y is directly proportional to x (y/x = constant)

- y is inversely proportional to x (yx = constant)

• Calculate the gradient of a best-fit line using two points on the line (rather than given data
points).

• Derive the units of the quantity represented by the gradient and identify what the physical
quantity is.

• Determine the meaning of the y-intercept and/or the x-intercept where appropriate
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 • Select appropriate units and scales for situations involving proportional reasoning

Activity 3 Analysing graphs

Question 1

Question 2.

d. Which was the dependent variable for this experiment?

e. What is the relationship between voltage and current as shown by the graph.
f. Calculate the gradient of this graph.

GRADE 9 TECHNOLOGY YEAR SUMMARY

Below is the link to the curriculum mapping document

[Link]
%20PHYSICAL%20SCIENCES%[Link]

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 TERM 1 - CHAPTER 1 MATTER

UNIT 1- CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

1. Define matter
2. Classify matter into pure substances and mixtures
3. Define a mixture
4. Classify mixture into heterogeneous and homogeneous.
5. Identify the characteristics of each type of mixture.
6. Give examples of mixtures.
7. Classify pure substances into elements and compounds

Matter

All objects around us are made from matter

Different types of matter or materials have different properties

Objects are matter from different types of materials and this affects their properties

Some properties of materials are listed below

• Materials can be strong and resist bending eg. Iron rods or weak (eg. fabrics)
• Materials that conduct heat are thermal conductors (eg. metals) and materials that do not
conduct
• Heat are thermal insulators (eg. Ceramics, rubber, wood)
• Brittle materials break easily (eg. Glass)
• Malleable materials can be hammered into different shapes
• Some materials are ductile, which means they can be drawn into wire (eg copper)

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 • Density is mass per unit volume and concrete is a dense material
• Magnetic materials are attracted by magnets (eg. Steel, iron, cobalt, nickel)
• Some materials have high melting points and boiling points such as metals.

MIXTURES

A mixture is a combination of two or more substances which are not chemically bonded

Examples of mixtures are: air, sea water, salad, stew,

Substances that make up mixtures are:

• are not in a fixed ratio Imagine, for example, that you have a 250 ml beaker of water. It
doesn't matter whether you add 20 g, 40 g, 100 g or any other mass of sand to the water; it
will still be called a mixture of sand and water.
• keep their physical properties, in the example we used of the sand and water, neither of
these substances has changed in any way when they are mixed together. Even though the
sand is in water, it still has the same properties as when it was out of the water.
• can be separated by mechanical means. To separate something by 'mechanical means',
means that there is no chemical process involved. In our sand and water example, it is
possible to separate the mixture by simply pouring the water through a filter.
Something physical is done to the mixture, rather than something chemical.
• Some other examples of mixtures include blood (a mixture of blood cells, platelets and
plasma), steel (a mixture of iron and other materials) and the gold that is used to make
jewellery. The gold in jewellery is not pure gold but is a mixture of metals. The amount of gold
in the jewellery is measured in karats (24 karat would be pure gold, while 18 karat is only
75% gold).

We can group mixtures further by dividing them into those that are heterogeneous and those
that are homogeneous.

Heterogeneous mixtures.

A heterogeneous mixture is one that is non-uniform and the different components of

the mixture can be seen.

A heterogeneous mixture does not have a definite composition. Think of a pizza, that has a
topping of cheese, tomato, mushrooms and peppers (the topping is a mixture). Each slice will
probably be slightly different from the next because the toppings (the tomato, cheese,
mushrooms and peppers) are not evenly distributed

Homogeneous mixture
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 A homogeneous mixture is one that is uniform, and where the different components of the
mixture cannot be seen.

A homogeneous mixture has a definite composition, and specific properties. In a

homogeneous mixture, the different parts cannot be seen. A solution of salt dissolved in
water is an example of a homogeneous mixture. When the salt dissolves, it will spread
evenly through the water so that all parts of the solution are the same, and you can no
longer see the salt as being separate from the water. Think also of a powdered drink that
you mix with water. Provided you give the container a good shake after you have added the
powder to the water, the drink will have the same sweet taste for anyone who drinks it, it
won't matter whether they take a sip from the top or from the bottom. The air we breathe is
another example of a homogeneous mixture since it is made up of different gases which
are in a constant ratio, and which can't be distinguished from each other.

An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more elements, at least one of which is a

metal, where the resulting material has metallic properties.
Alloys are usually made to improve the properties of the elements that make them up. For
example steel is much stronger than iron (which is the main component of steel).

ACTIVITY 1.1. FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT MUXTURES.

1. Which of the following substances are mixtures?
a. tap water
b. brass (an alloy of copper and zinc)
c. concrete
d. aluminium
e. Coca cola
f. distilled water

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 PURE SUBSTANCES:

Elements and Compounds

Any material that is not a mixture, is called a pure substance. Pure substances include
elements and compounds. It is much more difficult to break down pure substances into their
parts, and complex chemical methods are needed to do this. Pure substances have the
same type of matter. Meaning they have the same type of particles.

To determine whether a substance is pure or not.

One way to determine if a substance is pure is to look at its melting or boiling point. Pure
substances will have a sharply defined melting or boiling point (i.e., the melting or boiling
point will be a single temperature rather than a range of temperatures.) Impure substances
have a temperature range over which they melt or boil.

Elements.

An element is a chemical substance that can't be divided or changed into other chemical
substances by any ordinary chemical means. The smallest unit of an element is the atom.

An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into other substances

through chemical means.

The elements we know are represented in the Periodic Table of the Elements, where
each element is abbreviated to a chemical symbol.

Examples of elements are magnesium (Mg), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O) and carbon (C). On
the Periodic Table you will notice that some of the abbreviations do not seem to match the
elements they represent.

The element iron, for example, has the chemical formula, Fe. This is because the elements
were originally given Latin names. Iron has the abbreviation Fe because its Latin name is
'ferrum'. In the same way, sodium's Latin name is 'natrium' (Na) and gold's is 'aurum' (Au).

Compound.

A compound is a chemical substance that forms when two or more elements combine in a
fixed ratio.

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 Water (H2O), for example, is a compound that is made up of two hydrogen atoms for every
one oxygen atom. Sodium chloride (NaCl) is a compound made up of one sodium atom for
every chlorine atom. An important characteristic of a compound is that it has a chemical
formula, which describes the ratio in which the atoms of each element in the compound
occur.

Fig 1.2 Particles of a mixture and a compound

ACTIVITY 1.2 Formative assessment- Mixtures or pure substances.
Classify the following into mixtures , elements and compounds
Subst Mixture/ Homogeneous/hetero Element/com
ance pure geneous pound
Fizzy
cold
drink
Steel
Oxyge
n
Iron
filings
Calciu
m
carbon
ate

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 CHAPTER 2- ATOMS, ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS
UNIT 1- ATOMIC STRUCTURE
At the end of the unit, you will be able to:

• Describe an atom
• Explain the concept of a model
• Describe some atomic models
• Trace the history of the atom
• Describe the standard atomic structure
• Identify the sub atomic particles and their properties.
• Draw diagrams of atomic structures of the first twenty elements

•Define atomic number and atomic mass.

•Calculate the number of neutrons, protons and electrons in a particle.
•Define an isotope.
What makes one material different from another? In order to understand this, we need to
take a closer look at the building block of matter - the atom. Atoms are the basis of all the
structures and organisms in the universe. The planets, sun, grass, trees, air we breathe
and people are all made up of different combinations of atoms.

We know that atoms are made up of a

• positively charged nucleus in the centre

• surrounded by negatively charged electrons.
• scientists came up with lots of different models or pictures to describe what atoms look
like.
Model

A model is a representation of a system in the real world. Models help us to

understand systems and their properties. For example, an atomic model represents
what the structure of an atom could look like, based on what we know about how
atoms behave. It is not necessarily a true picture of the exact structure of an atom.

Examples of models
[Link]’s atomic model sometimes called the Billiard ball model

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 [Link] pudding model by J.J. Thompson
[Link]’s model of the atom
[Link]’s model also called the wave model
[Link] – mechanical model of the atom
Activity 2.1 Research on atomic models
Match the model with the scientist
Column A Column B
Discovery of electrons and the plum pudding model Niels Bohr
Arrangement of electrons Marie Curie and her husband,
Pierre
Atoms as the smallest building block of matter Ancient Greeks
Discovery of the nucleus JJ Thomson
Discovery of radiation Rutherford

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Scientists now have a good idea of what an atom looks like. This knowledge is important
because it helps us to understand why materials have different properties and why some
materials bond with others.

Atoms are made up of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged

electrons. These electrons orbit the nucleus.

Nucleus
The nucleus is broken into two types of particles called protons and neutrons. Together
protons and neutrons are together called nucleons.
Proton
Protons are positively charged and are denser than electrons.
Neutron
Neutrons are neutral and have the same mass as protons.
Electron
Electrons are negatively charged and have negligible mass. They do not contribute to the
overall mass of an atom but are responsible for the volume of an atom.
proton neutron electron
Mass 1 1 negligible
Charge +1 0 -1

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 Value of + 1,6 x 10- 0 -1,6 x 10-
charge (C) 19 C 19C

ATOMIC MASS AND ATOMIC NUMBER

Atomic number Z
This is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. An atom is neutral because the
number of protons is the same as the number of electrons
Atomic mass number A
This is the number of nucleons in the nucleus of an atom. In other words the sum of
neutrons and protons in the nucleus of an atom.
STANDARD NOTATION
The standard notation shows the chemical symbol of an element, atomic number and
atomic mass number

Fig 2.2 Standard notation

Example

Z= 26 A= 56 This means the number of neutrons = A-Z = 56 – 26 = 30

Isotopes

What is an isotope?

The chemical properties of an element depend on the number of protons and electrons
inside the atom. So if a neutron or two is added or removed from the nucleus, then the
chemical properties will not change. This means that such an atom would remain in the
same place in the Periodic Table. For example, no matter how many neutrons we add or
subtract from a nucleus with 6 protons, that element will always be called carbon and have
the element symbol CC (see the Table of Elements). Atoms which have the same number
of protons, but a different number of neutrons, are called isotopes.

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 The isotope of a particular element is made up of atoms which have the same
number of protons as the atoms in the original element, but a different number of
neutrons.

Example
Cl- 37 and Cl- 35 are two forms of chlorine with different numbers of neutrons.
Cl- 37 has 37-17 =20 neutrons
Cl- 35 has 35- 17 = 18 neutrons
Activity 2:2 Formative assessment; subatomic particles
For the sulphur atom below

Give the number of

a) Protons
b) Electrons
c) Nucleons
d) Neutrons

ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
Electrons are arranged in orbits/ shells called energy levels.

Although these electrons all have the same charge and the same mass, each electron in an
atom has a different amount of energy. Electrons that have the lowest energy are found
closest to the nucleus where the attractive force of the positively charged nucleus is the
greatest. Those electrons that have higher energy, and which are able to overcome the
attractive force of the nucleus, are found further away.

Example of electron configuration of lithium

Fig 2.3 Electronic structure of Lithium

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 UNIT 2: COMPOUNDS
At the end of this unit you will be able to:
Define a compound
➢ Differentiate between an element and a compound
➢ Differentiate how a mixture of elements is different from a compound
➢ Explain the properties of an element in relation to its position in the Periodic Table of
Elements
➢ Identify positions of metals, non-metals and semi-metals in the Periodic Table
➢ Explain the meaning of the vertical columns and the horizontal rows in the Periodic Table
➢ Explain characteristics of elements in the same group
➢ Explain the meaning of the formula of a compound

ACTIVITY 2.3 BASELINE ASSESSMENT – ELEMENTS [20]

[Link] each of the following elements (5)
Cu, He, Na, C, Mg
2. Write down the symbols of the following elements (5)
Oxygen, Calcium, Potassium , Lithium, Aluminium
[Link] table below shows the atomic masses of elements found in the Periodic Table (10)

Name of element symbol Atomic mass

helium He 4
lithium Li 7
hydrogen H 1
chlorine Cl 36
argon Ar 40
sodium Na 23

Draw a bar graph of the atomic masses of the above elements (10)

THE PERIODIC TABLE

The PT is an arrangement of elements according to their atomic numbers

Elements can be classified as metals, non-metals and semi-metals (metalloids)
Elements found in groups ( vertical columns) have similar chemical properties
•
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 • Each element in the periodic table has an atomic number ( small number ) and a mass
number (larger number ), name and symbol.
• A formula/e is a ratio of the symbols of the elements and number of atoms for each
symbol in a compound
• Here is a summary of what we already know:
• All the elements that are known, can be arranged on a table called the Periodic Table.
• The discoveries of many scientists over many years contributed to the information in the
Periodic Table, but the version of the table that we use today was originally proposed by
Dmitri Mendeleev in the 1800s.
• Each element has a fixed position on the Periodic Table. The elements are arranged in
order of increasing atomic number, with the lightest element (hydrogen: H) in the top left-hand
corner.
• An element's position on the Periodic Table tells us whether it is a metal, a non-metal or a
semi-metal.
• a) metals are found on the left-hand side of the table;
• b) non-metals are found on the far-right hand side of the table; and
• c) Semi-metals are found in the region between the metals and non-metals.
• An element can be identified in 3 different ways:
• a) each element has a unique name;
• b) each element has a unique chemical symbol; and
• c) Each element has a unique atomic number.
• Metals are usually shiny, ductile, and malleable. Most are solids at room temperature and
have high melting and boiling points.
• Non-metals can be solids, liquids or gases at room temperature. They have a great variety
of properties that usually depend on the state they are in.
• The semi-metals are all solids at room temperature. They usually have a combination of
metallic and non-metallic properties.
What information can we find on the Periodic Table?
The information that most commonly appears on each tile/box of the Periodic Table is the
following
• The chemical symbol: and
• The atomic number

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 Fig 3.1 Information about an element in the Periodic table

The diagram above shows an example of a one of the tiles/boxes on the Periodic Table.
Can you identify the element it represents? How many protons does it have in its atoms?
Other versions of the Periodic Table may contain additional information, such as
• The element name: and /or
• The atomic mass, usually indicated at the bottom of each tile/box for an element
The diagrams below show examples of how this information is sometimes presented

Fig 3.2 Additional information in some Periodic Tables

ACTIVITY 2.4 : FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT; PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

[Link] is regarded as the “father” of the periodic table?

[Link] elements found in the periodic table are divided into two main groups:
On the left are the ________and on the right the___________.

[Link] two elements that occur as liquids at room temperature:

[Link] any four elements that occur as gases at room temperature:

[Link] are arranged into rows and columns according to increase atomic mass and
certain common chemical properties respectively. What are these called?

6The “columns (remember, you know the correct names) have certain names given
because of the common chemical properties of the elements in those columns. What are
the names of the following groups?
1A______________________
2A______________________
7A (17) ___________________
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 8A (18) ___________________

[Link] are the metals in group 3-12 called?

[Link] group of elements will never react with other elements?

9. Which element is the,” lightest” (lowest density)?

THE PARTICLES THAT MAKE UP COMPOUNDS.

The particles of a compound always consist of two or more atoms of different elements.
These atoms combine in different ways. In some cases they can form molecules. Other
compounds consist of atoms which are arranged in a regular pattern called a crystal lattice.

Fig 3.3 Particles of a compound (Source Siyavula learners Book B)

Particles of an element

➢ Particles of an element are all the same. The smallest particle of an element is an
atom. An element consists of atoms of the same kind

Fig 2.4 Particles of an element which is diatomic

➢ Hydrogen and oxygen molecules shown above are called diatomic molecules

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 ➢ Some atoms of elements combine. When two atoms of an element combine, they
form diatomic molecules
➢ Elements that exist as diatomic molecules are bromine, nitrogen, iodine, chlorine,
hydrogen, oxygen and fluorine (Br2 I2 N2 Cl2 H2 O2 F2 )

ATOMS IN MOLECULES AND LATTICES ARE COMBINED IN A FIXED RATIO

A chemical formula shows the chemical symbol of each element and the number of atoms
of each element. In a chemical formula, if one atom of an element is present, the number 1
as a subscript is not shown.

Fig 3.5 Fixed ratios of atoms of different elements found in a compound

Note. If you are referring to five water molecules, you place the number 5 in front of the
chemical formula e.g., 5H2O. The coefficient 5 indicates the number of molecules of that
substance.

NAMES OF COMPOUNDS

Each compound has a unique name

It is just as important for each compound to have a unique name. The following example
will help you see why:
The two compounds CO and CO2 consist of the same two elements, carbon, and oxygen. If
we named them both 'carbon oxide' (since they are both made of carbon and oxygen), we
could easily confuse them. Under certain circumstances that could create problems
because CO is much more poisonous to humans and animals than CO2. So, it is easy to
see why each compound needs a unique name.

When we write the chemical formulae for compounds, they are always a combination of the
symbols of the elements in the compound. For example, when we see the formula NaCl,
we know that this compound consists of Na and Cl.

