Chapter Four

4. Management functions in Educational Organizaions

Basic Managerial functions:-

• Different experts have classified functions of management.

• HeneriFoyol(1841-1925) defined management/administration for the
first time as a process that consists of five functions:
• Planning
• Organizing
• Commanding
• Coordinating
• controlling
According to George and Jerry “There are four fundamental functions of management
planing,organizing,actuating (to make some body act ) and controlling”.

Whereas Luther Gullick has a key word ‘ POSDCORB’ where P stands for planning,O for Organizing, S
for staffing, D for Directing,Co for Co-ordination,R for reporting & B for Budgeting.

But the most widely accepted are functions of management given by Kootz and O’donneli.e Planning,
organizing, staffing,Dierecting and controlling.

A manager uses these functions to achieve organization goals and objectives.

4.1 Planning
Planning is a rational and systematic way of forecasting the future of an organization.

It is a process of preparing for change by formulating future course of action. According to Warren
(1994), planning is a decision-making activity requiring the process of ascertaining objectives and
deciding on activities to attain these objectives. Through planning process the manager aims at
managing organization efficiently and effectively.

According to Koontz “Planning is decided in advance what to do, when to do & how to do. It bridges the
gap from where we are & where we want to be.”

Thus, Planning is a systematic thinking about ways & means for accomplishment of pre-determined
goals.

Characteristics of planning functions

1) Planning is anticipatory. Decisions are made on how and what to dobefore it is done.

2) It is goal directed.
3) Planning focuses on desired future results

4) Planning is future oriented. It involves making decisions that will beachieved in future.

Steps and stages in Planning

In preparing a plan, managers use the following series of steps.

1) Situational Analysis – This step involves analysis of past events, current, situation and attempts to
forecast into future trends.

2) Identification of Needs – Needs assessment is a process of delineating“what is” and “what should
be”. It further involves placing priorities of the two activities.

3) Derivation of goals and objectives – One derives goals and objectives from the identified needs.

4) Delineating (describing) of alternatives – As alternatives are usually many, it is necessary to rank

them so that those which need immediate attention can be acted on.

5) Choice of strategies and tactics. It is necessary to select the mostconvincing alternative while
considering the other alternatives that maynot be a priority.

6) Implementation – After approval of the plan, it is split or handled as a whole to determine the
activities that should be under taken

7) Controlling and evaluation. Implementation of plans must be continuously monitored. Planners must
monitor the actual performance ofvarious work units according to unit goals and plans. This stage helps

identify deviation of actual performance from expected performance.

Correction action should be taken when there is a discrepancy.

Principles of Planning

In order to be effective and efficient, the following principles should be followed.

These principles are based on Gary Desslers work.

1) Keep aims crystallized. The aims and objectives should be attainable, reasonable, solid and clear.

2) Develop accurate forecasts. Accurate data and events are crucial to anyplanning process. Where
possible, quantitative methods should be usedapart from intuitional judgment.

3) Involve subordinates in the planning process. This will help in ensuring ownership and acceptance of
the plans by implementers.

4) The plan must be a sound one. An effective plan must be based on correct information and proper
assumptions.
5) Do not be over-optimistic. It is important to be objective in planning. Being over ambitious will not
lead to an effective plan.

6) Criteria for abandoning a project. The criteria for abandoning a project should be established at the
beginning.

7) Keep the Plans Flexible. The progress of the plan should be under constant review so that it can be
revised if and when the situation require smodification.

8) Review long-range plans on a short-term basis. Long-range plans needto be reviewed regularly. This
will ensure that changes that occur overtime during implementation are incorporated in the plan.

9) Fits the plan to the environment. Where environment is comparativelystable, a plan can be rigidly
adhered to. In case the environment is volatile, the plan must be highly flexible to accommodate
necessary change soccasioned by changes in environment.

Importance of the planning

Planning is a very important function of management. It helps in goal [Link] goals define desired
outcomes for an organization which can be used asperformance criteria. The out pu t of an organization
can be well assessed if there is intended output at the beginning. For example if at the beginning of the
yearit is set that in a school about 40% of students must achieve grade A in examination at the end of
the year, this can be assessed to find out if the goals wereachieved after results are released. Through
plans, managers can learn what the organization intends to achieve. They can make decisions to ensure
that internalpolicies, roles, performance, structure, product and expenditure will be in accordance with
desired outcomes.

4.2. Organizing
The word organizing is the function of gathering resources (physical and human), establishing orderly
uses for such resources and structuring tasks to fulfill organizational goals. It includes the determination
of what tasks are to be done, how tasks are to be grouped, who is responsible to do these tasks and
who will make decisions about the tasks (Robbins, 1991:p). Organizing is a process of putting together
human material resources in order to achieve organizational goal. In a school situationit may involve
putting together teachers, non-teaching staff, and buildings, teaching and learning materials to ensure
pupils learn effectively. In order to achieve maximum success, activities need to be well organized.