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 The names of the elements in a compound are combined and sometimes changed slightly,
to make a name for the compound.
At this level we have to distinguish between two types of compounds, because the type of
compound determines how it should be named.

TYPE 1: COMPOUNDS THAT CONTAIN A METAL AND A NON-METAL

For compounds of this type, the rule is simple. The metal comes first and the non-metal
second. The name of the non-metal changes slightly: the suffix –ide replaces the ending of
the name.

Fig 2.6 Formulae and names of some compounds

RULE 2: When two or more compounds have different numbers of the same elements (like
CO and CO2 in our example above), we must add prefixes to avoid confusion.
The first four prefixes are listed in the table below:

Number Prefix
of atoms
1 Mono-
2 di-
3 Tri-
4 Tetra-
5 Penta-

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 TAKE NOTE: The prefix mono- is usually left out from the beginning of the first word of the
name. For instance, CO is carbon monoxide, not mono carbon monoxide. Here are some
examples of how this rule should be applied: Compounds of carbon and oxygen:
• CO - carbon monoxide (notice that it is not mono-oxide, but monoxide)
• CO2 - carbon dioxide Compounds of nitrogen and oxygen:
• NO2 - nitrogen dioxide
•N2O4 - dinitrogen tetroxide (did you notice how tetra oxide becomes tetroxide?)
Compounds of sulfur and oxygen:
• SO2 - sulfur dioxide
• SO3 - sulfur trioxide
TYPE 2: COMPOUNDS THAT CONTAIN POLYATOMIC IONS

A polyatomic ion is a set of atoms that act as one

Set of Name of set Formula Name of

atoms compound
-OH-1 Hydroxide NaOH Sodium
hydroxide
-SO4-2 Sulphate CaSO4 Calcium
sulphate
-SO3-1 Sulphite FeSO3 Iron
sulphite

-NO3-1 Nitrate AgNO3 Silver

nitrate
-CO3-2 Carbonate CuCO3 Copper
carbonate
NH4-+1 ammonium NH4Cl Ammonium
chloride

Fig 2.7 Table showing some examples of polyatomic ions

CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

When we represent a chemical reaction in terms of chemical formulae (symbols), it is called

a chemical equation.
The chemical equation for the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen would be as follows:
2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2O
Notice two kinds of numbers:
• Numbers in front of chemical formulae in the equation. They are called coefficients. They
represent the numbers of individual molecules that are in the chemical reaction.
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 Smaller numbers used inside and below the chemical formulae. These are called subscripts.
Coefficients and subscripts mean different things, as you will see in the next

COEFFICIENTS AND SUBSCRIPTS IN CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

A '2' in front of the formula for water (H2O) in the chemical equation for water means two
molecules of H2O can be made from two molecules of H2 and one molecule of O2 in our
reaction.
Notice that O2 does not have a coefficient in the reaction above. When there is no coefficient,
it means that just one molecule of that substance takes part in the reaction.
When we read the formula, the subscripts tell us how many atoms of a particular element are
in one molecule of that compound.
Balancing a chemical equation.
This is based on the Law of conservation of matter.
This law states that matter cannot be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
Atoms are conserved. The only change that happens is their rearrangement to form different
substances or molecules.
A chemical equation is balanced when the number of atoms of each type on each
side of the equation is the same. Which means if you have 12 hydrogens on the right
hand side, you must have 12 hydrogens on the left-hand side. If there are 4 oxygens
on the left, there must be 4 oxygens on the right.
1. General
Chemical formulas of reactants are listed on the left-hand side of the equation.
Products are listed on the right-hand side of the equation.
Reactants and products are separated by putting an arrow (→) between them (NEVER USE
=), to show the direction of the reaction. Reactions at equilibrium will have arrows facing both
directions.
2. Balance the equation.
Apply the Law of Conservation of Mass to get the same number of atoms of every element
on each side of the equation. Tip: Start by balancing an element that appears in only one
reactant and product.

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 Once one element is balanced, proceed to balance another, and another, until all elements
are balanced.
Balance chemical formulas by placing coefficients in front of them. Do not add
subscripts, because this will change the formulas. 3. Indicate the states of matter of the
reactants and products.

3 Use (g) for gaseous substances.

Use (s) for solids.
Use (l) for liquids.
Use (aq) for species in solution in water.
Write the state of matter immediately following the formula of the substance it describes.

Watch the following video on chemical reactions

[Link]
ACTIVITY 2.3 FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT BALANCING AN EQUATION.
Balance the following equations
1. Na + O2 → Na2O

2. Al + O2 → Al2O3

3. H2 + Fe2O3 → Fe + H2O

4. N2 + H2 → NH3

SUMMARY
There are a number of different ways to represent chemical equations: – With models and
pictures (in submicroscopic representations); – with symbols and formulae (in chemical
equations); and – with words (in word equations).
• Numbers are used in two different ways in chemical equations: – Coefficients in front of
chemical formulae indicate the numbers of atoms or molecules of a specific type that take
part in the reaction; and – Subscripts inside chemical formulae indicate the number of
atoms of a specific type in that particular compound.
• Chemical reactions happen when atoms in compounds rearrange; no atoms are lost or
gained during a chemical reaction.
• In a balanced equation equal number of the same kinds of atoms are on opposite sides of
the reaction equation.

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 SUMMARY:
Key Concepts.
Elements
• All the atoms in an element are of the same kind. This means that an element cannot be
changed into other elements by any physical or chemical process.
• Elements can be built up of individual atoms, or as bonded pairs of atoms called diatomic
molecules.
• When elements combine, they form compounds. Compounds
• In a compound, atoms of two or more different kinds are chemically bonded in some fixed
ratio.
• The atoms that make up a molecule are held together by special attractions called chemical
bonds.
• Compounds can be formed and broken down in chemical reactions.
• A chemical reaction in which a compound is broken down into simpler compounds and even
elements is called a decomposition reaction.
• Compounds cannot be separated by physical processes, but they can be separated into their
elements (or simpler compounds) by chemical processes.
The Periodic Table.
• Each element has a fixed position on the Periodic Table. The elements are arranged in order
of increasing atomic number, with the lightest element (hydrogen: H) in the top left-hand
corner.
• An element's position on the Periodic Table tells us whether it is a metal, a non-metal, or a
semi-metal.
– metals are found on the left-hand side of the table.
– non-metals are found on the far-right hand side of the table; and
– semi-metals are found in the region between the metals and non-metals.
• An element can be identified in 3 different ways:
– each element has a unique name.
– each element has a unique chemical symbol; and
– each element has a unique atomic number.
• The vertical columns of the Periodic Table are called groups. The Periodic Table has 18
groups.
• The horizontal rows of the Periodic Table are called periods. There are 7 periods.

26 | P a g e
 • Elements belonging to the same 'group' of the Periodic Table exhibit the same chemical
behaviour and will often have similar properties.
• Many different versions of the Periodic Table exist. Typically, the element symbol, the atomic
number, and the atomic mass of each element are given on the table.
Names and formulae.
• Each compound has a unique name and formula.
• The formula of a compound tells us which elements are in the compound and how many
atoms of each element have combined to form one molecule of that compound.
• There are rules for naming compounds that take into account how many atoms of each type
are in one molecule of the compound.

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 CHAPTER 3: REACTIONS OF OXYGEN WITH METALS AND
NON-METALS

UNIT 1: REACTIONS OF OXYGEN WITH METALS

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

1. Describe the reactions of oxygen with metals.

2. Write the general equation for the reaction of a metal with oxygen.
3. Write balanced equations of reactions of different metals with oxygen.
4. Explain what rusting is.
5. Describe the conditions necessary for rusting
6. Explain different methods of preventing rusting.

In these reactions, the elements that react with oxygen are all metals. The products are all
metal oxides. What exactly are metal oxides? They are compounds in which a metal is
combined with oxygen, in some fixed ratio. The general reaction of metals with oxygen

metal + oxygen → metal oxide

The formulae of basic oxides depend on the group of the metal.

1. Metal oxides from group 1 on the Periodic Table will have the formula M 2O, where M
stands for any metal in group 1. Can you write two examples?

2. Metal oxides from group 2 will have the formula MO, where M stands for any metal in
group 2.

3. Metal oxides from group 13 (IIIA) will have a formula M2O3 where M stands for the metal
in group 13.

ACTIVITY 3.1 EQUATIONS FOR THE REACTION OF OXYGEN WITH DIFFERENT

METALS.

Write balanced equations of the following reactions

1. sodium + oxygen → sodium oxide

[Link] + oxygen → calcium oxide

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 3. magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide

4. aluminium + oxygen → aluminium oxide

Reactivity of different metals

Some metals are more reactive than others. Group 1 metals react vigorously with oxygen than
group 2 and 3. For this reason, when storing the metals, oxygen and water must be excluded.
They are stored in airtight containers, mostly in paraffin.

ACTIVITY 3.2 INVESTIGATE THE REACTIONS OF DIFFERENT METALS WITH OXYGEN.

You need

• Cylinders of pure oxygen

• Deflagration spoons
• Small quantities of: sodium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium
• Bunsen burner

Method/ procedure

• Put a small amount of the metal on the deflagrating spoon

• Hold the spoon in the flame until the element ignites
• Lower the spoon into the cylinder with oxygen.
• After the element has stopped burning, lower the spoon into water at the bottom of the
cylinder to let the product dissolve in the water. Shake the cylinder if necessary.
• Put a small piece of litmus ribbon into the water and observe.

Precautions

Magnesium burns with a bright flame. Do not look directly to the flame.

Observations

element symbol Flame Name of Colour and Is the Colour of

colour product nature of product litmus in
product soluble in solution
water?
Sodium
Calcium

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 magnesium
aluminium
Conclusions

1. Every element has a unique flame colour. This can be used to identify the element.

2. The product formed when a metal reacts with oxygen is a basic oxide.

3. Metal oxides that dissolve in water, form alkalis.

4. These alkalis turn red litmus blue.

THE REACTION OF IRON WITH OXYGEN.

We will be looking at how iron reacts with oxygen. In some cases, you might use steel wool for
this experiment. It is wire wool made of very fine steel threads. Steel is an alloy made mostly
of iron. So, when we look at how steel wool burns in oxygen, we are looking at how iron reacts
with oxygen.

Watch the video below and look at picture below before completing activity 3.2 below.

[Link]

ACTIVITY 3.3 Reaction of iron with oxygen.

1. We used steel wool in this demonstration, but what is steel wool mostly made of?

2. Look at the metal before it is burned. Describe what it looks like.

3. Can you see the oxygen that the metal will react with? Can you describe it?

4. What do you observe during the reaction? Describe anything you see, hear, or smell.

5. What does the product of the reaction look like? Describe it in as much detail as possible.

6. Write a balanced equation for the reaction of iron with oxygen.

THE FORMATION OF RUST.

a) Rust is a word to describe the flaky, crusty, reddish-brown product that forms on iron
when it reacts with oxygen in the air.
b) When iron is exposed to oxygen in the air, a similar reaction occurs, but much more
slowly.

30 | P a g e
 c) The iron is gradually 'eaten away' as it reacts slowly with the oxygen.
d) Under wet conditions iron will rust more quickly.
e) Rust is actually a mixture of different oxides of iron, but the Fe 2O3 of our earlier
example is an important part of that.
f) The rusting of iron is actually a good example of the process of corrosion.
g) Rusting tends to happen much faster near the ocean. Not only are there water
droplets, but these droplets have salt in them and this makes them even more corrosive.

h) Rusting also happens more quickly in the presence of acids. Inside laboratories, or
factories where acids are used or stored, the air is also very corrosive. When the air in a
specific area contains moisture mixed with acid or salt, we refer to the area as having a
corrosive climate. If you live in a corrosive climate, for example near the ocean, it is often
better to make the window frames and doors of your house from wood instead of iron and
steel, because wood does not rust. Many people also use aluminium as this metal does not
rust.

Ways to Prevent Rust.

If we wanted to prevent the iron atoms and oxygen molecules from making contact, we would
need to place a barrier between them. Barrier methods prevent iron atoms from coming into
contact with oxygen. Other metals as barriers to rust. Zinc oxide (ZnO) is not a porous oxide
but forms a dense protective layer that cannot be penetrated by oxygen or water. Iron can be
coated with a thin layer of zinc in a process called galvanising. The zinc layer quickly reacts
with oxygen to become zinc oxide. This layer protects the zinc underneath it from being further
oxidised.

1. Use an Alloy. Many outdoor structures, like bridge, are made from COR-TEN steel to
reduce the effects of rust. ...
2. Apply Oil. ...
3. Apply a Dry Coating. ...
4. Paint the Metal. ...
5. Store Properly. ...
6. Galvanize. ...
7. Blueing. ...
8. Powder Coating.

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 UNIT 2: REACTIONS OF OXYGEN WITH NON- METALS
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

1. Describe the reactions of oxygen with non-metals.

2. Give the general equation of the reaction of oxygen and a non- metal.
3. Apply the general equation to write equations for specific non-metals
4. Describe the reaction of non-metallic oxides with water.

The oxygen around us:

• Oxygen is all around us in the air we breathe. It is a very reactive element.

• When an element is reactive, it means that it will readily react with many other substances.
• We saw evidence of the reactive nature of oxygen when we observed how it reacted with iron
and magnesium to form metal oxides.
• The general reaction of non-metals with oxygen When a non-metal burns in oxygen, a non-
metal oxide forms as the product.
• Here is the word equation for the general reaction: non-metal + oxygen → non-metal oxide
• Non-metal oxides are referred to as acidic oxides.
• It looks similar to the word equation for the reaction between a metal and oxygen. The only
difference is that the word 'metal' has been replaced with 'non-metal' on both sides of the
equation.
• Non-metal oxides have different chemical properties to metal oxides.

The reaction of carbon with oxygen.

Watch the video below and look at picture below before completing activity below. Carbon
burning [Link]

Coal is a form of carbon that is used as fuel for many different purposes. It is one of the
primary fossil fuels that humans use to generate electricity for powering our industries, our
activities and our living spaces.

ACTIVITY 3. 4 FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT: CARBON BURNS IN OXYGEN.

1. What group is carbon in on the Periodic Table?

2. Write the general equation for the reaction between a non-metal and oxygen.

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 3. Write a word equation for the reaction between carbon and oxygen.
4. Write a balanced equation of this reaction.
5. The product of the reaction dissolves in water to form an acid. Name this acid and
write its formula.
The reaction of sulphur with oxygen.
Watch the video below and look at picture below before completing activity eight below. Sulfur
[Link]

sulfur + oxygen → sulfur dioxide

• Sulfur burns in oxygen to form sulfur dioxide.

• Sulfur dioxide is sometimes used as a preservative for dried fruits, such as dried peaches
and apricots and the guava rolls that so many of us love to eat.
• The fact that it is toxic means that very small quantities of it can be added to food to preserve
it.
• In very small quantities SO2 does not permanently harm a large organism such as a human
being, but bacteria cannot survive when it is present.
• Sulfur dioxide is also an important preservative in many South African wines.

SUMMARY

• Non-metals burn in oxygen to form non- metal oxides

• The general equation is: non-metal + oxygen → non-metal oxide
• Non-metal oxides are normally gases.
• When non-metal oxides dissolve in water, they form acids.
• When coal is burned in power stations, several non-metal oxides are formed. Some non-
metal oxides such as carbon dioxide, are greenhouse gases, some are responsible for the
formation of acid rain.

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 Concept map

34 | P a g e
 CHAPTER 4- ACIDS AND BASES

UNIT 1- ACIDS AND BASES CHARACTERISTICS

By the end of this section, you will be able to

• Define acids and bases

• Give examples of examples of acids and bases in our homes
• State properties of acids and bases
• Describe the meaning of pH and differentiate the pH of acids and bases
• Explain the pH scale

Acid

An acid is a substance that adds protons / hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution

Ionisation is the reaction of a molecular substance with water to produce ions

• A strong acid as an acid that ionises completely in an aqueous solution eg. hydrochloric
acid

Base

A base is a substance that accepts protons from an acid. It adds hydroxyl ions (OH-)
in the solution

Dissociation as the splitting of an ionic compound into its ions

• A strong base as a base that dissociates completely in an aqueous solution eg sodium

hydroxide

PROPERTIES OF ACIDS AND BASES.

Acids Bases
Properties Properties
• Sour taste • Bitter taste
• Feels rough • feels soapy/smooth
• Turns blue litmus red • Turns red litmus blue

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 • Has a pH value of less than • Has a pH value greater than 7
7 • May have hydroxide (OH) at the end
• Usually has hydrogen (H) in of its chemical formula
front of its chemical formula Examples
Examples • Sodium hydroxide NaOH
• Hydrochloric acid HCl • Calcium hydroxide Ca (OH)2
• Sulphuric acid H2SO4 • Ammonium hydroxide NH4OH
• Nitric acid HNO3 • Sodium bicarbonate Na2 CO3
• Acetic acid (vinegar)
• Citric acid

MEASURING ACIDITY AND BASICITY

Watch this video

[Link]

INDICATORS
Indicators can show us if a substance is an acid or a base.

The unit that we use to measure the acidity of a substance (how acidic that substance is) is
called pH. We pronounce the two letters, 'p' and 'H' separately when we say pH.

The pH is an abbreviation for "power of hydrogen" where "p" is short for the German word
potenz (meaning power or exponent of) and H is the element symbol for hydrogen.

The pH scale ranges between the values of 1 and 14.

We measure the acidity of substances in pH units.

We could say that the 'acidity' of a specific shampoo has a pH of 5.5. pH is the unit of
measurement and 5.5 is the number indicating the relative acidity on the pH scale.

It is acceptable, for to rather say: "The pH of this shampoo is 5,5."

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 Figure 4.1 The pH of some common substances

ACTIVITY 4.1; FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT.

1. Which of the substances above are acids?

2. Which substance is the strongest acid?

3. Which substance is the strongest base?

4. Name two other substances that are bases.

5. Which substance is neutral?

Fig 4.2 The pH scale

• The lower the pH of a substance, the more the substance is acidic

• The higher the pH of a substance the more basic the substance is

INDICATORS

Some substances can change colour when they react with acids and bases. These
substances are called acid-base indicators. Different indicators change colour at different
pH values

SOME EXAMPLES OF INDICATORS

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 UNIVERSAL INDICATOR

The universal indicator can show more accurately how acidic a substance is.

The universal indicator can change into a whole range of colours depending on the pH of
the solution.

Examples of some indicators, their pH ranges

indicator pH range Colour Colour

in acid in
base
Methyl orange 3.1 – 4.4 red Yellow

Bromothymol 6.0 – 7.6 yellow Blue

blue
Phenolphthalein 8.0 – 9.8 colorless Pink

pH meter

Scientists use a pH meter to measure the pH of a substance quickly and accurately

Fig 4.3 Examples of pH meters

A pH meter is an electronic instrument with a special sensor at the end that is sensitive to
acids and bases

ACTIVITY 4.2; SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT - [10].

1. Fill in the missing words in these sentences. Write the word on the line below. [6 marks]

38 | P a g e
 a) Something which shows whether a substance is an acid or a base, by changing colour
when we add it to that substance, is called an _______________.

b) The pH scale ranges between the values and _________.

c) _______________ have pH values less than 7.

d) Bases have pH values ranging between _________________.

e) ___________ substances have pH values approximately equal to 7.

2. Imagine we start with a beaker of clean, distilled water. Answer the following questions.
[4 marks]

a) What will be the pH of the clean, distilled water?

b) How will the pH change if we add a small amount of acid to the water?

c) How could we get the pH to increase?

d) How could we get the pH to increase to a higher value, for example 13.

39 | P a g e
 UNIT 2-REACTIONS OF ACIDS AND BASES
At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Describe the reaction between an acid and a base

• Define neutralisation.
• Explain what happens to the pH when an acid and a base are mixed
• Explain whether the reaction between an acid and a base always give a neutral mixture, in
other words a mixture with pH = 7.
• Describe factors that determine the pH of the final solution when an acid and a base are
mixed.
• Describe a way to predict which classes of compounds will tend to be acids and which will
tend to be bases.
• Explain whether metal oxides, metal hydroxides and metal carbonates are acidic or basic.
Which pH range will their solutions fall into?
• Predict what products we can expect when a metal oxide, a metal hydroxide or a metal
carbonate react with an acid.
• Write the general equations to explain these reactions
• Explain how does acid rain forms

NEUTRALISATION

Watch this video

[Link]

Neutralisation is when an acid reacts with a base to form substances that are neither acid
nor base. The products of a neutralisation reaction are salt and water.

THE PRODUCTS OF ACID-BASE REACTIONS.

In order to understand how an acid-base reaction works, we have to take a quick detour
and say something about exchange reactions. Acid-base reactions are exchange reactions.

In the reaction below, two substances AB and CD are undergoing an exchange reaction:

AB + CD → AD + CB

40 | P a g e
 Can you see that A and C have exchanged partners so that A is now combined with D,
while C combined with B?

Acids and bases undergo exchange reactions too. Here are some examples. See if you can
figure out which parts have exchanged with which.

Example 1

HCl + NaOH → NaCl + HOH

In the above equation HOH should actually be written: H2O. The reaction equation
becomes:

HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O

or, in words:

hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide → sodium chloride + water

In this example, the following happened:

• the acid gave its H towards making a water molecule.

• the base gave OH towards making a water molecule; and

• the Na from the base and the Cl from the acid combined to form a salt.

Example 2

2 HCl + MgO → MgCl2 + HOH

In the above equation HOH should actually be written: H2O. The reaction equation
becomes:

2 HCl + MgO → MgCl2 + H 2O or, in words:

hydrochloric acid + magnesium oxide → magnesium chloride + water

Acid-base reactions always produce water and a salt. In both of the examples above the
general equation was: acid + base → salt + water

ACTIVITY 4.3; INVESTIGATION: The reaction between vinegar and baking soda.

The purpose of this experiment is to investigate how the pH changes when vinegar is
added to baking soda.
41 | P a g e
 INVESTIGATIVE QUESTION(S):

1. What question do you hope to answer with this investigation?

OVERVIEW OF THE INVESTIGATION:

1. We will measure the pH of a solution of baking soda with universal indicator paper to

confirm whether it is acidic or basic. What range do you expect the pH of this solution to fall
in?

2. We will add vinegar to the baking soda solution in small portions and measure the pH after
each

portion has been added. What changes do you expect to observe? Will the pH increase,
decrease or

stay the same?

HYPOTHESIS:

1. What is your prediction? Your hypothesis should be a prediction of the finding of the
investigation. You should write it in the form of a possible answer to the investigative question.

MATERIALS:

• Baking soda

• Vinegar

• Water

• Glass beaker or small yoghurt tub

• Universal indicator paper (cut into 1 cm strips)

• Sheet of white printer paper

• Plastic teaspoon

METHOD:

1. Prepare the universal indicator paper by neatly placing five 1-cm pieces underneath each
other on the sheet of paper.

42 | P a g e
 2. Place one teaspoon of baking soda in the beaker or yoghurt tub.

3. Add approximately 10 teaspoons of water to the baking soda.

4. Use the teaspoon to stir the solution until all the baking soda has dissolved.

We will be calling this the 'test solution' from now on.

5. Transfer one drop of the test solution to the first piece of universal indicator paper using
the teaspoon or a straw.

6. Compare the colour of the paper with the colour guide given at the start of the chapter, to
find the pH of the solution. Record this pH in your results table.

7. Add 1 teaspoon of the vinegar to the test solution. Stir it gently and transfer another drop
of the solution to a fresh strip of the universal indicator.

8. Read the pH of the solution off the colour guide and record it in your results table.

9. Repeat steps 6 and 7 until the pH of the test solution drops below 7. You may need more
than 5 pieces of universal indicator paper.

RESULTS:

[Link] your results in a neat table. Use appropriate headings for your table. 'Number of
teaspoons of vinegar added' and 'Colour of the universal indicator paper' and 'pH of the test
solution' are suggested headings for your columns.

[Link] a line graph to illustrate your results. What will be on the x-axis and what will be on
the y-axis? Give your graph a heading.

CONCLUSIONS: What conclusions can be made from the results of your investigation?
Here you can rewrite your hypothesis but change it to reflect your findings if they are
different from what you predicted earlier. Were you able to confirm or reject your
hypothesis?

SOME COMMON LABORATORY ACIDS.

Name of acid formula

Hydrochloric acid HCl
Sulphuric acid H2SO4

43 | P a g e
 Nitric acid HNO3

NON-METAL OXIDES FORM ACIDIC SOLUTIONS.

You may not know this, but when CO2 gas is bubbled through water some of it dissolves

in the water to form carbonic acid. Here is the reaction equation:

CO2 + H2O → H2CO3

ACTIVITY 4.4; INVESTIGATION; CO2 bubbled through water.

MATERIALS:

• tap water

• glass

• straw

• indicator paper

INSTRUCTIONS:

1. Test the pH of clean tap water. It should be approximately 7. How would you do that?

2. Now exhale into the water using a straw. Your breath contains CO 2 and some of this will
dissolve in the water if you carry on doing this for a few minutes.

3. If you measure the pH of the solution now, you will see that it has decreased! What do you
think

the pH will be?

ACID RAIN.

The pH of the solution is now below 7 because it contains carbonic acid (H2CO3).

Carbonic acid is not a very strong acid, but still acidic enough to have a pH lower than 7.

When sulfur dioxide (a gas) is bubbled through water it dissolves in the water to

form an acid called sulfurous acid: SO2 + H2O → H2SO3

These are two of the reactions that produce a phenomenon called acid rain. SO 2 and CO2 are
released as waste products from factories and power stations. For example, burning
44 | P a g e
 wood and fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere. These
gases then dissolve in water droplets in the atmosphere to form acids, in a similar way that the
CO2 in your breath dissolved in the water in the last activity to produce an acidic solution.
When it rains, these acids are present in the raindrops that fall back to earth. Sulfurous acid
(H2SO3) is strong enough to damage plant life and to acidify water sources.

Acid rain forms when CO2 and SO2 from factories and other air pollutants combine with water
in the atmosphere. A forest can be destroyed by acid rain.

ACTIVITY 4.4; FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT ACID RAIN.

QUESTIONS: Study the diagram showing how acid rain forms

Fig 4.4 diagram showing formation of acid rain

1. Which three gases are shown in the diagram that contributes to the formation of acid rain?
Write their names and formulae.

2. What are some of the sources of these gases? You can do some extra reading about this to
help you answer this question.

3. Write the equations for how two of these gases which you have learnt about react with the
water in the atmosphere to form acids.

4. What are the names of these two acids?

5. What are some of the environmental impacts of acid rain? Study the diagram for some
clues and do some extra reading.

6. Acid rain can also damage buildings as it 'eats away' the stone. What property of acids
allows it to do this?

45 | P a g e
 7. Factories used to have quite short funnels to let out the smoke, but it was found that this
caused many problems in the local towns and cities near the factory as the gases would
combine with water in the immediate environment to cause acid rain. Factories then started to
build much higher smoke funnels so that the smoke was let out high enough to be

blown further away. Do you think this is an efficient way to help reduce acid rain? Explain your
answer.

8. Do some research to find out about the possible ways to prevent or minimize the formation
of acid rain. Write a paragraph to summarize these methods below.
METAL OXIDES, METAL HYDROXIDES AND METAL CARBONATES FORM BASIC
SOLUTIONS.

Metal oxides.

We already learnt rules to write the formulae of metal oxides. Metal oxides are called basic
oxides. What do you think the pH will be of a solution of a metal oxide in water?

The next class of compounds that form basic solutions in water are the metal hydroxides.

Metal hydroxides.

A metal hydroxide forms when a metal reacts with water. A metal hydroxide has the general
formula MOH or M(OH)2. In the formula, M represents a metal atom, O represents an oxygen
atom and H represents a hydrogen atom.

To know whether the MOH or M(OH)2 will be the correct formula, here are two simple rules for
you to remember:

1. Metal hydroxides from group 1 on the Periodic Table will have the formula MOH.

Can you write two examples? Look at the Periodic Table at the front of the book, pick any two
metals from group 1 and write their formulae using this rule.

2. Metal hydroxides from group 2 will have the formula M(OH)2.

Can you write two examples?

What do you think the pH will be of a solution of a metal hydroxide in water?

46 | P a g e
 The final class of compounds that forms basic solutions in water is the metal carbonates.
Baking soda is a special kind of carbonate, called bicarbonate (or hydrogen carbonate).
You may remember that it was one of the bases we tested with universal indicator earlier.

Metal carbonates.

A metal carbonate has the general formula MCO3 or M2CO3. In the formula, M represents a
metal atom, C represents a carbon atom and O represents an oxygen atom.

To know whether the MCO3 or M2CO3 will be the correct formula, there are two simple rules
to remember:

1. Metal carbonates from group 1 on the Periodic Table will have the formula M2CO3.

Can you write two examples?

2. Metal hydroxides from group 2 will have the formula MCO3.

Can you write two examples?

What do you think the pH will be of a solution of a metal carbonate in water?

THE GENERAL REACTION OF AN ACID WITH A METAL OXIDE.

Metal oxides are formed from the reaction between a metal and oxygen.

Metal oxides are basic. When we dissolve them in water, they form solutions with pH
values above 7.

• Non-metal oxides are formed from the reaction between a non-metal and oxygen. Non-
metal oxides are acidic. When they dissolve in water, they form solutions with pH values
below 7.

Here is the same summary, in table form, with some examples added:

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 Metal oxides Non- metal oxides
Metal + oxygen →metal oxide Non-metal + oxygen → non- metal
oxide
Basic acidic
pH>7 pH<7
Examples, Li2O, Na2O, MgO, CO2, SO2, NO2, P2O5
CaO

ACTIVITY 4.5 INVESTIGATE THE REACTION OF AN ACID AND METAL OXIDE.

INVESTIGATION

The reaction between magnesium oxide and hydrochloric acid

The purpose of this investigation is to:

• test whether a solution of magnesium oxide in water is acidic, basic or neutral; and

• determine whether the reaction between an aqueous solution of magnesium oxide and
hydrochloric acid is a neutralisation reaction.

INVESTIGATIVE QUESTION(S):

What are the questions you hope to answer with this investigation? Write them in the space
below. There are a few words to start you off.

1. When magnesium oxide is dissolved in water, will the resulting solution…

2. When a solution of magnesium oxide is treated with hydrochloric acid, will the pH of the
mixture …

OVERVIEW OF THE INVESTIGATION:

1. We will measure the pH of a solution of magnesium oxide (MgO) with universal indicator
paper to confirm whether it is acidic or basic. Within what range do you expect the pH of the
magnesium oxide solution to fall?

2. We will add hydrochloric acid (HCl) to the magnesium oxide solution in small portions
and measure the pH after each portion has been added.

What changes do you expect to observe - will the pH increase, decrease or stay the same?
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 HYPOTHESIS:

What are your predictions? Your hypothesis should be a prediction of the finding(s) of the
investigation. You should write it in the form of a possible answer to the investigative
question(s). Here are a few words to start you off:

1. When magnesium oxide is dissolved in water, the resulting solution will…

2. When a solution of magnesium oxide is treated with hydrochloric acid, the pH of the
mixture will…

MATERIALS:

• Magnesium oxide powder

• Water

• Universal indicator paper (cut into 1 cm strips)

• White tile or sheet of white printer paper

• Glass rod (or plastic straw)

• Test tube

• Dropper

• Hydrochloric acid (HCl) solution (0.1 M)

METHOD:

1. Prepare the universal indicator paper by neatly placing five 1 cm pieces in a column on
the white tile or sheet of printer paper.

2. Place a small quantity (the size of a match head) of the magnesium oxide in a test tube.

3. Add approximately 2 ml of tap water to dissolve most of the magnesium oxide.

4. Use the glass rod (or plastic straw) to stir the solution until most the magnesium oxide
has dissolved. We will be calling this the test solution from now on.

5. Transfer one drop of the test solution to the first piece of universal indicator paper.

6. Compare the colour of the paper with the colour guide to find the pH of the solution.

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 7. Record this pH in the table you prepared beforehand.

8. Add 10 drops of the hydrochloric acid solution to the test solution. Stir it gently and
transfer another drop of the solution to a fresh strip of the universal indicator.

9. Read the pH of the solution off the colour guide and record it in your table.

10. Repeat steps 3 and 4 until the pH of the test solution drops below 7. You may need
more than 5 pieces of universal indicator paper.

RESULTS:

1. Present your results in a table. You should prepare this beforehand. Use appropriate
headings for your table. 'Number of drops of HCl added' and 'Colour of the universal
indicator paper' and 'pH of the test solution' are suggested headings for your columns.

2. Draw a graph of your results. Here are some hints to help you decide which variable to
put on which axis:

a) What is your independent variable? (Which variable did you change?) This goes on the
x-axis.

b) What is your dependent variable? (Which variable did you measure?) This goes on the
y-axis.

CONCLUSIONS:

What conclusions can be made from the results of your investigation? Rewrite your
hypothesis but change it to reflect your findings if they are different from what you predicted
earlier.

Were you able to confirm or reject your hypotheses?

GENERAL EQUATION FOR THE REACTION OF AN ACID WITH A METAL OXIDE.

Can you remember learning that an acid-base reaction is an exchange reaction?

We learnt that:

• The acid contributes H towards making a water molecule.