Stages/Steps of Organizing

There are five steps followed in the process of organizing. These are:

1) Review of plans and objectives. The first step of management is to review organizational goals and
objectives. This will help determine thekind of activities carried to achieve the goals and objectives.
2) Determination of activities. This step involves preparation and analysis of activities required to
accomplish the objectives. These activities may involve recruitment, training, teaching, and record
keeping for a school.

3) Classification and grouping of activities. After determining the activities of tasks, they are classified
into smaller work units. This will facilitate operations of the organization and supervision.

4) Assignment of work and resources. This involves assigning the right personnel for the right kind of
job. In a school set up it may involve assigninga teacher of mathematics to teach the subject to a
mathematics class and not any other subject.

5) Evaluation of results. The feedback on the outcomes help determine how well the organizational
strategy was implemented. This feedback can help determine if any changes are necessary.

Departmentation

This refers to horizontal differentiation of an organization. It may involve establishing divisions, branches
or focus on individual effort. Departmentalization helps the workers to be effective and encourage
specialization in the area a workeris assigned. Departmentalization is important when there is need to
restructurethe organization, build new organizations, add a new activity to an organizationand reduce
an activity or activities. For example, a church organizationwith many schools, middle level colleges and
universities may have a departmentdealing with schools, another colleges, and a third department of
universities.

Span of Control

Span of control refers to the number of subordinates reporting to a manager.

Example:

In this example we have four levels of span of controlSpan of control is related to levels of hierarchy.
Awider span generally results in fewer levels and narrower span into more levels. In choosing the span
of control,an organization considers

1) Type of control span

2) Situational factors

3) The shape of an organization

1. Types of Control Span

There are two types of control span executive and operative. Executive includes middle and top
management positions. Operative span of control is usually applied at the bottom level.
2. Situational Factors

The major factors to consider in selecting the span of control are time the managerhas, manager’s ability
and competence, complexity of the situation to be supervised, physical dispersion of the activities,
capability and experience of subordinates

3. Shape of organization

Flat structures take operational control of span. Tall structures take executive control.

Principles of organizing

The following are the principles underlying organizational design

i) The principle of objectivity. Every organization geared towards achievement of its goals and objectives

ii) The principles of specialization. In the allocation of work, the specialization of workers should be
taken into consideration

iii) The principle of definition. The content, duties authority and responsibility for each position should
be clearly defined

iv) The principle of correspondence. Authority and responsibility for eachposition should correspond.

v) Efficiency. Organizational structure should enable it function efficiently and accomplish Objectives
with minimum cost.

vi) Simplicity. Organizational structure should be as simple as possible.

vii) Flexibility. The organization should be adaptable to changing circumstancesand permit expansion or
replacement

viii) Balance. There is need to balance the size of different departments and factors such as human,
technical, expertise and financial.

ix) Unity of direction: For a group of activities having the same objective,there should be one head and
one plan.

x) Personal ability. Selection, placement and training of staff should be given priority to ensure optimum
performance from employees.

4.3 Staffing
Staffing as a management function refers to the process of acquiring the required human resource to
achieve organizational objectives. Staffing involves matching jobs and individuals. It consists of functions
such as human resource planning,recruitment, selection, training and appraisal in an organization.
Staffing is defined as the process of identifying, assessing, placing, evaluating and developing individuals
at work. Staffing therefore involves determination of human resource requirements of an organization
and provision of adequate number of competent workers at all levels.

The main purpose of staffing is to put right man on right job.

Steps in the staffing process

The staffing process involves the following steps:

Human resource planning: This is the determination of the future requirement of personnel in an
organization.

The recruitment and selection: It is the process of selection of best and qualifiedcandidates from among
the job applicants to fill vacant positions in an organization.

Induction and orientation: Refers to the process of introducing new employeesto their new work
environment. It involves introducing the new worker to colleagues,duties to be performed, rules and
regulations, and responsibilities.

Training and development: The staff appointed to an organization may require to be trained to acquire
necessary specialized skills to perform their jobs effectively.

Compensation/Remuneration: This is concerned with developing a system of remuneration of

personnel that is commensurate with their contribution to the objectives of the organization.

Performance appraisal: It is the process of determining the extent to which an employee is performing
the work effectively.

Employment decisions: These include transfers promotions, layoffs and dismissal.

These decisions have specific applications and must be objectively appliedto workers.

Steps of staffing process

Importance of Staffing

Staffing function of management is very important for the following reasons.

Job performance: Achievement of organizational goals is dependent upon the quality of human
resource it has. The staffing function of an organization is very crucial.