• The base contributes O or OH towards making a water molecule; and

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 • Whatever is left of the acid and the base after making a H 2O molecule, combines to form a
salt. The general word equation for the reaction between an acid and a base is:

acid + base → salt + water

Since the base in our reaction is a metal oxide we can write:

acid + metal oxide → salt + water

This is the general word equation for the reaction between an acid and a metal oxide. The
type of salt that forms will depend on the specific acid and metal oxide which were used in the
reaction.

Equations for the reaction between magnesium oxide and hydrochloric acid.

Now we are going to learn how to write equations for our actual reaction

THE GENERAL REACTION OF AN ACID AND A METAL HYDROXIDE.

General equation for the reaction of an acid with a metal hydroxide

You learnt that an acid-base reaction can be represented by the following

general word equation:

acid + base → salt + water

The base in our reaction was a metal hydroxide, so the general equation becomes:

acid + metal hydroxide → salt + water

This is the general equation for the reaction between an acid and a metal hydroxide. The type
of salt that forms will depend on the specific acid and metal hydroxide which were used in the
reaction.

Equations for the reaction between sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid

Now we are going to learn how to write equations for our actual reaction.

ACTIVITY 4.6: Formative assessment; Writing the chemical equation.

The following steps will guide you:

1. The acid of our reaction was hydrochloric acid. Write its chemical formula.

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 2. What is the name and formula of the metal hydroxide we used?

3. Now, let's try to predict the products of the reaction. We know that water will be one of
the products.

4. Write what remains of the base after we have taken away the OH to make water.

5. Write what remains of the acid after we have taken away the H to make water.
Remember we need two H to make one H2O, but NaOH has already contributed one O and
one H. Now put the two fragments together. Place the metal from the base first and the
non-metal from the acid. One Na and one Cl makes...

6. Now, let's put it all together, in the following order: Acid + metal hydroxide → salt + water

7. Let's check quickly if the reaction is balanced.

a) How many H atoms on the left and on the right? Are they balanced?

b) How many Cl atoms on the left and on the right? Are they balanced?

c) How many O atoms on the left and on the right? Are they balanced?

8. Once you have performed this reaction and you are left with a neutral solution, decide
you want to recover the sodium chloride (table salt). Describe how you will do this.

Finally, let's use the chemical equation to write a word equation for the reaction

Hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide → sodium chloride + water

THE GENERAL REACTION BETWEEN AN ACID AND A METAL CARBONATE.

General equation for the reaction of an acid with a metal carbonate

The general equation for the reaction between an acid and a base is as follows:

acid + base → salt + water

If we replace 'base' with 'metal carbonate', we get:

acid + metal carbonate → salt + water

But wait, there was a third product in our reaction! Can you remember what it was? (Hint:
Bubbles formed, so it was a gas.)

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 We need to make it clear that CO2 was a product of the reaction, so the correct general
word equation would be:

acid + metal carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide

The type of salt that forms will depend on the specific acid and metal carbonate which were
used in the reaction.

Equations for the reaction between calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid

ACTIVITY 4.7: Formative assessment; Writing the chemical equation.

The following steps will guide you:

1. The acid of our reaction was hydrochloric acid. Can you write its chemical formula?

2. What is the name and formula of the metal carbonate we used?

3. Now, let's try to predict the products of the reaction. We know that water and carbon
dioxide

will be two of the products.

4. Write what remains of the base after we have taken away the CO 3 to make CO2 and
leave one O to make water.

5. Write what remains of the acid after we have taken away the H to make water.
Remember we need two H to make one H2O and CaCO3 has only contributed one O.

6. Now put the two fragments together. Place the metal from the base first and the non-
metal from the acid Ca and 2 Cl makes...

7. Now, let's put it all together, first the reactants, then the products:

2 HCl + CaCO3→ CaCl2 + H2O + CO2

8. Let's check quickly if the reaction is balanced.

a) How many H on the left and right? Are they balanced?

b) How many Cl on the left and right? Are they balanced?

c) How many O on the left and right? Are they balanced?

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 d) How many C on the left and right? Are they balanced?

hydrochloric acid + calcium carbonate → calcium chloride + water + carbon dioxide

APPLICATIONS FOR CALCIUM CARBONATE.

Where it is found

• Calcium carbonate is found in many places outside of the laboratory.

• It is found in different types of rocks around the world, for example limestone, chalk and
marble.
• The Cango Caves near Oudtshoorn, South Africa, are situated in a limestone ridge and
contain spectacular limestone formations. Such caves are the result of water high in
carbonic acid acting upon limestone deposits in ancient rock layers.
• Calcium carbonate is also the main part of shells of various marine organisms, snails,
pearls, oysters, and bird eggshells. It is also found in the exoskeletons of crustaceans (such
as crabs, prawns, and lobsters).

Figure 4.5 – Some pictures of calcium carbonate.

• Dark green leafy vegetables such as broccoli, kale and cabbage are a dietary source of
calcium carbonate, providing the body with calcium. You can also take calcium carbonate in
the form of tablet supplements.
Uses of calcium carbonate.
1. In industry, the main application is in construction as it is used in various building
materials and in cement.
2. Calcium carbonate is used in many adhesives, paints and in ceramics.
3. It is also used in swimming pools to adjust the pH. When do you think it would be
added? If the pool was too acidic and you wanted to make it more basic, or if the pool was
too basic and you wanted to make it more acidic?

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 4. Calcium carbonate is also used in agriculture in the form of lime powder.
Agricultural lime is made by grinding up limestone or chalk. It is added to the soil if the soil
is too acidic to increase the pH. It also provides plants with a source of calcium.

ACTIVITY 4.8; SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT REVISION:

1. Fill in the missing words in these sentences. Write the word on the line below. [10
marks]

a) To know if something is an acid or a base, we measure its ___________________

b) The name of the laboratory acid with the formula H2SO4, is __________ .

c) The formula of the laboratory acid named hydrochloric acid, is _____________

d) When a metal oxide reacts with an ______________ , a salt and water will be formed.

e) When a metal hydroxide reacts with an acid, a salt and _________ will be formed.

f) When a metal carbonate reacts with an acid, a salt, water and _________ will be
formed.

g) Metal oxides, metal hydroxides and metal carbonates all dissolve in ________

water, forming solutions. This means the solutions will have pH values than 7.

h) The reaction of an acid with a base is called a ____________ reaction.

i) Non-metal oxides tend to form _________ solutions when they dissolve in water.

2. Write a short paragraph (3 or more sentences) to explain what you understand each of
the following terms to mean, in your own words.

a) Neutralisation

b) Acid rain

3. For each of the following reactions, complete the tables by providing the missing
equations.

a) The reaction between hydrochloric acid and magnesium oxide

Word equation
Chemical
equation
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 General Acid + metal oxide → salt +
equation water
b) The reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide

Word equation
Chemical equation
General equation
c) The reaction between hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate

Word equation
Chemical equation
General equation
d) The reaction between hydrochloric acid and magnesium hydroxide

Word equation
Chemical equation
General equation
e) The reaction between hydrochloric acid and calcium oxide

Word equation
Chemical equation
General equation
f) The reaction between hydrochloric acid and potassium hydroxide

Word equation
Chemical equation
General equation
g) The reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium carbonate

Word equation
Chemical equation
General equation
Total [48 marks]

THE GENERAL REACTION OF AN ACID AND A METAL.

At the end of this section, you will be able to;

Describe what we get when a metal reacts with an acid.

•Write the general equation for the reaction between a metal and an acid

• Explain how we write the word equation and the balanced chemical equation

• describe how we test for the presence of hydrogen gas?

When an acid reacts with a metal, the products formed are salt and hydrogen gas. The type
of salt formed will depend on the specific acid and metal used in that reaction.

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 The general equation is always:

Acid + metal → salt + hydrogen gas

Eg word equation: hydrochloric acid + magnesium → magnesium chloride + hydrogen gas

Balanced equation: 2HCl + Mg → MgCl2 + H2

ACTIVITY 4.9: Formative assessment; Testing for hydrogen gas.

1. What do you know about hydrogen gas? Perhaps you know its formula?

Write it below.

2. Hydrogen gas is a diatomic gas. What does this mean?

3. What do you know about the position of hydrogen in the periodic table? Write what you
know below.

4. The position of hydrogen in the periodic table tells us that it is the lightest of all the
elements. It has the smallest atomic mass. Because the element hydrogen is a gas (even
though it is a diatomic one), it has one of the lowest densities of any substance. Can you
remember what density means? Write your own definition below.

5. When hydrogen gas is released in a reaction it will immediately rise up, because
hydrogen is less dense than air. If you filled a balloon with hydrogen, it would float up and
you would need to tie a string to it to prevent it from floating away

[Link] reacts explosively with oxygen if you bring a flame near it. The reaction
between a large quantity of hydrogen and oxygen in the air produces a beautiful orange
fireball and a very loud boom! Do you remember seeing the following diagram?

Fig 4.5 Hydrogen exploding with oxygen

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 5. Write the balanced equation for the reaction between hydrogen gas and oxygen below.

The reaction between a tiny amount of hydrogen and oxygen in the air produces a
characteristic 'pop' sound and this serves as test for the presence of hydrogen.

Fig 4.6 Test for hydrogen

Testing for hydrogen gas.

When a glowing splint is put into a test tube containing hydrogen gas... ...it makes a 'pop'
sound.

ACTIVITY 4.10: Formative assessment. Writing the chemical equation.

The following steps will guide you:

[Link] acid of our reaction was hydrochloric acid. Can you write its chemical formula?

2. What is the name and formula of the metal we used?

3. Now, let's try to predict the products of the reaction. We know that hydrogen gas will be
one of the products. Write the chemical formula for hydrogen gas.

4. Write what remains of the acid (HCl) after we have taken away the H to make H 2.
(Remember we need two H to make one H2).

5. The two Cl and the Mg are exactly what are needed to make magnesium chloride. Write
the formula below.
6. Now, let's write the reaction; first the reactants, then the products:

2 HCl + Mg → MgCl2+ H2

Let's check quickly if the reaction is balanced.

a) How many H on the left and right? Are they balanced?

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 b) How many Cl on the left and right? Are they balanced?

c) How many Mg on the left and right? Are they balanced?

Since the numbers of each type of atom is the same on either side of the equation, we can
confirm that it is balanced.

7. Finally, let's use the chemical equation to write a word equation for the reaction.

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 TERM 2: ENERGY AND CHANGE - CHAPTER 5 FORCES

UNIT 1- CONTACT FORCES

At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• Define a scalar quantity and vector quantity

• Define a force and identify the SI unit of a force
• State different types of forces
• Give examples of each type
• Define gravitational force, electrostatic force, magnetic force, tension force, friction force,
applied force, and normal force.
• Draw free body diagrams
• Differentiate between balanced and unbalanced forces
• Define a net force
• Calculate net forces in different scenarios

Scalars and vectors

A vector is a physical quantity that has both magnitude and direction

Examples: displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum, force

A scalar quantity is a physical quantity that has magnitude only

Examples: distance, speed, mass, time, density

Resultant/net vector is the single vector which has the same effect as the original
vectors acting together

FORCES; INTRODUCTION.

Forces are in play all around us. Things hanging, sitting, balancing, moving and spinning all
exert a force. Forces come in different forms. Force is applied in almost every activity in our
lives e.g. pushing a shopping cart, lifting weights, pulling a door open, eating.

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 Define a force;

A force is a push or a pull on an object. The unit in which we measure force is

a newton (N).

It is named after Sir Isaac Newton, an English physicist and mathematician. Sir Isaac Newton
is recognised as one of the most influential scientists of all times. The unit of force is named
after him in recognition of his work in mechanics and his three laws of motion.

Different Kinds of Forces:

weight, normal force, frictional force, applied (push, pull) force, tension (strings or cables),
electrostatic, magnetic

• Define weight Fg as

the gravitational force the Earth exerts on any object on or near its surface

• Calculate weight using the expression Fg = mg where g is the acceleration due to gravity.
Near the surface of the earth the value is approximately 9,8 m·s−2.

• Define normal force, FN, as the

perpendicular force exerted by a surface on an object in contact with it

Define frictional force due to a surface, Ff, as the force that opposes the motion of an object
and acts parallel to the surface with which the object is in contact

Net force.

A vector sum of all the forces/components in the x-direction and the resultant or net
force in the y-direction as a vector sum of all forces/the components in the y-direction.

EFFECTS OF FORCES.

1. A force may cause an object to start moving. The push force that the person exerts on the
stationary car makes it move.

2. A force may cause a moving object to speed up, slow down or stop. The force that a
break exerts makes a car slow down and eventually stop.

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 3. A force can cause a moving object to change direction. A dog exerts a pulling force on its
leash that makes the dog walker change direction.

4. A force may cause an object to change its shape. When a twisting force is exerted on a
cloth, the cloth changes its shape.

5. A force may cause an object to rotate. When the boy exerts a force on the pedals, the
wheels of the bicycle rotate.

Watch the following video on forces

[Link]

Activity 5.1 Formative assessment (12).

1. Define the following terms: scalar quantity, vector quantity, force, net force

2. Classify the following into scalar or vector quantities: speed, weight, mass, time,
acceleration, density, displacement, length

Describing a force.

When we describe a force, we need to give it size AND the direction in which it is acting.
Here are some examples:

(c) A 16 N force acting to the right (or to the east)

16N

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 When we want to draw a diagram to show what forces are acting, we use arrows to
represent the forces. We always show forces acting from the centre of the object on which
it acts. If we were to draw the force on a ball when it is pushed, it could look like this:

Fig 5.1 Diagram showing force on a ball

The direction of the arrow shows the direction in which the force is acting, and the length of
the arrow is an indication of the size of the force. A small force would be shown with a short
arrow. A large force would be shown with a long arrow.

More than one force can act on an object at the same time. The effect of the different forces
acting together depends on how big each force is and what direction each force is acting in.

Fig 5.2 Several forces acting on a body

Free-body diagrams.

Draw a labelled free-body diagram by drawing the object of interest as a dot and all the
forces acting on it drawn as arrows pointing away from the dot. The forces must be fully
named (e.g., weight, normal, force A on B, friction, air resistance)

Example of forces acting on the boy in the middle in the above picture

Example

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 Fig 5.3 Force diagram and free-body diagrams

Draw a free-body diagram showing friction, normal force, weight and applied forces.

Forces act in pairs.

Forces always act in pairs. Sometimes these pairs of forces are referred to as action –
reaction pairs according to Newtons Laws. For example:

• If you push a wall, the wall resists and pushes back at you.

• If you push a desk, the desk moves, but it still pushed back at you.

• Books lying on a table push down on the table. The table resists the force by pushing
back up.

• What would happen if the pushing force of the books on the table was higher than what
the table was able to exert back?

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 FORCES ACT IN PAIRS, IN OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS.

If the forces in a pair have the same size and act in opposite directions, they are balanced.
We will see NO effect. For example:

• If you push a wall, the wall resists with the same force. These forces are balanced

The wall does not move.

• Books lying on a table push down on the table. The table resists the force by pushing
back up with the same force. The forces are balanced. You see no resulting motion.

If one force in a pair is larger than the other, they are not balanced. We will see the effect
on one of the two objects.

Fig 5.4 Examples of action – reaction pairs

For example:
• If you push a desk, the desk moves, but it still pushed back at you. The force
that you are exerting on the desk is larger than the force that the desk is exerting
back on you. The forces are not balanced. You see a resulting motion.

• If books lying on a table push down on the table with a greater force than the table is
able to exert back, the surface of the table will collapse. The forces are unbalanced. You
see a resulting effect.

Activity 5.2. Formative assessment -Action- reaction pairs.

1. Identify two action – reaction pairs of forces in the following diagram showing a rocket
launching into space. (4)

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 Fig 5.5 A rocket launching into space

2. Draw a free body diagram of all forces acting on the box in the diagram below. The box
is being pulled on a rough surface. (4)

Fig 5.6 A man pulling a load

CONTACT FORCES AND FIELD FORCES

When a force acts on an object, we may classify it into two broad groups:
• Contact force. A contact force is exerted when two objects are in contact. They touch
each other.

When you push against a wall, you are exerting a contact force. Books on a table exert a
contact force.

• Non-contact force. This is also called a field force. A non-contact force acts over a
distance. Two objects exert a force on each other without ever touching each other.

Planet earth moves in an orbit around the sun. This is because the two attract each other
over a distance. They exert a gravitational force.

When a magnet attracts a magnetic object, they attract over a distance. They exert a non-
contact force.

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 Figure 5.6 Types of forces

CONTACT FORCES.

A contact force is exerted when two objects are in contact. They touch each other.

Examples

Normal, Friction, compression, tension, applied force

Friction.
What is friction?

A ball that rolls along the ground will slow down and eventually come to a stop. It slows
down and stops because of friction. The surface of the ground rubs against the surface of
the ball. The force of friction always acts parallel to the surface. The force of friction against
the surface acts in the opposite direction to the movement of the ball.

Fig 5.7 Showing force of friction on a diagram

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 Based on Newton’s First Law The force of friction against the surface acts in the opposite
direction to the applied force.

The force of friction acts parallel to the surface

Fig 5. 8 Several forces acting on a block

Friction can prevent an object from moving. If you push against a heavy box that is standing
on grass, the grass exerts a frictional force that works against the pushing force.

If the pushing force is smaller than the frictional force, the block does not move. If the
pushing force is the same size as the frictional force, the block does not move. If the
pushing force is greater than the frictional force, the block will move

ADVANTAGES OF FRICTION.

• Friction enables us to walk freely.

• It helps to support ladder against wall.
• It becomes possible to transfer one form of energy to another.
• Objects can be piled up without slipping.
• Breaks of vehicles work due to friction and keeps cars from skidding.
• It always resists the motion, so extra energy is required to overcome it.
DISADVANTAGES OF FRICTION.
• Friction produces a lot of heat in various parts of the machinery and this leads to wastage
of energy as heat
• Opposes motion, hence more energy is needed to overcome friction
• Noise production in machines is irritating as well as leads to energy loss
• Forest fires are caused due to friction between branches of trees
• Lot of effort and money goes in using techniques like greasing and oiling to overcome
friction and usual wear and tear caused by it
[Link]
disadvantages-of-friction-5b83c917e4b0a50233a9d8eb

68 | P a g e
 Tension.

A tension force is a force developed in a rope, string, or cable when stretched under
an applied force.

Examples
If a car breaks down, a tow truck is used to pull it to the garage. A cable is attached to the
tow truck and to the car to pull the car.

If you hang an object on a rope from the ceiling, tension is created in the rope. If the object
is too heavy, the tension in the rope will be too high and the rope will break.

Fig 5.9 pictures of examples of tension force

Some materials are able to stretch when the tension in them increases e.g. an elastic band.

Tension is a pulling force. You cannot push with a rope

Compression.

Compression force (or compressive force) occurs when a physical force presses
inward on an object, causing it to become compacted.

If you squeeze a blown-up balloon between your hands, the air particles in the balloon are
pushed closer together and the balloon becomes smaller as it takes up less space.

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 Compression can also push something from one space into another space. For
example, when you squeeze toothpaste from a tube, you compress the tube of toothpaste
and force the toothpaste out of the tube and onto your toothbrush.

Normal force.

• Define normal force, FN,

A normal force is the perpendicular force exerted by a surface on an object in

contact with it

A contact force that always acts perpendicularly to the surface that the object is resting on.

Fig 5.10 Normal force and weight

ACTIVITY 5: 3 Formative assessment Forces (10).

[Link] a labelled diagram to show the force exerted by the soles of our shoes and the
frictional force as we walk. (3)

2. Draw a free body diagram of the forces acting on the elastic band shown below

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 3. Discuss how friction is reduced in ice skating. (2)

4. Decide whether each of the following is friction, tension or compression and explain: (6)

a. The force exerted in a string of beads worn around the neck.

b. You press the plastic tomato sauce bottle to squeeze out the last bit of tomato sauce onto
your chip.

c. The soccer player wears soccer boots when playing a match to prevent him from slipping
and falling on the floor.

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 UNIT 2 NON-CONTACT / FIELD FORCES
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• Define non-contact force, gravitational force and magnetic force

• Explain the concept of a field.
• Describe the gravitational force and its effects
• Describe the electrostatic force and applications of static electricity
• Explain the magnetic force and its applications.

Field forces act at a distance. Two bodies will exert field forces on each other without
touching.

We are going to learn about three types of field forces: gravitational force, electrostatic
force, magnetic force.

GRAVITATIONAL FORCE
All objects have mass and therefore exert a force of attraction on every other object. You
exert a tiny gravitation force on all the people around you and all the objects in the
classroom, and each of them exert an equally tiny gravitational force on you.

Weight.

Weight is the gravitational force the Earth exerts on any object on or near its surface

In the solar system, the sun exerts a gravitational force on all the planets, and each of
them exert a gravitational force on the sun. This is one reason that planets stay in orbits
around the sun.
As learnt, forces work in pairs. This is also true of gravitational force. For example, you
exert a gravitational force on the person next to you, and the person sitting next to you is
exerting a gravitational force on you, but in the opposite direction.

The gravitational pull exerted on you by the earth is equal but opposite to the
gravitational pull that you exert on the earth. But earth is so large that it does not move
towards you.

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 The arrows show the direction of the gravitational field of the Earth. The arrows all point
towards the centre of the Earth because the gravitational force is always attractive.

Fig 5.11 The gravitational force is radial and acts towards the centre of the planet
What is the size of the gravitational force? Newton formulated a law that describes the
gravitational force that two objects exert on each other. The universal gravitational law.
According to the law, there are two factors that affect the size of the gravitational force
between two objects.
Factors that determine the size of the gravitational force.
1. the masses of the two bodies. The larger the masses the larger the force
2. the distance between the two bodies. The smaller the distance between them, the
larger the force.
The earth exerts a gravitational force on you. This force is so strong that you cannot
jump high or float in the air.

Fig 5.12 Pictures of astronauts on the moon show the astronauts to almost float over
small distances.

The gravitational force that a person and earth exert on each other is much larger than the
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 force that a person and the moon exert on each other. All the planets in our solar

system are held in orbit around the Sun by the gravitational force of
attraction between the Sun and planets.
There is a gravitational force of attraction between us and the Sun, but we do not notice it
as we are so far apart, and we are very small. All the components in our Universe are held
together by a gravitational force.
ACTIVITY 5.4 Formative assessment - Difference between weight and mass.
Watch the following video and answer questions on mass and weight
[Link]
1. Define mass and weight.

2. What instrument is used to measure mass and to measure weight?

[Link] your mass on earth and on the moon be the same?

4. Will your weight on earth and the moon be the same?

5. On earth, an object’s weight is 9.8 times its mass in kg due to the force of gravity.
On the moon, an object’s weight is 1.6 times its mass in kg due to the force of gravity.
[Link] your mass is 65 kg, then:
Your weight on earth =
You weight on the moon = __________________________
Weight = mass x gravitational acceleration (on that planet or body)
ACTIVITY 5: 5 EXPERIMENT The relationship between mass and weight.
INVESTIGATIVE QUESTION: What is the relationship between the mass of an object and
its weight?
HYPOTHESIS: Write a hypothesis for this investigation
MATERIALS AND APPARATUS
• four mass pieces in increments of 500g (one of 500g, one of kg, one 1,5 kg and one
of 2 kg)
• spring balance
• triple beam balance
METHOD:
1. Measure the mass pieces on the triple beam balance.
2. Measure the weight of each mass piece with the spring balance.
3. Record the mass and matching weight in the results table.
4. Draw a graph of your results.

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 5. Calculate the gradient of the graph.
RESULTS:
Record your results in the following table.
Mass (kg) Weight (Kg)

[Link] is the dependent variable?

[Link] is the independent variable?
Weight is on y-axis versus mass on the x-axis
Draw your graph.
Your graph should be a straight line. Use the space below to calculate the gradient of your
graph.
The gradient should be 9,8.
CONCLUSION:
[Link] a conclusion for this investigation.

Weight is the force of gravity pulling you towards the centre of the Earth. It is measured in
newtons. On Earth the gravitational force causes us all to accelerate towards the centre of
the Earth. The acceleration is called gravitational acceleration. On Earth it is 9,8 m/s2.
The gradient that we calculated in the last investigation should have given you a number
close to 9,8 m/s2 which is gravitational acceleration.
Free – fall.
Objects are in free-fall when the only force acting on them is the gravitational force.
Weight (W) is calculated by multiplying an object's mass (m) by the gravitational
acceleration (g):
W=m×g
ACIVITY 5:6 Summative assessment (20). CALCULATIONS INVOLVING WEIGHT.
1.A Ferrari has a mass of 1485 kg. What is its weight on Earth?

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 Fig5.11AFerrari.
[Link] has a mass of 50 kg on Earth. What is her mass on the Moon?
[Link] has a mass of 78 kg. His friend Sam says that he would weigh 24 N on the Moon. Is
Sam correct? Explain by using a calculation.

[Link] have an apple with a mass of 220 g, what is its weight on Earth and on the Moon?

[Link] a cow weighed 1340 N on the Moon, what is its mass?

Fig 5.12 A jersey cow.

WEIGHT ON DIFFERENT PLANETS.

An object's weight is dependent on its mass and how strongly gravity pulls on it.
The strength of gravity depends on how far away one object is from another.
That’s why the same object weighs different amounts on different planets.
Mass stays the same regardless of location and gravity. You would have the
same mass on Mars or Jupiter as you do here on Earth.
ACTIVITY 5. 7 HOW MUCH DO YOU WEIGH IN OTHER PLANETS?
Use the values for the acceleration due to gravity on various planets to calculate what you
would weigh on that planet.

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 planet Your mass Value of g Your
(kg) (m/s2) weight
(N)
Earth 9,8
mercury 3,6
Venus 8,8
Mars 3,8
Jupiter 26
Saturn 11,2
Uranus 10,5
Neptune 13,3

FORCES EXERTED ON PARACHUTIST.

Figure 5.13 A parachutist achieving constant speed

MAGNETIC FORCE

Watch the following video on magnetism [Link]

Magnetism is the force exerted by magnets when they attract or repel each other.
Magnetism is caused by the motion of electric charges. Every substance is made up of tiny
units called atoms. Each atom has electrons, particles that carry electric charges
The only metals that are magnetic are iron, cobalt and nickel. Steel is also magnetic
because it contains iron.
Unlike gravitational force, magnetic force is not always a pulling force. It may also be
a pushing force.
A force of attraction is a pulling force that two objects exert on each other.
A force of repulsion is a pushing force that two objects exert on each other.

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 Fig 5.13 magnetic forces
All Magnets have Two Poles
• Each end of the magnet is called a
magnetic pole
• One end of the magnet always ends up pointing to the north. It is called the north pole
• The opposite end of the magnet points to the south and is called the south pole
• Magnetic poles are always in
pairs (one north, one south)

Figure 5.14 Different magnets

If a magnet is broken in half, each half gains a new pole.

Magnetic field
A magnetic field is the space around a magnet in which the magnetic force can be
experienced. It is three dimensional.
We show a magnetic field using magnetic lines of force. These lines are imaginary lines
along which the force acts.
Magnets are surrounded by a Magnetic Field.
• The shape of a magnetic field can be shown with lines drawn from the north pole of a
magnet to the south pole as shown in the diagram below
• Magnetic field lines show both the direction and the strength of a bar’s magnetic field
•
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 Figure 5.4 – magnetic field of a bar
magnet.
• The closer together the lines, the stronger the field.
• The lines around a magnet are closest together at the poles because that’s where the
magnetic force is strongest
Field lines that curve toward each other show attraction.

Figure 5.5- Unlike poles attract.

Field lines that curve away from each other show repulsion

Figure 5.6- Unlike poles repel

Figure 5.7 –the earth’s magnetic field( magnetosphere)

The Earth behaves as if it has a bar magnet running through its center (due to molten iron
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 and nickel in outer core). The poles of this imaginary magnet are located near Earth’s
geographic poles.
Temporary vs. Permanent Magnets
•
A magnet that quickly loses its magnetic field after being removed from a magnetic field
is a temporary magnet.
• the magnetic field of the bar magnet is strong enough to cause the nail’s magnetic
domains to line up. When you move the nail away, it’s no longer magnetic.
• A magnet that remains a magnet after being removed from another magnetic field is a
permanent magnet.
• Some magnetic materials can be made into permanent magnets by placing them in a
very strong magnetic field- this causes the domains to align and stay aligned.
Compasses
•The needle is a small magnet
•The Earth’s magnetic field exerts a force on the needle, causing it to rotate.
•The fields line up with each other
•The compass needle does not point directly toward the poles of a magnet- instead, the
needle aligns with field lines and points in the directions of the filed lines.
Properties of magnetic lines of force.
1. The lines do not intersect or cross.
2. Their direction is from North to south outside the magnet.
3. They are loops that are continuous.
4. Where the lines are closer and more, the magnet field is dense or strong.

ACTIVITY 5. 8 Formative assessment Magnetism.

1.1. Define the terms : magnetic field, magnetic material, magnetic field line,
magnetosphere, magnetic pole (5)

1.2. Study the following and draw the labelled magnetic fields shown

1.2.1 Bar magnet (3)

1.2.3. North pole on left and south pole on the right (3)

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 1.2.4 Two North poles adjacent (3)

1.3. Give three characteristics of field lines (3)

QUESTION 2

2.1 Study the following materials and pick magnetic materials from the list (3)

Rubber, copper, silver, one rand coin, iron nail, aluminium foil, nickel- silver coin,

2.2. State three practical uses of magnets. (3)

2.3. Explain the importance of the earth’s magnetic field. (3)

ELECTROSTATIC FORCE.
• Electrostatic forces are non-contact forces; they pull or push on objects without touching
them.

• Rubbing some materials together can result in something called ‘charge’ being moved from
one surface to the other.

• Charged objects pull on other uncharged objects and may either push or pull on other
charged objects.

• There are two sorts of charge; they call the two sorts ‘positive’ and ‘negative’.

• Lightning is the result of rapid charge movements in storm clouds.

ACTIVITY 5: 9 Baseline assessment. Electrostatics.

[Link] is electrostatic force?

[Link] atom is made up of protons and neutrons in the nucleus and electrons spinning
around the nucleus. An atom is electrically neutral. Why?
The protons and neutrons are held together strongly in the nucleus. Electrons can move

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 around.
[Link] you rub two substances together, you can make electrons move from one substance
to the other. The substance that gains electrons b e c o m e s electrically .
The s u b s t a n c e that loses electrons becomes electrically____.
[Link] objects with opposite electric charges (positive and negative) will ______ each
other. Unlike charges .
[Link] objects with negative electric charges or two objects with positive electric
charges will _--------- each other. Like charges ________ .
[Link] one object is charged and the other is neutral, they will each

Fig 5. 14 electrostatic forces other.

Note the few examples and some explanations:

You can charge a balloon by rubbing it against your hair. The balloon picks up extra
electrons, giving it a negative charge. Your hair h a s a positive charge as it lost electrons.

When you take off your wool jersey, it rubs against your hair. Electrons move from your
hair to the wool jersey. In both cases, the hairs now have a positive charge, so the
strands of hair repel each other, they try to get as far from each other as possible. The
furthest they can get is by standing up and away from the others.

If you hold your negatively charged balloon against a neutral object, like the wall, you
make the charges in the wall move. The wall does not become positively charged. So,
what happens?
The electrons in the wall are repelled by negative charge of the balloon and move as
far as they can away from the balloon. Now there are more positive charges close to
the negatively charged balloon. (It works in the same way for a positively charged
object and a neutral object).
ACTIVITY 5.10 Applications of static electricity.
[Link] you walk across a carpet, electrons move from the rug to you. Now you have extra
electrons and a negative static charge. If you touch the doorknob, you get zapped. Why?

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 [Link] you feel static electricity more commonly in winter when it’s dry or in summer
when it is more humid?
BALANCED AND UNBALANCED FORCES
Balanced Forces.
◆ If two forces of the same magnitude act on THE SAME object, in opposite directions, the
net force will be zero.
◆ The object will then be stationary or move at a constant speed
Forces in opposite directions
◆ If two forces of the same magnitude, act in opposite directions, the net force will be zero
(0 N)

Fig 5. Balanced forces have a net force of zero

Unbalanced Forces / net forces.

If the forces acting on an object do not balance out, then there will be a net force (overall
force) also called a resultant force.
The forces are said to be unbalanced and the object will accelerate or decelerate. That
means the object will either start moving, stop moving, slow down or speed up or change
direction. This is the basis of Newton’s Second Law.
◆ When more than one force is exerted on THE SAME object, their effect will depend on
the magnitude and direction of each force.
◆ When two of more forces act on an object, the forces combine to form a net force
(resultant force)
Forces in the same direction
◆ If two or more forces act in the same direction, the net force will be the sum of the values
of the individual forces.

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 Fig 5.16 net force

Forces in opposite directions

◆ If two or more forces act in opposite directions, the net force will be the difference in the
values of the individual forces.

Fig 5.17 Net force

ACTIVITY 5:11 SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT- NET FORCES.

[Link] free body diagrams of forces acting on the objects.

Fig. 5.18 diagrams of balanced and unbalanced forces.