Development of manpower: In order to ensure that activities of an organizationare efficiently

performed, the human resource in an organization should be developed and provided with necessary
skills.

Use of technology: Due to technological changes taking place, an organizationshould get the right
people to make use of the technology.
Optimum use of human resource: An organization can achieve its goals through efficient use of staff. An
organization should plan to have optimum staff levels.

Recognition of human relations: Human factors are important in an organization.

They may determine the success of an organization. Employees should bemotivated through various
financial and non-financial incentives.

4.4) Leading/Directing
Definitions and Meaning

Directing is the integrating of people with the organization to get their cooperationfor the
achievement of its goal. Directing is a process through which employees are motivated to make
effective and efficient contribution to the realizationof organizational goals.

Directing requires integration of organizational goals with those of individualand groups. It exclusively
deals with the human element. It is therefore a verydelicate and sensitive function that managers must
take extreme care.

Importance of Directing

Directing helps to:

• Initiate action by giving directives ad guidance to employees;

• Coordinate employee efforts and leads toward objectives;

• Get maximum out from individuals by providing ways to fulfilling andutilizing the potential and
capabilities of employees;

• Facilitate changes by incorporating environmental/ external and internalchanges in the organization;

and

• Enable subordinates to contribute their best to attain the goals of theorganization.

Types of directing

1. Consultative directing. Participative techniques of giving directions.

2. Free-rein directing/laissez faire. The supervisor does not participate activelyin giving decisions.

3. Autocratic/dictatorial directing. The executive keeps the entire authorityand control with him.
Principles of directing

Directing involves:

1. interaction of individuals and organization goals

2. integrations of groups and organization goals

3. securing cooperation of informal leaders

4. participative decision making

5. delegation of adequate authority

6. effective communication

7. effective control

8. direct contact

9. unity of direction

10. maximum individual contribution

11. participation

12. Follow up through feedback

4.5 Controlling
Controlling involves determining what is accomplished evaluating performanceand applying corrective
measures to enable goals and objectives be implementedaccording to the initial plans.
Therefore,controlling implies comparing performancein relation to pre-set objectives and making the
necessary adjustmentsand corrections.

Importance of control

Control, is practiced in order to update plans, to protect organizations assetsfrom inefficiency and waste
and to appraise employee’s performance

Steps in the process of control

There are four steps in the process of control. These are

1) Establishing the standards

2) Measuring performance

3) Comparing actual results against standards

4) Taking corrective action where required

1. Establishing Standards

The standards of performance should be clearly stated. It can be in form ofnumber of students who
achieve grade A at a national examination or a schoolbudget can also be expressed in quantitative form
and is measurable.

2. Measuring Performance

Measuring of performance depends on such factors as adequacy and time liness of information. The
measurement of performance should be in units similar to get pre-determined criteria set at the
beginning. The unit of measurement should be clear and uniform through out the process of
measurement. For example

a teacher’s performance is measured according to the average grade achieved by pupils he/she has
taught.

3. Comparing Actual results against standards

This involves comparing actual performance to the standards set for such performance.

If measurement units for standards set and for performance measured are the same or uniform, the
comparison become easier.

4. Taking corrective action

After the deviations have been identified and presented to the management forconsideration adecision
on corrective measure is taken.

Characteristics of Effective Controls

According to Goold and Quinn (1990) effective control systems tend to havecertain characteristics.
These are:

1. Accuracy. Effective controls should generate accurate date and informationfor effective managerial
decisions.

2. Timeliness. Controls should ensure that information reaches a decisionmaker when a meaningful
response can be taken.

3. Flexibility. Controls should be flexible to accommodate changes in the environment. It is important to

up date control system if an when aneed arises.

4. Acceptability. A good control system is one where people affected by itunderstand and fully accepts
it.
5. Integration. Controls that are consistent with organizations values and culture are easier to enforce as
they become integrated to organizational environment.

6. Economic feasibility. A control system should be economical and reasonableto operate. Costs of
operating such as system should be balance dagainst its benefits.

7. Strategic placement, controls should be placed at strategic points where time and money costs of
failures are greatest.

8. Corrective actions, controls should identify deviations and be programmed to give solutions to such
deviations.

9. Emphasis on exception. Good control systems work on exception principle so that only important
deviations are brought to the attention of management.

Summary

• In order for management to be considered successful, it must attain the goals and
objectives of the organization. This requires creative problem solving in each of the four
functions of management. More so, success requires that management be both effective
and efficient.

• Relative amount of time that managers spend on the four Managerial Functions.

References

Jones,G.R.,&George,J.M.(2006).Contemporary [Link],McGraw-Hill.

Koootz. H and O ‘Daniel. C (1976).Principles of ManagementNew York:McGraw-Hill