[Link] resultant or net force in each of the diagrams above. (4)

3. The car experiences a thrust force of 4000N forwards and a drag force of 1500N
backwards.

a. Draw a free body diagram of all forces acting on the car. (4)

b. Calculate the resultant force. NB remember your units (4)

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 c. Indicate on the diagram the direction in which the car will accelerate. (1)

d. If the car applied its brakes and this added a force of 3000N backwards. What would the
new resultant force be? (4)

e. What would happen to the car? (2)

SUMMARY.
• A force is defined as a push or a pull on an object.
• Forces are measured in newtons (N).
• A force can change the shape, direction and motion of an object.
• Forces act in pairs. The force acting on the object is called the action and the force that the
object exerts back in the opposite direction and equal in magnitude is the reaction.
• More than one force can act on an object. The net or resultant force is the sum of all the
forces acting on the object.
• The forces acting on a body can be represented as a free-body diagram where the arrows
indicate the direction and magnitude of the different forces.
• There are two main groups of forces; contact and non-contact (field) forces.
• Contact forces act when objects are in contact (touching) with each other. Friction, tension
and compression are examples of contact forces.
• Friction is the force opposing motion between two surfaces as they rub against each other.
• Compression forces are two forces acting on one object, moving in opposite directions
(towards each other) to compress or deform the object.
• Tension forces are two forces acting on one object, moving in opposite directions (away from
each other) to stretch the object.
• Non-contact forces can act over a distance and objects do not have to be touching each
other. Common examples of field forces are magnetic, electrostatic and gravitational forces.
• Non-contact forces are known as field forces. A field is a region in space where a certain
object with certain properties will experience a force.
• Gravitational force is a force of attraction between two bodies due to their mass. The
gravitational force increases with mass and decreases with the distance between the bodies.
• The weight of a body is the gravitational force exerted on an object by the Earth (or Moon or
another planet). The weight will vary depending on where it is measured.
• The mass of an object is a measure of how much matter it contains. The mass stays constant
no matter where it is determined.

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 • Weight is calculated as W = m × g, where g is the gravitational acceleration. On Earth, g =
9,8m/s2.
• A magnet is a material which has a strong magnetic field around it.
• Magnetic forces of attraction exist between a magnet and a magnetic substance, such as
iron, steel, cobalt and nickel.
• A magnet has two poles, a north and south pole. Opposite poles attract each other and like
poles repel each other.
• The Earth has a magnetic field around it. We can use compasses to tell direction as the
needle is a magnet which points to magnetic North.
• When certain materials are rubbed together, the friction between them causes electrons to
move from one material to the other. The objects then have an electrostatic charge, due to
either the loss or gain of electrons.
• A charge is a fundamental property of matter. Electrons carry negative charges and protons
carry positive charges.
• An object which has gained electrons will be negatively charged. An object which has lost
electrons will be positively charged.
• There is an electrostatic force of attraction between objects with opposite charges, and
repulsion between objects with like charges.
• Thunder clouds can become charged as the water and air particles rub against each other. A
lightning strike occurs when there is a huge discharge between the thunderclouds and the
ground. Lightning is dangerous and safety precautions should be adhered to during lightning
storms.

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 CHAPTER 6 ENERGY SYSTEMS
UNIT 1 ELECTRIC CELLS AND CIRCUITS

At the end of this unit. You will be able to:

• Define an electric cell and identify the energy conversion in an electric cell
• Explain an electric circuit
• Describe an open circuit and a closed circuit
• Describe the functions of different electric components of a circuit and draw their symbols

CONCEPT MAP ON CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Electric cells.

An electric cell is a system in which chemical reactions take place to convert chemical energy
into electrical energy. The chemical energy comes from chemical reactions that take place
inside the cell. The chemical reaction releases electrons which then flow through the circuit as
electrical energy. Watch the video. [Link]

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 Fig 6.1 Open and closed circuit

The electrons will only flow through the circuit if the circuit is closed.

This is the symbol for a single cell

Batteries.

When two or more cells are connected in series, they make up a battery

This is the symbol of a battery.

Fig 6.1 Symbol of a battery with two cells

Voltage.
By connecting cells together to make a battery, we increase the total voltage.

Voltage tells us how much energy each cell can provide to push the electrons forward
through the circuit.

CONNECTING CELLS IN SERIES AND IN PARALLEL.

When cells are connected in series the total voltage of the cells increases. But when
cells are connected in parallel the voltage in the circuit registers a voltage of one cell.
The advantage of cells in parallel is that they last longer.

Fig 6.2 cells connected in parallel have low voltage but last longer

Fig 6.3 cells connected in series create a higher voltage but last a shorter time

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 Electric circuits.

An electric circuit is a path along which the charge flows.

An electric current will not flow if there is no power source such as a cell.

An electric current also will not flow if the circuit is broken at any point. A path that is broken
called an incomplete circuit.

One end of the power source must be joined to the other end by the wires and
components of the circuit.

Basic requirements of a circuit.

• Energy source such as a cell/battery or generator

• Conductors to allow electric current to flow from one end of the battery to the other
• Resistor to transfer energy eg. A bulb
• A switch to control the current.

Drawing electric circuits

Below are two diagrams that are showing the same thing. The diagram on the left is a
drawing of an electric circuit that has a cell and two light bulbs. The diagram below is a
showing the same thing, using CIRCUIT SYMBOLS. We will be drawing circuits using
circuit symbols.

Fig 6.4 Series circuit

The table below lists the common circuit components. Let’s provide the circuit symbol for
each.

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 Name of component Circuit symbol
Light bulb or lamp

Cell

Battery connected in
series
Ammeter
Voltmeter

Resistor

Variable resistor

Open switch

Fig 6.5 components of an electric circuit

ACTIVITY 6.1 Drawing circuit diagrams.

[Link] the following diagram using circuit symbols:

2. Draw the following circuit diagrams

a. A closed circuit with one cell, two light bulbs and a switch in series.

b. An open circuit with two cells, two light bulbs and a switch in series.

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 UNIT 2 ELECTRIC CURRENT, VOLTAGE AND RESISTANCE
At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Define a current and identify the units.

• Measure current in a circuit using an ammeter.
• Calculate the current, amount of charge or time using an appropriate equation
• Define voltage and identify units.
• Calculate voltage, work done or amount of charge using an appropriate formula.
• Measure voltage using a voltmeter.
• Define resistance and identify units.
• Apply the equation R = V/I

Watch this video [Link]

Electric current (I).

What is an electric current?

Electric current is the rate of flow of charge

𝑄
I = 𝑡 I – current (in Amperes): Q – quantity of charge ( in Coulombs) :t – time ( in
seconds). Current therefore, is how fast the charge is flowing.
The unit of current is called the ampere -Amp (coulombs per second)

We measure current using an ammeter

The more charge that flows, the more the current
An ammeter is placed in series in the electric circuit.
Electric current in a series circuit is the same at all points.
This diagram shows three ammeters placed in series along the electric circuit.

Fig 6. 6 An ammeter connected in series

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 ACTIVITY 6.2 Calculations.

1. Charge of 6 C flows in a circuit for 3 seconds. Calculate the amount of current flowing in
this circuit.

2. How much charge flows through a bulb if 0,5A of current flow in 2 minutes?

3. How much time will 10C of charge flow if the current in the circuit is o,25A?

Voltage / potential difference (v).

Define

voltage/potential difference is the work done per unit positive charge

𝑾
V = V-voltage ( in volts) W – work done (in joules) Q – quantity of charge ( in
𝑸

Coulombs)

Voltage is the amount of energy lost as the charge flows. Think of each electron running
through the circuit as a soldier. As they leave the battery, they are full of energy. As they
run through the circuit, they get more and more tired. By the time they get to the battery
on the other end, they are completely exhausted and depleted of energy.

The battery provides the total voltage that is available. We Measure voltage using a
voltmeter. The unit of voltage is the volt (V) which means Joules per Coulomb.

Figure 6.7 A voltmeter

A voltmeter is placed in parallel in the electric circuit, over the area where we want to
measure the voltage.
This diagram below shows the voltmeter placed in parallel across a cell.

Fig 6.8 The diagram shows a voltmeter connected

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 ACTIVITY 6.3 Calculations involving voltage.

1. Calculate the voltage across a resistor if 100 Joules of energy is generated when a charge
of 2,5 Coulombs is flowing.

2. If the above charge in question 1, flows for 30 second, how much current flows?

3. Calculate the charge when 250Joules if the voltage is 5 V?

EMF.

When you use a voltmeter to measure the potential difference across (or between) the
terminals of a battery, when no current is flowing through the battery, you are measuring
the electromotive force (emf) of the battery. This is how much potential energy the battery
has to make charges move through the circuit. It is a measure of how much chemical
potential energy can be transferred to electrical energy in the battery. This driving potential
energy is equal to the total potential energy drops in the circuit. This means that the voltage
across the battery is equal to the sum of the voltages in the circuit.

The emf (electromotive force) is the voltage measured across the terminals of a
battery when no current is flowing through the battery.

Resistance

Define resistance

Resistance is a material's opposition to the flow of electric current.

State that the unit of resistance is the ohm the symbol Ω.

Resistor
This is any material or device connected to the battery and has the tendency to resist
current and transfer energy.
This means that electricity cannot flow easily through a resistor.

What causes resistance?

We have spoken about resistors that reduce the flow of charge in a conductor. On a
microscopic level, electrons moving through the conductor collide with the particles of which
the conductor (metal) is made. When they collide, they transfer kinetic energy. The
electrons lose kinetic energy and slow down. This leads to resistance. The transferred

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 energy causes the resistor to heat up. You can feel this directly if you touch a cellphone
charger when you are charging a cell phone - the charger gets warm because its circuits
have some resistors in them!

All conductors have some resistance. For example, a piece of wire has less resistance than
a light bulb, but both have resistance. A lightbulb is a very thin wire surrounded by a glass
housing The high resistance of the filament (small wire) in a lightbulb causes the electrons
to transfer a lot of their kinetic energy in the form of heat 2. The heat energy is enough to
cause the filament to glow white-hot which produces light. The wires connecting the lamp to
the cell or battery hardly even get warm while conducting the same amount of current. This
is because of their much lower resistance due to their larger cross-section (they are
thicker).

An important effect of a resistor is that it converts electrical energy

into heat energy. Light is a by- product of the heat that is produced.

Factors affecting resistance.

Nature of materials ; some materials are good conductors ( such as copper) These have
low resistance, tungsten and nichrome have high resistance

• Length of wire: the longer the wire the higher the resistance

• Thickness : the thicker the wire the lower the resistance

• Temperature : the hotter the wire, the higher the resistance

ACTIVITY 6.4. CONDUCTIVITY AND RESISTANCE.

[Link] is a measure of .

[Link] something has low resistance, it means that .

[Link] something has high resistance, it means that ___________ .

[Link] measure resistance in .

MEASURING RESISTANCE

We measure resistance as:

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑅= 𝐼

Where R is resistance in ohms (Ω), V is voltage in volts (V), and I is current in amperes (A)

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 Example:

A voltmeter has a reading of 3.5 V when a current of 2 A passes through a lamp. Calculate the
resistance of the lamp.
𝑉
R= 𝐼

= 3.5 ÷ 2 = 1,75Ω

Conductors

Even good conductors offer some electrical resistance. As electrons leave the cell or battery
and into the closed circuit, they bump into particles inside the conductor. The conductor heats
up a little. This means that some of the electrical energy is wasted as heat energy.

Ohms Law.

State Ohm's Law:

Current through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference

across the conductor at constant temperature.

Resistors can be used to control the flow of current in a circuit, and they provide useful
energy transfer. For example,
• The filament in the light bulb is a resistor. The reason a light bulb glows is that
electricity is forced through a resistor. The electrical energy is converted to light and heat
energy.
• The heating element of the stove or inside a kettle is a resistor. The element transfers
electrical energy into heat energy.
Variable resistors

Some resistors don’t supply a fixed resistance. They have a mechanism that allows them to
change their resistance. Dimmer light switches and volume control knobs on radios use
such resistors called rheostats.

Both symbols may be used to represent a variable resistor.

Figure 6.9 variable resistor

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 SUMMARY

MIND MAP- VOLTAGE, CURRENT, RESISTANCE

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 UNIT 3 – SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• Define a series circuit.

• Draw series circuit diagrams.
• Describe the features of a series circuit.
• Calculate current, voltage and resistance in a series circuit.
• Show that a series circuit is a potential divider.
• Define the parallel circuit.
• Draw parallel circuit diagrams.
• Describe features of a parallel circuit.
• Calculate current, voltage and resistance in a parallel circuit.
• Demonstrate that a parallel circuit is a current divider.

Watch this video: [Link]

SERIES CIRCUITS
Current in a series circuit:

In a series circuit, the electric current only has one path that it can take.

This means that the current is the same at all points.

Fig 6.10 Measuring current in a series circuit

It doesn’t matter where you place the ammeter. You will always get the same reading.

The diagram above shows that the ammeter reading is 0.5A at any point on the circuit.

The current in the series circuit depends on the number of cells. The more cells, the
higher the current. The diagram below demonstrates this.

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 Fig 6. 11 Current in a series circuit

Voltage in a series circuit.

The cell or battery provides the total voltage. The voltage of the battery is equal to the sum of
voltages across the series resistors.

Vtotal = V1 + V2 + V3…

This means that when we connect cells in series, the total voltage increases.

In the diagram below, the three resistors are identical. The voltage at each one is 5V.

Vtotal= 5 V + 5 V+ 5 V = 15 V

Therefore, the battery provides a Vtotal of 15V. If we put a voltmeter over all three resistors, it
will measure 15V.

ACTIVITY 6.6: FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT- VOLTAGE IN A SERIES CIRCUIT.

[Link] resistors are connected in series to a battery of 12 V. The voltages of R1 and R2 are
3V and 7V respectively. What is the voltage of R3?

[Link] equal resistors are connected to a 4,5 V battery. Calculate the voltage of each resistor.

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 Resistance in a series circuit.

When two or more resistors or light bulbs are connected in series, their total resistance is
equal to the sum of their individual resistances.

Rt = R1 + R2+ R3…

Rt = R1 + R2 + R3

Fig 6.12 Resistance in a series circuit

Example:

Two lamps, one with a resistance of 10 Ω and one with a resistance of 20 Ω, are connected in
series. What is their total resistance?

RT = R1 + R2

= 10 Ω + 20 Ω

= 30 Ω

Relationship between resistance and current in a series circuit.

The more resistors there are in a series circuit, the less current there is. This is because a
resistor, such as a lamp, resists the current, making the current less.

See the diagram below:

Fig 6.13 calculating current in a series circuit

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 On the left is a circuit with one battery and one resistor (2Ω). The current of 1 A will be the
same no matter where we measure it in the circuit.

On the right is a circuit still with one battery and two resistors (RT =R1 + R2 =3Ω).

The total resistance has increased. This means that the current decreases, in this

case to 0.67 A. Again, the current will be the same no matter where we measure it in

the series circuit.

PARALLEL CIRCUITS
Current in a parallel circuit.

In a parallel circuit, the electric current divides into two or more paths before recombining to
complete the circuit. Because there are more paths for the current to flow, the current splits
across the paths.

Consider the diagram of a simple circuit in series. The current is 1.5 A no matter where you
measure the current.

Fig 6.14 Current

Now we add two resistors in parallel to the circuit above. Before the current splits and once the
current has re-joined, the current is 1.5 A. However, if the resistors are identical, when the
current splits into three paths, the current is divided by three. This makes the split current 0.5 A.

Fig 6.15 Current in a parallel circuit

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 If the resistors are not identical, the current divides such that the resistor with the lowest
resistance gets the most current. We say current is inversely proportional to resistance.

Voltage in a parallel circuit.

The voltage in parallel resistors is the same as the voltage of the battery. This means that
when we connect resistors in parallel, the total voltage stays the same.

V total = V1 = V2 = V3…

The voltage across each resistor will be the same as the Vtotal. Each resistor in parallel is
directly connected to the cell/ battery

In this diagram, the battery provides a Vtotal of 5V. The voltage across each resistor will
measure 5V. If we put a voltmeter across both resistors, it will measure 5V.
Resistor 1 connected in parallel has a voltage of 5 V
Resistor 2 connected in parallel has a voltage of 5 V
Total voltage over the two resistors is 5 V

Fig 6.16 Voltage in a parallel circuit

Resistance in a parallel circuit.

A special formula is used to calculate the total equivalent resistance in a parallel circuit
1 1 1 1
= + + …
𝑅𝑡 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

𝑅1 𝑥 𝑅2
If you have only two resistors in parallel use the formula Rt =
𝑅1+𝑅2
Relationship between resistance and current in a parallel circuit.

The more resistors there are in a parallel, the more current there is. This is because when
we add resistors in parallel, we create more paths for the current to flow, and this
decreases the total resistance.
COMPARING SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS

The table below summarise important differences of parallel and series circuits:

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 Series circuit Parallel circuit
The current is the same at all points The current in a parallel circuit is
The voltage is shared amongst the divided amongst the resistors according
resistors. A series circuit is a potential to the resistance of each resistor. The
one with the lowest resistance gets the
divider
most current. A parallel circuit is a
bulbs connected in series increases.
current divider.
Voltage is the same in all the resistors
connected in parallel.
The resistance of the circuit increases The resistance of the circuit decreases
as the number of light bulbs as the number of light bulbs
connected in series increases. Total connected in parallel increases.
resistance is the sum of resistors
connected in series.
We use series and parallel connections for different purposes.

Series circuits
If you put more lamps into a series circuit, the lamps will be dimmer than before. In
a series circuit, if a lamp breaks or a component is disconnected, the circuit is broken and
all the components stop working. Series circuits use less wiring than parallel
circuits.
Examples of where series circuits are used:
• LED lights in your TV.
• Batteries in a flashlight and in a remote control.
• String of coloured lights.

Parallel circuits
In a parallel circuit, if a lamp breaks or a component is disconnected, the components
on different branches keep working. This is important in household circuits.
Unlike a series circuit, the lamps stay bright if you add more lamps in parallel. The
batteries will run out faster though.

Examples of where parallel circuits are used:

• Everything in our house works on a parallel circuit – all lights and appliances are in
parallel to the mains supply.
• A chandelier.
• Streetlights.

ACTIVITY 6.2. Summative assessment- Series circuits and parallel circuits.

Show all working out and all units of measurement to answer the questions.

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 1. Rules of a series circuit:
a. Rtotal =
b. Vtotal =
c. As the number of resistors increase in a series circuit, the total resistance
.
d. Current wherever you measure it.
e. As the number of resistors increase, resistance increases, and current .
2. Rules of a parallel circuit:
a. 1/Rtotal =
b. Vtotal =
c. As the number of resistors increase in a parallel circuit, the total resistance

d. Current wherever you measure it. The current splits across the branches.

e. As the number of resistors increase, resistance decreases, and current .

[Link] a series circuit diagram with 3 cells, one light bulb, one variable resistor and an
open switch.
[Link] a circuit diagram with 1 cell, 2 resistors in parallel, an ammeter measuring total
current and a voltmeter measuring potential difference across one of the parallel
resistors.

3. Complete the table below:

Quantity Symbol Unit of measurement Symbol of unit

e.g. Distance e.g. D e.g. kilometer e.g. km
Resistance
Current
Voltage
4. What is the voltage across the resistor in the circuit shown?

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 5. A circuit contains two resistors in series. The resistors have resistance values of 5Ω
and 17Ω. What is the total resistance in the circuit?

6. A circuit contains three resistors in series. The resistors have resistance values of
0,5Ω, 7,5Ω and 11Ω. What is the total resistance in the circuit?

7. What is the voltage across the unknown resistor in the circuit shown?

8. What is the voltage across the unknown resistor in the circuit shown?

[Link] that the current in the circuit above is 3 A. What is the total resistance?

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 [Link] on question 10 and 11, what is the resistance across Vc?
[Link] identical light bulbs A, B and C are connected in an electric circuit as shown in
the diagram below.

a. after the switch, S, is opened, will any current flow through the circuit? Explain.
13. If you have a circuit consisting of 4 resistors of equal resistance in series and the total
voltage across all of them is 17 V, what is the voltage across each of them?

14. In a circuit consisting of a cell and 3 resistors in series, what is the voltage across the
first resistor if the voltage across the cell is 12 V and the voltages across the other two
resistors is 3 V and 2 V respectively?
15. There are 3 resistors in series with resistances of 3 Ω, 4 Ω and 11 Ω. What is the total
resistance of the series combination?
16 You now connect the same 3 resistors in parallel. Do you expect the total resistance
to be higher or lower than the combined resistance added up?
[Link] a series circuit there are 3 resistors with voltages of 2 V, 5 V and 8 V, what is the
voltage across the battery in the circuit?
18. In a parallel circuit there are 3 resistors with voltages of 2 V, 2 V and 2 V, what is the
voltage across the battery in the circuit?

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 UNIT 4. SAFETY WITH ELECTRICITY AND THE NATIONAL
ELECTRICITY GRID
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• Explain different safety measures when using electricity.

• Describe the dangers of overloading circuits and short circuits
• Explain the role of fuses and circuit breakers in circuits.

ACTIVITY 4.1 RESEARCH – THE NATIONAL GRID.

[Link] is the function of the national electricity grid?

2. Why are some parts of South Africa not connected to the national electricity grid?

3. Give two possible impacts on local communities not having electricity .

SAFETY PRACTICES.

Problems with parallel connections

We have learnt about series and parallel circuits.
Electrical circuits in our homes are connected in parallel
Parallel connections are not without problems. Every branch in the circuit that is connected in
parallel received 240 V from the power source. This means that the current from the source
increases every time another load is added to a circuit in parallel. It is therefore very easy to
overload a circuit. What does it mean when we overload a circuit?

Overloading circuits

It is very important not to plug too many devices into a single power point.

Circuit breakers, fuses, and earth leakages

There are power lines outside. Those feed into a fuse box. Fuse boxes contain safety devices
called fuses. Fuses are designed to prevent too much electric current from entering the house.

A fuse box

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 A fuse is a short piece of wire with a low melting point which melts and breaks the
circuit when the current flowing through is too high.

Circuit symbol for a fuse.

Fuse

Fig 6. 20 Fuse

How does a fuse work? When the current flowing in the circuit is too high the fuse wire
breaks and cuts off the current.

Size of fuses

Fuses are rated in Amps according to how much current can flow through it eg 3A, 13A
etc.

The circuit board will trip, and the switch will turn off in the circuit board. This protects
electronic components and equipment from overheating, which could cause a fire.

Circuit breaker

Circuit breakers are similar to fuses and are used instead of fuses in more modern
circuits. They are also placed in the fuse box.

Circuit symbol for a circuit breaker

This is how a circuit breaker works:

Fig 6.9 Circuit breaker

• The power flows from the power supply and into the circuit (see arrow on the right).
• The current flows through a coil of wire that has an iron core.
• When the current flows through the coil, an electromagnet is formed. What is an
electromagnet?
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 • The strength of the electromagnet is directly related to the amount of current flowing
through the coil.
• If the amount of current becomes too large, the electromagnet becomes strong enough
to attract the side of the contact closest to it.
• When the contact opens, it breaks the circuit and the current stops flowing.
As in the case of fuses, the circuit breaker will cause the circuit board to trip and the
switch will turn off in the circuit board. This protects electronic components and
equipment from overheating, which could cause a fire.

Earth leakages

Fuses and circuit breakers protect the power distribution system.

Earth leakages are installed in the mains circuit board and protect people from electric
shock by redirecting the current in the circuit to the ground.

Current enters devices in the home through a live wire.

The amount of current that enters a device through the live wire should be equal to the
amount of current leaving the device via the neutral wire.

If there is a difference between these amounts, it means that current is flowing somewhere
else – where it should not be going. If that happens then the earth
leakage path is activated and the current flows down the earth leakage wire, away from the
circuit.

An earth leakage device is used to protect people from being electrocuted. If a person
accidentally touches a live wire, the earth leakage picks up the disturbance in the current.
It withdraws the current and sends it down the earth leakage wire into the ground.

This is the circuit symbol for an earth leakage system:

The red/brown wire is the main power supply or live wire. The blue wire is the neutral wire.
The green wire is the earth leakage wire. The earth leakage wire is connected to

every appliance and feeds into the ground.

The three-pin plug

Appliances need a three-pin plug to connect them to the power main. Basic plugs have two
wires: the live and neutral wires. These basic plugs are unsafe. Three pin plugs have three
wires: the live, neutral and earth wire. The earth wire is connected to the metal casing of the
appliance. If the metal case becomes charged due to a fault such as the live wire becoming
loose, the charge is safely discharged to the ground. If someone touches the metal case, they
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 will not get an electric shock.

Illegal connections to Eskom mains supply

What is an illegal connection?

Illegal connections to the mains supply are not only theft, but can be dangerous
because the wires are not connected safely. Because the voltage travelling through the
power line is much higher than what is needed in a household, people can get
electrocuted while using an illegal connection. Also, these live wires may be touched by
mistake, and there are no safety connections connected to these wires.

ELECTRICITY GENERATION.

To generate electricity in power stations we need generators. A generator consists of a coil of

copper wire or several coils which rotate in a magnetic field.

Electrical generation is based on Faraday’s Law

The emf, E, induced around a single loop of conductor is proportional to the rate of change of
the magnetic flux, φ, through the area, A, of the loop.

A generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy

Layout of an alternating current generator.

Fig 6.10 Generator diagram
Power stations
COAL FIRED POWERSTATIONS

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 The figure below shows the basic structure of a coal fired power station. Most of the

electricity in South Africa is produced in coal-fired power stations. The electricity is then fed
into the national electricity grid. Coal is not the only source that can produce electricity.
What other sources may produce electricity?

The electricity that we use in our daily lives comes from power stations located in different
parts of South Africa. What is a power station?

What do we mean by fuel source? South Africa has coal, nuclear and hydropower
stations.
Coal power stations produce about 90% of the electricity in South Africa. More than 90
million tons of coal are burnt every year to produce this.

In a coal fired power station, coal is burnt.

• The chemical energy in coal is used to heat water and convert it into steam at high
temperature and pressure.
• At about 500°C, the very hot steam is released from the furnace and shot onto the
blades of a large turbine through a nozzle.
• The force of the steam makes the turbine turn.
• The turbine is like a windmill.
• The heat energy from the steam c h a n g e s to kinetic energy as the turbine turns. A
shaft connects the turbine to the generator.
• The generator contains a rotating magnet. It is this magnet that produces electricity. The
generator transfers the kinetic energy of the spinning turbine into electrical energy.

Fig 6.19 Diagrammatic representation of a coal fired power station

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 ACTIVITY 6. 7 FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT - COAL FIRED STATIONS.

Coal is burnt in the boiler to produce heat. The heat boils ________ to turn it into
____. The steam passes through narrow pipes at high pressure. This high-
p re s su re steam makes the turn. A turbine is a large fan-like structure. It
converts energy of the steam into ____ energy of the
turbine. The turbine is connected to a____________.
The generator contains special magnets that convert mechanical energy of the
turbine into electrical energy which then enter the ________.

Dry steam Power Plant

Generator

Fig 6.10 Turbine connected to a generator by a shaft .

One simple way to think about a generator is to imagine it acting like a pump pushing water
through a pipe. Only instead of pushing water, a generator uses a magnet to
push electrons along. A water pump moves a certain number of water molecules
and applies a certain amount of pressure to them. In the same way, the magnet in a
generator pushes a certain number of electrons along and applies a certain amount of
"pressure" to the electrons.

ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY TO PRODUCE ELECTRICITY.

Coal is not the only energy source that can be used to drive turbines and in turn generators.
There are alternative sources of energy that can be used.
Why is it important that we have alternative sources of fuel?
The following sources of energy are all renewable. What is a renewable source of energy?

1 Wind

2. Hydropower – falling water

3. Hydropower – sea waves

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 4. Biomass

5. Solar power

Wind turbines.

Wind turbines are aerodynamic, meaning that they capture the wind as efficiently as
possible. The wind activates the turbine (blades and rotor) so that the shaft spins. The
shaft is connected to a generator. The generator transfers the kinetic energy of the
windmill into electrical energy.

Fig 6.11 Wind turbines.

Hydroelectric power station.

In a hydroelectric power station, water falls from a high point in the river to a low point in a
dam. At the base of the dam wall are turbines. The falling water makes the turbines spin.

The turbines are connected to generators. The generators transfer the kinetic
energy of the falling into electrical energy

Fig 6.12 Hydro power- falling water.

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 Hydropower – pumped storage reservoir.

Another type of hydropower uses falling water that is then pumped to a storage reservoir.
Water is released from a large reservoir into a reservoir situated lower down. Again, the
falling water makes the turbines spin. The turbines are connected to generators. The
generators transfer the mechanical energy of the falling water into electrical energy. The
water is pumped back up into the higher reservoir when electricity usage is low.

Fig 6.13 A reservoir.

Hydropower – sea waves.

Renewable energy may be produced using ocean waves. The motion of the waves is
used to turn the turbines. The motion of the waves gets converted to electrical energy. The
turbines are connected to generators. The generators transfer the mechanical energy of
the waves into electrical energy.

Fig 6.14 Tidal waves

Hydropower – tidal barrage.

Tidal barrages use the energy of the water as the tide turns to turn turbines. The turbines are
connected to generators. The generators transfer the mechanical energy of the

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 waves into electrical energy.

Biomass energy.

Biomass fuels come from living things. Crops and wood are biomass fuels. This works
in much the same way as when burning fossil fuels:

The biomass is burnt.

This transfers chemical energy into heat energy to boil water.
The boiling water forms steam. The steam then turns the turbines to
Generate electrical energy.
Why is biomass energy renewable while fossil fuels are non-renewable?

Solar energy – solar cells.

Solar cells convert light energy from the sun directly into electrical energy.
This is used for example in a solar calculator.
It is also used in larger applications in industry and in homes to provide electricity.

Fig 6. 15 Solar plant

Solar energy – solar panels

Solar panels are different to solar cells because they convert solar energy into heat
energy. It is often found on roofs of buildings where the most sunlight is received. They
then heat water in the geyser or the water of a swimming pool. This results in the need to
use less electricity.

How is solar energy different to the other types of energy that we have learnt about?

Nuclear power.

Nuclear power in South Africa

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 Nuclear fission

Certain atoms are radioactive, which means that they undergo nuclear fission. It is only
unstable radioactive atoms, such as uranium, that undergo nuclear fission.
When a uranium atom is split, a huge amount of energy in the form of heat is released.

Location of nuclear power plants.

South Africa’s main coal reserves are concentrated in Mpumalanga. Most of the coal is
mined in Mpumalanga, and it is expensive to move coal around over large distances.

Due to this, in the mid-1970s, it was decided to build a nuclear power plant in the Western
Cape. This nuclear power plant is called Koeberg. It is South Africa’s only nuclear reactor.
It produces about 5% of South Africa’s electricity.
South Africa plans to increase the amount of nuclear power it produces. Before a nuclear
power plant can be constructed, an environmental impact assessment needs to be
undertaken in order to assess all the positive and negative assessments of such a
project.

Fig 6.16 Koeberg nuclear power station.

Operation of a nuclear power plant.

A nuclear power plant uses radioactive fuel, usually uranium-235, in a nuclear reactor.

Neutrons are fired at the uranium atoms, which causes the uranium to split. This process
releases heat and radiation. The splitting of the uranium atoms is known as fission.
Nuclear fission creates energy known as nuclear energy. The energy that is released is
used to heat water. The water changes into steam. The steam drives the turbine that is
connected to a generator, which converts the kinetic energy of the turning turbine into
electrical e n e r g y . This electrical energy is then fed into the national electricity grid.

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 Nuclear power stations operate similarly to coal power stations, the difference being the
source of heat comes from a nuclear reaction.

Nuclear waste.

The nuclear waste used in nuclear power stations remains radioactive for hundreds of
years after it has been used. Nuclear waste is the spent nuclear fuel.
The reason it is radioactive is that the splitting of the atoms results in the release of
gamma rays. Gamma rays can enter the body and may cause burns and genetic
mutations (that may even result in cancer) in living things.
The only way to stop it is to bury the nuclear waste inside walls of thick concrete. It is very
important that nuclear waste is disposed of correctly else it will contaminate the
environment.

The nuclear waste that is generated by Koeberg gets transported to the Northern Cape.
The Northern Cape was selected because it is not far from the Western Cape and because
it has a low annual rainfall. There, it is buried underground in large concrete vaults so that it
does not leak into the surrounding soil.
ACTIVITY 6.8: SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT – NUCLEAR POWER.

1. Why was the Koeberg nuclear power plant built in the Western Cape?
2. Which element is used in the nuclear reactor?
3. Use a flow chart to show how a nuclear power plant produces electricity. The first step
has been done for you.
Uranium is placed in nuclear reactors and nuclear fission takes place. This releases a lot
of energy

4. What health problems are associated with nuclear waste?

5. How is nuclear waste handled?

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 The national electricitygrids

Power stations all over the country are linked to power lines and towers called pylons.

Fig 6.18 Pylons

Pylons.

Power lines transmit (send) electricity from one place to another via thick aluminium and
copper wires. The network of all the power lines is called the national electricity grid. To
reduce energy loss, power is transmitted at high voltage and low current
Power
Power is how much energy is expended per second
Know that electrical power dissipated in a device is equal to the product of the potential
difference across the device and current flowing through it
P=VxI
The unit of power is the Watt (W) joules per second
P = I2 R
P = V2/R
Power stations produce about 20 000 V of electricity. Power lines often carry a warning sign
of high voltage:

Power surges and grid overload

The national grid is connected to every part of the electricity network, so that when one part
of the electricity is affected, other parts are also affected. The two main problems that
disrupt power supply are power surges and grid overload.

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 Power surges.

If there is a breakdown in one part of the grid, the electricity is redirected to another
part of the grid. So, every time a branch of the grid is lost, the remaining branches take on
more power and therefore take on excess electricity. This results in a power surge.

A power surge results when the voltage is at 110% - 10% above the normal voltage of a
power line. This only lasts a fraction of a second but is still enough to do damage. Another
source of a power surge is lightening.

Many electrical appliances in the home can be damaged by power surges. Some
electrical appliances contain microprocessors (electric circuits), and even a small
spike in the electricity can damage them. Microprocessors are found in TVs, cordless
phones, microwaves, computers, fridges and washing machines. Power surges can melt
the wires in the electrical circuit of the appliance.

Grid overload.

If too much electricity is being used at a point in time, there is an increase in the load on the
supply grid. When that happens, the national grid becomes overloaded from too much
electricity flowing through it. This can cause a breakdown in a substation. If this happens,
the power supplied in an area will be cut off and a blackout will occur.

Cost of electrical power

Without electricity, society would come to a standstill. Almost everything that we do depends
on electricity – the running of our homes, computers, electrical components vehicles, factories.
Electrical power measures the rate at which electricity is supplied to an electrical device. A
powerful motor will use electricity at a higher rate than a less powerful motor. Different
appliances in our homes have different power needs.

Electricity meters, meter readings and electricity bills are important in modern society.

The cost of power consumption

Electrical power is the rate at which electricity is supplied.
Power is the rate at which electric energy expended or the rate of doing work.
A powerful motor can drive a machine fast and do heavy work. It needs a lot of
electrical power and therefore the rate at which electricity is transferred to the motor is
high.
A less powerful motor might be able to do the same work, just a bit slower. It will not use
electricity quite as quickly.
Power is about the rate at which energy is transferred.

A bright light bulb will have electricity supplied to it faster than a less bright light bulb.

Electrical power is measured in watts.

Power has to do with how much time it takes to do a certain amount of work. We

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 measure electrical power in units called Watt (W)
There are 1000 W in 1 kW. This unit of measurement indicates how much electrical energy
is being used every second.

Which bulb will use more energy per second – a 100 W bulb or a 20 W bulb? The
100W bulb.

If an appliance uses a lot of electricity, we measure the power consumption in

thousands of watts or kilowatts (kW). Look at the power rating label of a kettle. It may
indicate 2000 W, which is 2kW.
A very bright outside security light might be rated at 500 W. This will use 5 times more
electrical energy than a 100 W light bulb.

Consumers pay for the power they use.

While household appliances are working, they are using electricity at a certain rate
measured in watts. Power ratings on appliances only tell us what the appliance is rated at.
To calculate how much that costs, we measure how many watts are used over a period of
one hour. We call this a kilowatt hour.
This means that if you run an appliance rated at 1000 W or 1 kW for one hour, than you
would have used 1 kWh of electricity unit.

ELECTRICITY COST.
When the municipality charges for electricity used, they measure the consumption used in
kilowatt hours.
The cost to the consumer is calculated as follows:
Cost = kWh x cost per unit

Municipalities use a sliding scale known as a stepped tariff for the price of electricity for
the unit price of electricity. That means that the more electricity you use, the
higher the rate that you pay per unit. This is done to encourage consumers to save
electricity.
See the example below:

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 Fig 6. 18 Example of power invoice

In the example, the electricity reading was taken 33 days apart. The initial reading was
94,137.0000 and the end reading was 94,632.0000
We subtract the two (94 632 kWh – 94 137 kWh)

The cost per kWh is R 0,9454. The 495 kWh still falls within step 1, meaning
that only the first step was reached. The electricity consumption was not high enough
to reach step 2 with a higher cost per kWh.

ACTIVITY 6. 9 Cost of power – Homework.

1. Complete the following table. First, calculate the kW based on the W values
provided. Next, calculate the cost to run an appliance with the power ratings in the second
column. Work it out as the power rating in kW х number of hours х cost per kWh. Use a unit
of cost of R0.8952 per kWh. The first example has been filled in for you.

Powe Power Cost for one hour

r rating in
ratin kilowatts
g in (kW)
watts
(W)
3000 3 3 kW х 1 hour х R0.8952 =
R2.6856

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 2200 2.2
1500 2.5
800 0.8
1000 12

1. Look at the example of the electricity account below. The metering period covers 49
days because it is not always done exactly once a month.

2. Answer the following questions:

a. The cost per kWh for step 1 is given as R0.8952 (89.52 cents). What is the cost per
kWh for step 2 and step 3?
b. Calculate the cost of electricity used for those 49 days like this:
Step 1: 804.928 kWh @ R0.8952 =
Step 2: 804.928 kWh @ R0.9113 =
Step 3: 476.326 kWh @ R0.9265 =
Total =
The energy consumption of different appliances varies.

Every time you use an electrical appliance such as the stove, a heater or a fridge it uses
electricity. Some appliances use more electricity than others. Appliances that produce
heat usually use more electricity than other appliances. Appliances that don’t produce
heat tend to use relatively less energy than those that produce heat, unless it is a very
powerful appliance such as a big electric motor.
Look at the examples of electrical appliances shown on the following page. Read the
power requirements on the data labels. Notice how their wattage ratings differ significantly.
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 ACTIVITY 6. 10 Different appliances use different electrical power. Homework.

1. Using graph paper, draw a bar graph of the appliances in the pictures on the
previous page. You need to show the appliance on the x axis and the power rating in
watts on the y axis. Draw the bars in order from the highest wattage rating on the left to
the lowest wattage rating on the right.

2. What do you notice about the types of appliances on the left of your bar graph
compared to the types of appliances on the right?
[Link] does this say to you about using energy sparingly?
[Link] at the label of the energy-saving light bulb and the incandescent light bulb.
What is the difference in their power ratings? What does this tell you about using
energy carefully?

[Link] much money would it cost to use the kettle continuously for two hours? Assume
that the unit cost of electricity is R0.8952 per kWh. Remember you ALWAYS need to
work in kW and hours when answering these questions.
Alternative appliances systems

Read the following points and think about what you have read :
• High wattage appliances such as stoves and heaters use a lot of electricity.
• Leaving appliances on all the time uses up electricity.
• The more we use electrical appliances the more electricity we use.
• The more electricity we use, the more coal gets burnt.
• The more coal gets burnt, the more air pollution we cause.
• The more air pollution there is, the unhealthier the environment we live in.
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 • The higher the electricity demand, the more money needs to be spent to build new
power stations and put-up new power lines.
SUMMARY
• To generate power, a coil is rotated in a magnetic field. Current is induced in the coil.
• Faraday’s law helps us to determine the size of the induced voltage.
• Sources of energy used to generate power can renewable and non-renewable.
• South Africa has cheap supply of coal and so most power is generated in coal powered
stations.
• Disadvantages of using coal is that burning non-renewable fossil fuel causes air pollution.
• Other sources of power are hydro power using flowing water, nuclear power, windmill
power, biomass.

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 TERM 3: CHAPTER 7: LIGHT
UNIT 1: CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT
At the end of this unit, you will be able to,

• Identify the sources of light.

• Differentiate between luminous and non-luminous objects
• Identify different media for the propagation of light
• Describe the characteristics of light
• Explain beams of light
• Describe the wave nature of light.
• Define wavelength, frequency and velocity of light.
• Represent a light wave in graphical form.

SOURCES OF LIGHT.

A body that emits light in all directions is said to be the source of light. The source can be a
point source one or an extended one. The sources of light are of two types:

• Luminous source: Any object that by itself emits light is called as a luminous source. e.g.
Sun and Stars (natural Luminous sources), Electric lamps, Candles and Lanterns (artificial
luminous sources).
• Non-luminous source: Those objects which do not emit light but become visible when
light from luminous objects falls on them and they reflect it back. They are called non-
luminous. e.g. Moon, Planets (natural non-luminous sources), Wood, Table (artificial non-
luminous sources).

TYPES OF MEDIUM:

When light falls on a medium, it can be treated in three ways.

A medium is a substance through which light propagates or tries to do so.

Based on this interaction mediums are classified into three categories.

Transparent: The medium which allows most of the light to pass through it is called a
transparent medium. e.g. Air, Water, Glass etc.

Translucent: The medium which allows only a part of the light to pass through it is called a
translucent medium. e.g. Paper, Ground glass etc.

Opaque: The medium which does not allow any light to pass through it is called opaque
medium. e.g. Wood, Bricks, Metals etc.

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 [Link]

RAYS OF LIGHT:

A ray of light is the straight-line path along which the light travels. It is represented by an

arrow head on a straight line . The direction of the arrow gives the direction of
propagation of light. Imagining light as a ray makes it easy to describe, with great accuracy,
three well-known phenomena: reflection, refraction and scattering. Let's take a second to
discuss each one.

BEAM OF LIGHT

A light beam or beam of light is a directional projection of light energy radiating from a light
source. Sunlight forms a light beam(a sunbeam) when filtered through media such as
clouds, foliage, or windows.

A group of parallel rays is called a beam of light. It is also called a pencil of light.

A pencil of light or a beam of light may be of three types.

• Convergent Pencil of light

• Divergent Pencil of light
• Parallel Pencil of light

Convergent Pencil of light

Convergent Pencil is also known as convergent beam of light. In this case, as the beam of
light progresses the rays converge to a point.

Or

A convergent Pencil is that in which rays of light propagate to meet at a particular point say
O as shown in the figure.

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 Convergent Pencil of light

The diameter of the pencil goes on decreasing as the rays proceed forward.

Divergent Pencil of light

A divergent pencil is also known as a divergent beam of light. Here, as the beam of light
progresses, the rays diverge from each other.

Or

A divergent pencil is that in which rays of light come out of a point source such that the
diameter of the pencil goes on increasing as the rays proceed forward, as shown in the
figure.

Fig 7.3 A divergent beam

Parallel Pencil of light.

A parallel pencil is that in which all the rays move parallel to one another. The diameter of
the pencil remains constant throughout as shown in figure 3.

Fig 7.4 A parallel beam of light

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES.

Light, microwaves, x-rays, and TV and radio transmissions are all kinds of electromagnetic
waves. They are all the same kind of wavy disturbance that repeats itself over a distance
called the wavelength. The waves which do not require a material medium for their
propagation are known as electromagnetic waves. e.g. All light waves are electromagnetic
waves.

Wave-like Behaviour of Light.

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 Light behaves like a wave when it is transmitted.

It is made up of a series of crests and troughs. A crest is the highest point and a trough is
the lowest point.

It has an amplitude

An amplitude is the maximum displacement of a wave from its rest position.

It has a wavelength

Wavelength is the distance between two consecutive crests or two consecutive troughs.

It has a frequency.

Frequency is the number of waves that pass a point in one second.

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 ADDENDUM A - BLOOMS TAXONOMY
Blooms’ Taxonomy

ADDENDUM B COMMON HAZARDS SIGNS

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 ADDENDUM C
SAMPLER PAPER AND FORMATIVE ASSESSMENTS
[Link]
%20-CYCLE%20TEST%201%[Link]

SAMPLE TEST ON ACIDS AND BASES

MARK: 40

DURATION: 1hr

QUESTION 1

In the following picture the pH values of a variety of substances are shown on the pH scale.

Use the picture to answer the questions.

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 Substances can be classified as either acids, bases, or neutral substances. The table below contains
some examples and shows their classification.
Acids Bases Neutral
Orange juice Bicarbonate of soda (baking Water
Vinegar soda) Table salt
Lemon juice Soaps Cooking oil
Citric acid Bleach
Gastric acid Ammonia solution

1.1. Which of the substances in the table can you find on the pH scale above? Write their names
and approximate pH values in the table below. (8)
name Approximate pH

1.2. Name all the acids in which are in the table above. ____________________
____________________________________________________________ (3)
1.3. Which of the acids is the weakest? _______________ , which of the acids is the strongest?
______________________. (2)
1.4. Which of the bases is the strongest and which is the weakest?
_________________________________________________________________ (2)
1.5. What is the pH of water? _____________________ (1)
1.6. Which is more sour orange juice or lemon juice? _________________________ (1)
1.7. Which one has a lower pH? _____________________________ (1)
1.8. Determine which of the two is more acidic. __________________________ (1)
QUESTION 2

A scientist is given six solutions labelled A to F. The scientist tests each solution with universal indicator
and records her results as follows
solution Colour of universal indicator
A yellow
B Blue
C Green
D Red
E Purple
F Orange

2.1. which solutions are acidic? ________________________________________________(1)

2.2. Which solutions are basic? ___________________________________________ (1)

2.3. Which solution is neutral? __________________________________________ (1)

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 2.4. Arrange the solutions in order from the most acidic to the most basic
___________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________ (5)

QUESTION 3

Grade 9 learners do the following investigation. They take 5 glass beakers and pour the same volume
of dilute hydrochloric acid into each beaker.

Initially the pH of the hydrochloric acid is 2,8. They add 1 g of calcium carbonate powder (CaCO 3) to
the first beaker and measure the pH of the solution with a digital pH meter. They add 2 g of calcium
carbonate to beaker 2 and measure the pH again. They continue to increase the mass of CaCO3 added
to beakers 3, 4 and 5 and determine the pH in each case.

They record the results in the following table

Identify the dependent variable. (1)

3.2 Formulate the investigative question for this investigation. (2)

_________________________________________________________________________.

3.3 Name TWO variables that have to be controlled to ensure a fair test. (2)

_________________________________________________________________________

3.4 Draw a straight-line graph by making use of the results in the table.

The graph must have a heading and clearly labelled axes. (6)

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 SAMPLE OF TEST ON FORCES

MARK; 50

DURATION: 1hr

A force is a push or a pull

QUESTION 1 Circle the best answer on the line provided.
1.1. If an object starts to accelerate, ______________.
a. a balanced force is acting on it . b. velocity is acting on it
c. gravity is acting on it. d. an unbalanced force is acting on it
1.2. When forces are balanced, the total force ____.
a. is greater than the sum of the forces b. is negative
c. is zero d. is equal to the largest force
1.3. A force is which one of these?
a. a push b. a push or pull
c. a pull d. none of these
1.4. Force is measured in which units?
a. Kilograms b. newtons
b. c. degrees d. m/s 2
QUESTION 2
[Link] between contact and non- contact forces (2)
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
[Link] the forces below to show whether they are contact or non-contact forces (6)
Air resistance, friction, gravity, magnetic force, static electricity, water resistance
Contact Non-
force contact
force

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 2.3. Study the pictures below

[Link] name is given to the force exerted by the climber on the

earth?___________________ on the rope ____________________________. (2)
2.3.2. In picture B and C the climber falls. Which forces are acting on the climber? (2)
___________________________________________________________________
2.3.3. In picture D, the climber appears to be hanging but has sopped falling. Which forces are
equal at the point which enable the climber to remain hanging.
____________________________________
___________________________________________________________________ (2)
QUESTION 3 - ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA
Matilda and Dumi carried out an experiment with springs. They put different masses on the
spring and measured the length of the spring each time. The table shows some of their results.
Mass (g) Weight (force) N Length (cm)
0 0 10
200 2 14
400 4 18
600 22
800 26
1000 30

[Link] mass and weight ______________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________ (4)
[Link] in the missing weights ( remember that a mass of 100g has a weight of 1N) (3)
[Link] the results above, which is the independent variable?
_____________________________ (1)
Which is the dependent variable? ____________________________________________ (1)
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 3.4. Draw a line graph of mass versus length to show the results. Provide a suitable heading
for the graph. (8)
3.5. Write the conclusion for this experiment.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(3)
[Link] uses the same spring and hangs different objects from it. He uses his graph to work
out the weight of each object. The table shows his results. Fill in the missing weights (4)
Object Length of spring Weight of object (N)
(cm)
A 26 8

B 14

C 22

D 16

E 28

[Link] mass of an object remains the same no matter where it is because the amount of
matter in the object doesn't change. The weight of an object will change depending on the
gravitational force exerted on it. An astronaut weighs less on the moon compared to on Earth
because the moon has a weaker gravitational force. The Earth's gravitational force is 9.8 m.s2
, meaning that a 1kg object has a weight of 9.8N.
The formula for calculating weight is W = m x g
W – weight (N)
M – mass (kg)
G – gravitational acceleration ( m.s-2)

g on earth has a value of 9.8 m.s-2

[Link] two factors that affect the gravitational force _____________________________
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 ___________________________________________________________________
(2)
[Link] the weight of a 5kg object on earth. (3)
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
3.7.3. Calculate the mass of an object that weighs 196 N on earth. (3)
_______________________________________________
________________________________________________

REFERENCES

1. Beckett, M. et al (2019) Siyavula Natural Sciences, Learner Book Grade 9 A and B, Open
Educational Resources.

2. Taylor, A. (2019) Apollo 11 Moon Landing: Photos from 50 years. Available:

[Link]
ago/594448/

Accessed: 2 November 2022

3. Rice University Open Stax CNX. (2022) The Atom. Available:

[Link]

Accessed: 9 September, 2022.

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